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Ae THE
JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

NOS. 1 & 2

Price x. Rs. 3-0-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

| 1949 :
SSONIAN INST/p 7.

{ ~
aS es,
CCT 2 }. 1949 \

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the
following order when they are being bound :—

Title page

Contents of Nos. 1& 2 of Vol. 46 600
List of contributors Ses
List of plates... oon
Index to illustrations

Index of species ee

To follow frontis-
piece in this order.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THI

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

S. H. PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., C. McCANN, F.L.s.
and SALIM ALI

VOL. 46

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 2 coloured plates, 52 black and white plates,
44 text-figures, 3 maps, and 4 diagrams.

Dates of Publication

Part 1. (Pages 1-204) ... April 1946
» & ( 4 205-410) ... August 1946

LONDON AGENTS
DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY)
212 Shaftesbury Avenue
LONDON, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS
1949

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vi

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46
No. 1

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
Pant ecXige by Noel seBoi Ciba MyAnD.SC.,. 1Fa.Se
LF.S.,and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (W2th 1 coloured, 4 black
and white plates and 7 lext-figures).....

FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF COASTAL ARAKAN AND THE
FOOTHILLS OF THE YOMAS. By Lt.-Gen. Sir Philip
Christison, BT., K.B.E, C.B., D.S.0., M.C., B.A., M.B.O.U,,
Major A. Buxton, M.c., and Major A. M. Emmet, B.A,,
assisted by Dillon Ripley, Pita: (WS JA, .10,, 9209S

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH
IN INDIA AND BurMA. Part X. By A. St. J. Macdo-
Malad UC ATG HLERUAEUE KES) an. dtd. c» HINT Aace Sate ts o.5 5

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. (Part XIV).
By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R:B.S. occ. ...eeee wis

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SourH INDIAN COMMELINAS,
Two NEw SPECIES OF COMMELINA FROM SOUTH INDIA.
By Edward Barnes. (deceased). (W#th 2 plates)...........

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR. By
Lt.-Col. B. T. Phillips, 1a.(Retd.) (With 8 blates).........

On Peschetius Guignot (Col. Dytiscidae). WitH A DESCRIP-
TION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA. By J. Balfour-

Browne, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R.E.S.. PL eho POP a Eade ase eee
Microdytes GEN. Nov. Thy tikcialets (Hy phydrini), By. J.
Balfour-Browne, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R-E.S.ecce ses ves HOLST SIME. 38

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM. Part IV.
FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE ANAMALNI HILLs
(Cocsay),» Bye Mato Os Ra S tone heen eeeAeee eee ee
THE FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF AHMEDABAD,
By 8. B. Setna, M. Sc., F.R.M.S., PH. D., (Cantab.) and
C. V. KULKARNI, B.A. (HONS.), M. Sc., Ph. D. (With a
UDP) > vdp00bcip DEO SES SATIS CRED Ge BO SE SCEOOA Ibe AAA PAR rite ae ae
SoME New INpIAN Lithobtidae. By Capt. H. J. C. Larwood,
MARS Come HeZeoren AH Oon "(CV CL) SE 1CLE=1ULUTES)iecees ces ces sesso: ove

QCT1 9 1949

PAGE

103

106

108

119

129

133

iV CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

ANNOTATED LIST OF CROP PESTS IN THE BOMBAY PRO-
vince. By K. N. Trehan, M. sc. (Punjab), ph. D.
(London) and S. V. Pingle, B.sc. (Hons.). (Agric.).......

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BomMBAY. By Ella Gonzalves,
B.A., M.Sc., and Dwarka B. Joshi, m.sc. (With 5 graphs
GIAS PlLAleS)s saa vernne cae vacsdscestestesee est ayes oe eee OTe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Rarity of Man-eating Tigers in S. India. By
RC. Morrisy 2:S:, 8. RiG-S:. ae Son cey teenteonces

2. Man-eaters in the Darrang apts Assain. sete
D. G. Meston... as aeeuisign vas Teaco Cee

3. Death of a Panther ona eee s kill. ~ Ree C.
MorriS,, F.Z.S:4. FeRsGsSeosseeeecs ean e ee one eee Ee

4. Sense of Smell of Tigers and Leopards. By
D.., Gu, MOSt Of sacaiscceeusae erie scores Bet emer ee cee ae

5. Musk-shrew(Suzcus caeruleus) attacking Bull-frog
(Rana ligrina). By K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji.

6. A large Gaur head. By Van Ingen and Van
Ingen. (With a photo... .

7. Period of gestation of the ee cee
(Elephas maximus), dies a ies By A.
Aiyappan... jaos nd Resanasitouna Seeters soe

Birth of an Elestadt Caliigen Dyan Lore
The Ashy Swallow-Shrike (Avtamus fuscus) in
the Nilgiris. By Major C. R. Stonor..............
10. Occurrence of the White-bellied or Snow Pigeon.
(Columba cuconota cuconota) at a low level in
the Kumaon Himalaya. By D. Davis, 1.F.s....
11. Migration of the Mallard. (Anas blatyrhyncha).
Recovery of ringed bird. By Editors............
12. Occurrence of the Pink-footed Goose (Anser
fabalis brachyrhynchus Baillon) in India. An
authentic record. By the Private Secretary to
HH. the MaharajahvoteBikanetenscs-eecsess antes
13. Some common birds of Kathiawar—absent or
rare in Keutchise Biyaeem Nemes Ueemsceey tessa ae
14. ‘Birds of Vizagapatam District.’ Some notable
Omissions. By R.C. Bell, 1.c.s.. Sees
15. The Birds of Burma. By F. aber bar Ward. ere

(oO

PAGE

189
Up

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

16. On the breeding of the Tiger Shark. (Galleo-
cerdo tigrinus (Muller and Henle). By P. N.
SAAN A MSCs, PMD a: o8setcotine Ie aeuede> «tates

17. A note on the conservation of our Inland
Fisheries by legislation. By Hamid Khan,
Pham (Cantal, MeRvAs GC onc acoslsteucs se esn a select ek

18. Ecological and specific variation in the camou-
flage devices of Spiders’ Webs. By J. E.
IVINS ON eaH RNID Seccentre sascacksnts ceerie aa baaG's. sesieeu to cmat

19. Notes on the Giant Wood Spider (Nejhila
maculata) in Burma. (With 2 plates. By
Mp treg VIKAT:S Olle SRA Gace coc scon semen soo Saco vet he cas

20. The Butterflies of the Nilgiris—a Supplementary
INOte BY Jk Aca Male Sit son teosks fcach'asnacileacierean uct

21. Note on the Butterfly. Melanttzes phedima
UCU ONOMMEB Ye dct NC ALES vonstean ti iecise lace ccsimaas

22. Stalked Cocoons. By D. G. Sevastopulo,
HRA GS es pcs Au Nee Leder as oe ste Os'c tus mgetereith «bles

23. Instance of fasciation in Palmyra (Borassus
tlabelluterya (With & PROLO). ve. enc dhs. ors selows one'se

24, An Abnormal flower of Gloriosa superba Linn.
By Fr. H. Santapau, sv. (Wz2th 1 photo and
OEE EDUC Sea eee =

Some BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
Part XXII... By .N.. us Bor, C.1..,, M.A. D.SC.,, F.L.S.,
L.F.s., and M, B. Raizada, m.sc. (Wzth 1 coloured and 4

black and white plates and 7 texl-l4QUres)..o..craevcoe ces coves,
CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FisH
IN INDIA aND Burma. Part XI. By A. St. J. Macdo-
THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XV.
Byam Gr Se VaStOplll Oak ReHs Geena: sce: gs) cesses scs tee dep eue von coe
SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORTIN ASSAM. (Part V). By
THE RIDDLE OF THE BEARDED Pic. A PROBLEM OF DISTRI-
BUTION. By J. BE. Kempe. (With 4 plates)......... are hte «

192

194

205

216

Coo

269

281

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

AN ORN’THOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE TO LAKE MANASAROWAR
AND Mounr Karras. By Salim Ali. (With a map and
TV PIAS) A Tiiistsaveas sentences

BIRDS NOTED IN THE MAHASU-NARKANDA-BAGHI AREA OF
THE SIMLA HILits. By.N. F. Frome, C.1.£., D.F.C., M.Sc.,
MoBsOwUe ts sorte eteadse ie dtaes oA GIR Eee

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FRESH-WATER
AND BRACKISH-WATER FisHES. Part I. By 5S. Jones,

NOTES ON THE INDIAN MABSEERS. By K. de B. Codrington.

A NOTE ON SOME SNAKES OF BENARES (U.P.) By M.N.
ACHarji; Misi CeCe ee ee eon

Ture HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES. By Charles McCann, F.Ls.
(With 10 plates and 4 1ext=11 2 1Kesys.. Mra wate sae:

BUTTERFLIES OF KAIRA Districr™ AMLism, 8bya Hoi:
ALDRICH) Mid oh cc AU st ei eto Saeko eee Te eens

New PLANT RECORDS FOR THE PRESIDENCY OF Bomsay (IT),
By H. Santapat,- So. -(W7thlplate).cinncsteee dees ee.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE BOTANY OF NORTH BuRMA.. By
F. Kingdon Ward, B.A,, F.L.S., etc. (With a map).........

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
1. A» Tiger {Climbinggta, “recy By @Chyade mia
Longeredé:. s.ca.eaig tienen cee eee
A Tiger ‘runs amok.’ By S. A. Christopher.....
3. A Panther with 20 claws. By Virbhadrasinh,
H.'H. MaharanaotiUunawadae. saansneenee..-
4. Tiger kills Lioness. By Charles Theobald........
5. A queer animal habit. By Capt. K. Boswell,
TiASMIG3 ase. REI isa ec ce See EDN rer enone
6. ‘Drag Marks’ made by the Kyang (Agvas
REM LONUS) a BY aS alitie Uli eeeeta tem sees aaa

7. An albino Elephant from the ‘Travancore

forests, By E.S. Simon. (W2th a plate)......
8. Natural death of Elephants. By Editors. (Wzth
a pla te). tee ME PSO IO eromaner tial,
JY. A large Wild Boar. (Sus créstatus). By D. P.
Garga. nauk A RE ROE ee ad ae es

10, ‘shamming death.’ By A. A. Dunbar Brander...

PAGE

286

308

317

336

344

348

374

331

396

398
399

11.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

Distribution of Red-crested Pochard in Southern
India.arcBy, HAG. Wunisden. .5.s.36905.00.3.% Ine dese
‘Birds on the Hindustan-Tibet Road, N. W.
Himalayas’.—A correction. By H.W. Waite...
The Paradise Flycatcher at sea. By R. Sassoon.
Spring passage of Phalaropes in Iraa. By Major
Failte net aC lanen ted. sc ccseh eee eet e ne aidetcueneesestaes
The White-winged Wood-Duck (Asarcornts scutu-
fatus [Muall]). By T. C. Hutchinson..............
Do snakes drink milk? By V.M. Vasu...........
Aestivation of the Frog, Ramanella montana
@Jerdon))? aaBy VG McCann. O39... esa, 2h
The distribution of Rana czthti Boulenger. By
C. McCann.. fe atas : on
Strong odour eaten. ee the ‘ieFudeoidl Fed
Rana malabarica. By C. McCann..............
A Record Mahseer. By G. de Wet Van Ingen.
(With a plate)... ‘
On the sibeToraise' of the s India Spiat (sar Fila
gibbosa (C. and V)]. By P. I. Chacko..
Movement of a group of insects in Tae By
HanleMlaZigter sefoes..slecvowves cae a. BAL
A ‘Hermit’ Spider. By Moses Ezekiel ree On i
Abnormal flowering of Careya arborea Roxb. in
Khandalat’ (By"H. Santapatts, S.J..cs.c..0s.00-050.

EOI PE ESE IPC AEs wood Sy There (OU me (OUND ASSL ELITE OURS
VOLUME 46
Nos. 1 and 2
PAGE PAGER
ACHARJI, M. N., A note on white plates and 7 text
some Snakes of Benares figures) .. sf ay fe 1
GUSBs). oe 3 ast .. 344 | —— Part xxill ( With 1 coloured,
AIYAPPAN, A., Period of gesta- | 4 black and white plates and
tion of the Indian Elephant 7 text figures) .. soe US
(Elephas maximus) (With a BoSwELL, CAPT. ma A queer
photo) 1&2 animal habit—(‘ ating on
ALI, SALIM, An Ori elocieal stones ’).. : 393
Pilgrimage to Lake Manasa- BRANDER, A. A. Donnan see
rowar and Mount Kailas Dunbar-Brander, A. A.
(With a map and 7 plates) 236 | Buxton,. Mayor A,, SCC
——— ‘Drag Marks’ Christison, Lt.-Gen. Sir
made by the Kyang (#guus Philip, Bt.
hemionus) 396 | CHACKO, P.I., On the bionomics
AEDRICH, \H..C.,; Butewice of of the Indian Sprat [Sardt-
Kaira District. A List 374 nella gtbbosa (C. and V)]. 407
BALFOUR-BROWNE, J., On Pes- CHRISTISON, Lt?.-GEN. SIR
chetius Guignot (Col. Dytis- PHILIP, Br., BUXTON, Magor
cidae) with a description of a A., and EMmket, Major A.M.
new species from India 103 assisted by DILLON RIPLEY.
—— — Microdytes Gen, Field notes on the birds of
Nov. Dytiscidarum (Hyphry- coastal Arakan and the foot-
dvint) ar & .. 106|- hills of the Yomas 13
BARNES, EpwARD (Deceased), CHRISTOPHER, S. A., A igen
Some observations on South ‘runs amok.’ ob 5D
Indian Commelinas ; Two new CODRINGTON, K. DE B., Mover
species of Commelina from on the Indian Mahseers 336
South India (Wzth 2 plates) ... 70 | Davis, D., Occurrence of the
BEE. C., birdsmots the White-bellied or Snow Pigeon
Vizagapatam District ’—some (Columba leuconota leuconota)
notable omissions we 189 at a low level in the Kumaon
BIKANER, PRIVATE STN Himalaya 500 184
to H.H. THE MAHARAJA OF, DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K. 58.,
Occurrence of the Pink-footed | Musk-Shrew (Sumeus caeru-
Goose (Anser fabalis brachy- | dews) attacking Bull-Frog
vhynchus Baillon) in India: | (Rana tigrina)... 506 coo ditt)
an authentic record . 185 | DuNnBAaR- BRANDER, A. A.,
Bor,N,L., and Raizapa, M. B., | ‘Shamming death’ 399
some Beatie Indian Cin: Epirors, Migration of the
bers and Shrubs, Part xxii Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha):
(With 1 coloured, 4 black and recovery of a ringed bird 185

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Epirors, Natural death of
Elephants 505 :
EMMET, Mayor A. M., see
Christison, Lt.-Gen. Sir

Philip, Bt.
EZk&KIEL, Moses, A ‘ Hermit’
SS Pid Claman B00 o00
FROME, N. F., Birds noiee in
the Mahasu-Narkanda-Baghi
area of the Simla Hills

GaRGA, D. P., A large Wild
Boar (Sus cristatus) ... ‘
GONZALVES, ELLA A. and
JosH1, DwarRkKa B., Fresh-
water Algae near Bom-
bay (With 5 graphs and
8 plates)... hs se
H.G. H.M., Some Reminis-

cences of Sport in Assam,—
Part IV

Part V O08
HUTCHINSON, T.C,, Che White-
winged Wood-Duck [(Asar-
cornis scutulatus Mill) |
INGEN, J. DE WET VAN,
Van Ingen, J. de Wet.
JONES, S., Breeding and
development of Indian Fresh-

SéE

water and Brackish-water
Fishes. Part I ts
JOSHI, DWwaRKA IB ye SE
Gonzalves, Ella A.
KEMPE, J. E., Riddle of
the Bearded Pig.. A pro-

blem of distribution (With
4 plates) SP
KHAN, HAMID, A note on ae

conservation of our Inland
Fisheries by legislation
KINGDON-WARD, F., The Birds

of Burma ee see
Additional notes
on the Botany of North
Burma ( With a map)
KULKARNI, C. V.. see Setna,
Ss. B.
LaRwoop, Cart. H. G. C,,

Some new Indian Lithobiidae

(With 4 text-figures)
LONGEREDE, CH. DE

Tiger climbing a tree

LA, A

PAGE

397

409

154

281

193

19]

133

391 |

LUMSDEN, H. G, Distribution

of Red-crested Pochard in
Southern India Ps x
MACDONALD, A. St. J., Cir-

cumveuting the Mahseer and
other Sporting Fish in India

and Burma. Part X (With
16 fext-figures) ee

Part XI , ae

MACLAREN, Masor P. I._R.,,

Spring Passage of Phalaropes
in Iraq

MaRSon, J. E., poole ana
specific variation in the
camouflage devices of spider
webs

na Nore on the Gian
Wood Spider (Nephila macu-
fata) in Burma (With 2
plates} : is

MCCANN, Ones The rent
penis in Reptiles (With 10
plates and 4 text figures)

estivation of the

Frog (Ramanella montana

[Jerdon])

The Distribution
of ana leithii Boulenger
Strong odour
emitted by the Fungcid Frog
(Rana malabarica) :
Mrston, D. G., Man-eaters in
the Darrang District, Assam.
Sense of Smell of
Tiger and Leopards ... :
Morris, R.C., Rarity of Mane
eating mieers in South India.
-—-—— Death ofa Panther
on a Tiger’s kill aa
PHILLIPS, lor.-COL., B. vf. A
Bird Photograpner’s Musings
from Kashmir (W2th 8 plates).

PINGLE, .S. V., see Trehan,
ee Ne

Ratzapa, M. B., see Bor,
N. lL.

RIPLEY, DILLON, see Christi-

son, Lt.-Gen. Sir Philip, Bt.

SANTAPAU, H.S.J., An abnor-
mal flower of Gloriosa superba
Linn.

PAGE

400)

216

401

194

195

348

202

SVN Gs Iles Seifog New
plant records for the Presi-
dency of Bombay (II) (With
1 plate) ... ;

——_ ——_—— ABiorel mionen
ing of Careya arborea Roxb.
in Khandala .

SARANGDHAR, P. N., On he
breeding of the Tiger Shark
(Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller
and Henle) aes oes re

Sassoon, R., The Paradise
eae at sea S

Setna, 8S. B., and GroA Re
C, V., The Freshwater Fish
and Fisheries of Ahmedabad
(With a map) ee wos

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., The Early
Stages of Indian Lepidoptera
Part XIV ae ene

ar teeNaVieeeee eae

Stalked cocoons ...

E.S., An albino Ele-
from the Travancore

SIMON,
phant
forests cee Bap “ee

SRINIVASAN, K. R., Instance
of fasciation in Palmyra
(Borassus flabelliter) \ With a
photo) ; ; os

STONOR, MAJOR C. R. Field
notes on the birds of the
Anamalai Hills (Cochin)

The Ashy Swallow-

Shrike (Avlumus fuscus) in

the Nilgiris

PAGE

377

409

192

40]

126

59
253
199

396 |

201 |

119 |

184

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

THEOBALD, CHARLES,
kills Lioness

TREHAN, K. N. aud piverat
S. V., Annotated List of Crop
Pests in the ae Pro-
Vile Hates

Van INGEN Arad Want hens,
A large Gaur head (With a
photo)

Tiger

A Record Mahseer.

Vasu, V. M., Some common
birds of Kathiawar— Absent
or rare in Kutch

—— ——_——. Do snakes arin
milk ee. 4a ac ae

VINCENT, J. R., Birth cf an
Elephant calf ... aoe

VIRBHADRASINH, H. H. Marat
RANA OF LUNAWADA, A
Panther with twenty claws ...

Waltz, H. W., ‘Birds on the

Hindustan - Tibet Road ’—
a correction 8; 506
WARD, F. KINGDON, _ see

Kingdon Ward, F.

YatTES, J. A., The Butterflies of
the Nilgiris—a Supplementary
Note a 540 see 500

— Note on _ the
Butterfly, Melanitis phedima
varaha ..

ZIGLER, EARL M., Movement:
of a group of insects (across
a verandah floor) in India

PAGE

392

139

392

407

197

198

408

LIST OF “PLAT ES
VOLUME XLVI
Nos. 1 and 2

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs
Plate XXIV. Dwarf Poinciana (Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz) ...
Plate [.
Plate II.
Plate II]. Caesalpinia sappan Linn., New Forest, Dehra Dun
Plate 1V. Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz., New Forest, Dehra
Dun ode ‘a: 12 iL See
Some Observations on South Indian Commelinas: two new species from
South India
Plate I. Comsielina indehiscens Barnes sp. nov.
Plate II. 50 tricolor 3 * ai
A Bird Photographer’s Musings from Kashmir

Plate I. The Red-wattled Lapwing (Lodivanellus indicus)
The Kashmir Skylark (Alauda gulgula guttata) \

Plate II. The White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis)
Plate III. The Common Central Asian Kingfisher (A/lcedo atthis

\ Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb., New Forest, Dehra Dun

pallasit) .. ase dee + ee
Plate IV. The Indian Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle r+udis leucome-
lanura)

The Kashiuir Roller (Coracias garrula semenowt)
Plate V. ‘The European Bee-eater (merops apiaster)...
Plate VI. The Rufous-backed Shrike (Lanzus schach Poe.
tus)
The Common Sandpiper (dctitis hypoleucos)
Plate VII. ‘The Western Spotted Forktail (Anicurus maculatus
Plate VIII. Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius)
Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail (Motacila lugubris alboides)...
The Fresh-water Fish and Fisheries of Ahmedabad
Map. Part cf Ahmedabad District
Freshwater Algae near Bombay
Plate Photo 1. Monsoon aspect of Bandra Tank
2. Dry season of
Plates I—VII, Bombay Algae a
Notes on the Giant Wood Spider (Nephzla Piaulitant in Burma
Plates I & Il. Web types vee
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs
Plate XXV. The Yellow Jasmine (Jasminum humile Linn.)

Plate I. Jasminum pubescens Willd., New Forest, !.ehra Dun...
Plate Il. Jasminum primulinum Hemsley, New Forest, Dehra
Dun

Plate Ill. Jasminum humile inn, New Forest, Dehra Dun
Plate IV. Spanish Jasmine (iE granditlorum Linn., New
Forest, Dehra Dun
The Riddle of the Bearded Pig
Plate I. Sus barbatus. Drawing of head
Plate II,
Plate III. } Maps

Plate IV. Drawings of skulls of (Sus barbatus and Sus eristutus) ..,

PAGE

LES TOP PEA TES

An Ornithological Pilgrimage to Lake Manasarowar and Mount Kailas

Plate I. ‘Terrain and Map ae O00 O06
Platem its) ene
Plate ur. } Te™ain
Plate IV. Fig. 1. Tibetan Raven
Fig. 2. Red-billed Chough ;
Fig. 3, Nest site of Hume’s Ground Chough
Fig. 4. Humes Ground Chough ..,
Plate V. Fig. 1. Redstart
Fig. 2. Tickell’s Willow-warbler
Fig. 3. Nest and eggs of Short-toed Lark
Fig. 4. Horned Lark (2) on nest As
Plate VI. Fig. 1. Nest and chicks of Large Calandra wave
Fig. 2. Tibetan Sandgrouse and chicks
[DAKAR Sho , downy chick
Fig. 4. aaneesian Rock Pigeons ae,
Plate VIL Fig. 1. Black-necked Cranes on nesting g peadad
Fig. 2. Nest ard eggs of Redshank
Fig. 3. Eared Grebe on nest
Fig. 4. Pamirs Lesser Sani Plover at nest .

Plate i
Plates ule
Plate III.
Plate IV.
Plate V.
Plate VI.

Plate VII.
Plate VIII.
ID:
Plate xe

Plate

The Hemipenis in the Reptiles

Hemipenes of Snakes
Lissemys punctata granosa (Schoepf. ) Diktection eHow
ing genital systein ...
Crocodilus palustyis Lesson.
ovaries ... O00
Drawing of urogenital

atiee aly irmaat

system of Lissemys punctata

granosa (Schoeptt.) 3, 300
Drawing of cloaca of 2 and penis ¢ of Cyaeotiin
palustris 900

l)rawing of hemepenis tot Ptyas mucosus Gunther Alp!
ns » cloaca of Natrix stolata Pope—E & F.
Hemipenes of Snakes 500 ac
», Lizards : oon
i and urogenital sien of Hemidactylus
Dissections showing reproductive organs of Calotes
versicolor (Daudin) in June ...

”)

New Plant Records for the Presidency of Bombay (II)

Synedrella noditlora Gaertn.

Additional Notes on the Botany of North Burma

Map of Upper Burma

An albino Elephant from the Travancore forests

The albino elephant

Natural Death of Elephants

Plate Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.

A Record Mahseer

Barbus tor, Cubbany River, Mysore, 120 lbs.

A dying elephant.
Same animal next day—dead ...

PAGE

296

297

396

397

406

INDEX

OR PLEILOSTRALTONS

VOLUME XLVI

Nos. 1 & 2

PAGE PAGE
Actitis hypoleucos ; 97 | Fishing tackle . 34, 37, 41, 42, 48,
Alauda gulgula guttata ... c0 49, 50, 56,57, 58
Albino elephant 396 | Gaur, large head of 181

Alcedo atthis pallasii 94 | Gloriosa superba, abnorinal
Algae of Bombay ... 176 flower 202, 203
Archilithobius birmanicus var. Halcyon smyrnensis 91
chandellensis .., ans 136 | Hemipenes of Snakes 348

Archilithobius glenniei ... 134, 135 | Indian Elephant with newly porn
Asarcornis scutula‘us 402 calf ; wee 182
Barbus tor .. 406} Jasminum Se ndifiocum 214
Borassus flabellifer paeciaion ee 2.0L -—— humile 206
CaesaJpinia Bonducella Fleming. 5 | ———-— primulinum ... 210
Caesalpinia coriaria Willd 12 | — —-—— pubescens 209
Caesalpinia digyna Rottl 11 | Lamyetes liani 138
Caesalpinia Gilliesii Wa!l oss 3 | Lanius schach Bry inrooras 97
Caesalpinia nuga Ait. ... eee 8 | Lobivanel!lus indicus 90
Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw. ... 1,9 | Merops apiaster ... 2 Sag)
Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. .4,5,7 | Nephila maculata, web oes 196, 197
Caesalpinia Sappan Linn. 7,8 | Palmyra palm, fasciation 201
Ceryle rudis leucomelanura 95 | Snakes, Hemipenes of 348
Charadrius dubius 101 | Sus barbatus 281
Commelina indehiscens Barnes: 74 | —-- cristatus 282
tricolor Barnes... = 75 | Synedrella nodiflora 377
Coracias garrula semenowi 95 | Tank at Bandra, plan of 155
Elephant, An albino ... 396 Webtypes of Nephila maculata. 199
Elephant Indian, with newly 197
born calf... 182. White-winged Wood-Duck 402

Enicurus maculatus ee vee LOU |

a re

a ie? OF Aare: op

a ce ee Pe
Pema wes Tp . , | ~ me <r

. E A we pu . ay i —_ ; . sy, 22
Pe be, ia» Grae _

KATALIN OS ha ao ae
(ae aioe a

3 ae “Seb n “ao Late —
2 2

Ct a ae © el Ot Lok ha,
a ee aati “Coal ehiclin. oodadag(t eivaA 2%
BE ve, de We BE G2 Sonic. sic hin eae ena ai nae
rat cnt 16 bi amel saaiet. ciel} eee pe Sang 5 Opal AL ie”
: ‘he Hira hae ncaa cuivalt) | 6. > sesclignraeiighiligg Shit apsstee 7
BOL LM oe, Pw Sr) ey
2 ins —_ ‘ Hig Chore one Hay ah} LT ae BY preted vit: of rahe
Se doe eae in guna)? oti Oh Meer ne Ghee
nro vlvsn Aiea “seictee sik venir: | CRE. Ret owe
SHB: cay: - hha Sh, | eae aint a8 a

SIS a! cits cA, Banari sree abd poe Wbstoae eit.) Dileotios
GUS... z abt tyl =a =| BORN ner a eae
OTe as. vee EOPRLUEELUMOLET <email be ahitnal |

OL ay 8e heady a
att

VG in «(EM OT very lay sa) dodgoe: aut <j a es
Wk re oe aren antisanvidand De hose st wel
Wy. os Tadaniqe eqowl,. | G £ (, \we sotedaln
Vet er . vacne] ne: along. ableign’y, | vis eu ieel Oh s aA: < Agdete |
108 0. ~ nolstoant .trilge: eagea teil, “Evie Raheem nig
ORE yee cnn tenia APNEA | er irony i

SE ors aa a ninigtake, srogtit i eaiael AD fis
iia dane a i fliboa allowlaguer., OT pethat eoatadl 1 oF
att. Ti tht, ARAL ei MnP Do pee a ee
HOS. win Wohin whi has do md cheep pai ah duadgald ~
TRL gl wreate “iti, bets ere
ht Grist: oi pti alii y fh a eee? ste 4 oe A .
| ‘ : | GQt: dt. ‘Bispoth:
Rood (cubeais

ms. Siete, alee

i @e—iieid yo
ad Nes - algegillt ers oo oh

Abisara fylla

Acacia pennata ..
Acanthis flavirostris
Achaea melicerte
Acherontia lachesis
Acridotheres tristis
Acrocephalus agricola ...
- dumetorum
- Stentoreus
Actitis hypoleucos
Aegithina tiphia...
Aeromachus stigmata
Aesculus assamica
AXthiopsar fuscus
Aithopyga sipuraja
Alauda gulgula ...

- guttata
—lhamerum

Alcedo atthis

pallasii
Alcurus leucogrammicus
Alseonax latirostris
Alsocomus puniceus
Altha nivea

Altingia excelsa
Amaurornis akool

-——- fuscus

-——.- phoenicurus
Amorphophallus Cruddasiana
Anabaena
Anas acuta
—- clypeata
——- crecca one
—- penelope

——- platyrhyncha

—- querquedula
Anastomus oscitans
Andraca bipunctata
Anguilla elphinstonei
Anhinga melanogaster ...

Anser fafalis brachyrhynchus ..

Anthracoceros coronatus
Anthreptes malaccensis
Anthus ceryinus

INDEX OF SPECIES

382

303 |

383

382
168
32

32
185

268

327 |

185 |

PAGE
Anthus nodgsoni sa ea °C 20
-richardi - Ast ac 20
-rufulus ... Tan ae, ae 20
Aphanochaete repens ... “st ey LOG
Aplonis panayensis ise ae oe 18
Appias ]. libythea 375
Aquila clanga : : A 25
Arachnothera loneirastne ois ee 20
Arborophila rufogularis : ee 27
Archilithobius birmanicus var. ehandels
lensis ah 136
Archilithobius eienniel, “00 133
Ardea cinerea... Ste OB eas 31
sumatrana Se - 806 31
purpurea .., oes eee wee 31
Ardeola grayii ... see Une ae 31
Arenaria interpres ate Ge ae 28
Arguda bheroba ae Be Soa, ABS
Argya earlil ae 50 od oes 14
longirostris 500 aE ae 14
Artamus fuscus ... oan ae Bey le;
oa 2 see 184
Asarcornis scutulatus ay, cose. 402
Astur badius He iz sets cae 26
Athene brama __... it ah ee 24
Atretium schistosum 365
Aulosira te 168
Azanus ubaldus ... 376
_---——- uranus : 376
Baoris conjuncta narooa 377
eltola 262
- mathias mat cae SATE
Barbus carnaticus “3 oa oe)
— chola : 329
-—chrysopoma ... 00 So ae)
- dorsalis ... a, ate oe 329
- melanampyx 329
~sarana ; 328
- sophore ... Sab aes 329
OT oe 329
- (Tor) Mussullah 128
Belenois m. mesentina ... 22 se Ore
Bhringa remifer se 500 cee 17

Brachypternus benghalensis ... HOO 21

xvi INDEX OF SPECIES

Bubo coromandus

——- ketupa ae 60n eos
Bubulcus ibis

Bucia athertoni ...
Bulbochaete

Bungarus caeruleus
Burhinus oedicnemus
Butorides striatus
Cacomantis merulinus ...
Caesalpinia Bonducella
—————_— coriaria
digyna

— ——-— Gilliesii
—__——-— nuga

-—— ——— pulcherrima
—— ——-— Sappan

—— —— — sepiaria
Calidris tenuirostris
Callichrous bimaculatus
Calliope calliope
——-——- pectoralis

Calotes versicolor ee ne ne

Calotropis procera
Capella gallinago
——---— stenura 30
Caprimulgus asiaticus ...
—— —_-——- macrurus
Caragana spinosa
Carduelis caniceps
Carpodacus rubicilla
Careya arborea
Caryopteris grata
Casarca ferruginea

Catachrysops strabo... er see

Catopsilia florella gnoma
—--——— pomona 500 600

—-— -————— -:

——---——- pyranthe minna
Celaenorrhinus plagifera
Centropus sinensis

Ceryle rudis Sac
——- Jeucomelanura
Chaetura gigantea
Chalcophaps indica
Chamaeleon zeylanicus...
Chaptia aenea 500
Charadrius alexandrinus
dubius

—_—_—_—.

es —————

lesehenaultii

————- mongolus

24 |

PAGE |

31
23
167

fa)

NM oo mM Mm
eH wm wm

bet pt
(=)

— ST LO

idea @>)

me tn %

—
be bo PO
tn CO ©

Charadrius mongolus atrifrons
Charavses 1. fabius

Chilades laius

————_ ]. laius...
Chirocentrus dorab

Chlidonias hybrida

Chloropsis aurifrons
Chloropsis cochinchinensis
jerdoni a
Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus...
Chrysomma sinensis
Chrysophlegma flavinucha
Cinclus cinclus

———-— pallasii

Cinnyris asiaticus

—-~ brasiliana

- lammaxillaris ... 600
———-- zeylonicus

Circaetus ferox

Circus aeruginosus

——— macrourus

——— melanoleucus

Cirrhina mrigala

Cissa chinensis

Cisticola juncidis ...

Clamator coromandus ...

—_—_—-=

Clupisoma garua
Coelosphaerium
Coleochaete scutata
Colotis vestalis

Coluber ventromaculatus
Columba 1, leuconota
livia... 500
——-—— rupestris
Commelina attenuata
——_—— —- benghalensis
——-——- clavata
—___———-— forskalaei ...
~—_---_——- hirsuta
——--———_— indehiscens..
——-——— — jacobii
—_————- kurzii
————-—- nudiflora
—— -——-— tricolor
————_——- undulata
Copsychus saularis
Coracias benghalensis ...
earrula semenowi
Corvus corax tibetanus ...
——-—- macrorhynchos...

——

297
297

129

128

169

167

375

363

me) ded
AoC 26
288

500 95
288, 296

Corvus splendens or Ay
Cosmotriche pyriformis...
Costus speciosus S50 ante

Criniger flaveolus
Crocopus phoenicopterus
Crocodilus palustris

Cuculus micropterus .. um
Culicicapa ceylonensis ...
Cyanops asiatica oe
—— duvaucelii ... aoe
— — viridis ... ee
Cypsiurus parvus batassiensis...
Danais limniace mutina ee
Dasychira grotei eee wee
——-——- pennatula (securis)
Delias berinda ... or ons
—— eucharis ... eos os

Demiegretta asha
Dendrocitta vagabunda
Dendrocygna fulva

——— ——- javanica 355
Dendronanthus indicus

Desmids 60C aes
Diacrisia casigneta see 60
Diceum chrysorrheum ...
———— concolor

— cruentatum

— erythrorhynchos sor
Dichoceros bicornis

Dicrurus leucophaeus ... aoe
—— macrocercus ... ven
Dipterocarpus alatus...

= turbinatus

Dissemurus paradiseus ...
Dissoura episcopus
Dodona a, adonira
Dodona o. ouida...
Dryobates analis...
——--——_ macei

--— mahrattensis
Dieoum trigonostigma ... ob
‘Ducula aenea Si.
Dupetor flavicollis 500 see
Egretta alba ies

-- garzetta wee

-- intermedia 006

Elanus caeruleus
Elephas maximus

Elopsindicus ... 000
Elymnias hypermnestra avs
Emberizaaureola - .., G6

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE
13
267
~ 386
IS)
26
354
22
16
21
22
21
24
376
263
61
253
375
31
14
32
32
19
167
263

382
382

260
259

182
321

Engraulis purava
——--— telara... ,
Enicurus immaculatus ...

—:-——- maculatus... AK
Entada scandens
Equus hemionus... 466

Eremophila alpestris elwesi ...

290.,

Ergolis merione cr. tapestrina Moore.

Erolia minuta ... cae

— temminckii 55 doc
Eterusia pulchella oes “os
Eudynamis scolopaceus ose
Euglena

Euphorbia Braces
Euploea m. mulciber
Euproctis digramma ..,

SS - divisa 500
———- flavinata
——inconcisa .. 356
Eurystomus orientalis
Excalfactoria chinensis... eae
Falco peregrinus
——--SeveruS «. ae aad
——-- tinnunculus
Ficus glomerata hg soe
—-- obscura ... uot
Franklinia gracilis sek

Fringillauda brandti haemotopyga

Galeocerao ae eee
Gallicrex cinerea
Gallinula chloropus

Gallus gallus es on aoe
Garra.c. ceylonensis

—-——. mullya... eve
Garrulax pectoralis -

Garrulus leucotis.. ane sae
Gegenes peserountats karsana
Gennaeus horsfieldi eit bse
Geokichla citrina

Gelochelidon nilotica ... eee
Glareola pratincola 600 ee
Glaucidium radiatum ... HY
Gloeotaenium A
Gloriosa superba Got 500
Gomphostemma Heyneanum...
Gracula religiosa 206 owe
Gracupica burmanicus ade
Graucalus novaehollandiae
Grus grus 506 me ots
Gypsindicus .., seace TiS

xviii
Haematopus ostralegus 550 bc
Halcyon chloris ... 060 te ace
— pileata ...
smyrnensis
———— smyrnensis ..
Hatiaétus leucogaster ... eae
-— leucoryphus ...
Haliastur indus ... AA “ee ag
Hasora aloxis alexis ... 05
Heliophorus b. brahma 50
Hemidactylus brookii ... rr
o—— flaviviridis
———---——- maculatus
Hemipus picatus wee a4 500
Heteropneusteus fossilis
Hierococcyx varius aes 200 ele
Hilsa ilisha oa es ane 321
Hirundo daurica os ai 600
— rustica ve coe
smithii a5 708) on
— tytleri

Hoplopterus duvaucellii
Horeites brunnifrons ...
Huphina nerissa evagete

Hydrophasianus chirurgus... coe
Hydrophkins caerulesces 500 ee
--—— cyanocirictus .. ee
Hypolimnas misippus ...
Hypothymis azurea... “ise see

Ibis leucocephalus eet oo
Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus... eee

Iole virescens... oh sds eas
Irena puella 60 500
lxobrychus cinnamomeus
aa sinensis
Jamides b. bochus de
Jasminum grandiflorum 509
--— humile Ao ie
———--— officinale
——--— primulinum
———-- pubescens ... ses
--— sambac of 506
Jynx torquilla ... eee eee Je

Kittacincla malabarica
Labeo ariza

- calbasu
WENIUS eee eee see soe
—-— rohita es eee oes
Lalage sykesi ... - sos
Lampides boeticus ase 500 tes

Lamyctes liani «... a0 vel

PAGE

28
23
23
23
99
25
25
25
377
261
368
369
368
16
128
22
325
19
19
19
19
28
17
375
27
367
366
376

1
di

31
25
15
18
32
31

377

213

211

212

210

209

207
21
15

128

328

328
16

377

137

INDEX OF SPECIES

Lanius collurcides 500 O00
———- cristatus ...
-nasutus ... vee
- nepalensis 60 ae 00
- schach erythronotus
Larus brunneicephalus

—--— ichthyaetus ee 500 ese
Leptoptilos dubius
——— javanicus

I] epyrodes neptis ae ie 506
Lethe rohria

—--— sidonis

—--— verma sintica ... 500
Leucinodes orbonalis ... 006 Et
Limenitis daraxa

Limosa limosa ... i sae iis
Lobivanellus indicus ... OC
Lonchura atricapilla

Lobivanellus indicus... Ses sie
Lonchura punctulata ... ge 500
—-—— striata 5

Loriculus vernalis
Lycodon a. aulicus
-=- aulicus

—- striatus
Lyncornis macrotis

Lyngbya... 00 506 600
Macrognathus aculeatus
Mabuya carinata 000 509 =

Martula dasypus
Mastacembelus panacalus
Mayodendren igneum

Megalops cyprinoides ...

Megalurus palustris :
Melanitis ledaismene ... ss as
Melanocorypha maxima eh 500

Melittophagus erythrocephalus
Memycelon edule (Melastomaceae) ...

Merops apiaster .. 50 se 500
- orientalis
-superciliosus ... ves
Mesua ferrea wee
Metaponia pusilla 500 360 et

Metopidius indicus

Microcarpaea muscosa ...

Micropus affinis ... ‘
Microsarcops cinereus Sp eas
Microscelis psaroides

Microtarsus atriceps ... af
Microdytes belli ... ead anc aiet
—— ——— championi ... ahs a

106
107

| Mirafra assamica xe
- Milvus migrans govinda
| Mixornis rubricapilla

| Molpastes cafer ... aCe 500

- Monticola cinclorhyncha

—— --——- solitaria ‘
- Montifringilla nivalis adamsi
-——— — -—— ruficollis

Motacilla alba ... ees Se

-- ——alboides ...
Motacilla cinerea wes
——-—— citreola
— — citreola
———-— flava beema ...
—— — — thunbergi

Mulleripicus pulverulentus
Muscicapa parva ;
Muscicapula rubeculoides
Mustilia falcipennis

Myophonus caeruleus ..

Naja n.naja an ase eS
Natrix piscator ...

——— p. piscator

Nephila maculata

Neptis hylas varmona ..,

Netta rufina 600 500 onl
Nettapus coromandelianus...
Nola fuscibasalis ee aD
Notocrypta feisthamelli alysos
Notopterus chitala

notopterus
Numenius arquata

——---——- -——-—- subsp.
——--—— phoeopus
Nycticorax nycticorax ...
Nyroca baeri... see
SEIN AT <a. 60 see
-nyroca .. aes
Oedogonium bi ase eae

Oenopopelia tranquebarica
Oligodon arnensis

Oriolus chinensis

- xanthornus ole
Orthotomus sutorius

Osbeckia nepalensis... sole
Oscillatoria 500 ae
Osmanthus fragrans ... 000
Otocompsa flaviventris

-—— jocosa
Otolithus ruber ... 650

-— lugubris alboides ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE
20

14
whonyl4
eae 15
3a 15
301

301

son | 4
zee 19
19

302

347, 366

128, 326

Otus bakkamoena

——- spilocephalus 603
——- sunia

Pandion haliaetus
Papilio p. polymnester
polytes romulus
d. demoleus a0
Paralebeda plagifera
Pareba v. vesta

Passer domesticus
domesticus
flaveolus ...
montanus

Pastor roseus ... aS
Pediastrum

Pelecanus roseus
Pellorneum ruficeps
Pericrocotus peregrinus
roseus
Speciosus
Peschetius andrewesi
Phalacrocorax carbo
—————- —— niger «.
Phalaropus lobatus
Phlegetonia delatrix
Phoenix humilis
Phryganodes analis

Phy lloscopus affinis
fuscatus

Picus canus

Pitta nipalensis ... 65
Platalea leucorodea 500
Pluvialis dominica
———- infortunatus ..,
Ploceus manyar ...

| Podiceps ruficollis

Pomatorhinus hypoleucus
Porphyrio poliocephalus
Precis hierta hierta
Prinia flaviventris
Propasser rhedochrous,
Prunella rubeculoides ...
Psammophis condonarus
Pseudibis papillosus ...
Pseudogyps bengalensis
Pseudopodoces humilis
Psittacula cyanocephalus

-— eupatria
——-_— fasciatus Age
—--— -—— krameri

Ptyas mucosus

RIX

PAGE
24
24
24
25

375
375
375
266
258
19
300
19
300
300
166
30
14
16
16
16
104
30
30
401
66
382
68
299
17
2]
21
30
28
18
18
32
14
27
376
17
3C0
299
365

r
4
v

25
297
22
22
22
22
345

Ptyas mucosus

Pyrausta incoloralis
Pyrrhocorax graculus ...
pyrrhocorax
Pyrrhospiza punicea
Python molurus ...
Ramanella montana
Ramphaleyon amauroptera
capensis ...

Rana leithii

——- malabarica
——- tigrina 006 500
Rapala melampus
Rhipidura aureola a0

Rhododendron Delavayi
Rhopodytes tristis
Riparia paludicola
Riparia riparia

-— rupestris 506
Rostratula benghalensis
Salmo gairdneri
Salomonia oblongifolia
Sarcogyps calvus
Sardinella gibbosa
Sarkidiornis melanonotus
Sasia ochracea

Saxicola caprata

-— torquata

eco es
ceo

Scenedesmus... ces
Scolopax rusticola
Selenastrum

Sitta neumayer ...
Spilornis cheela ... ree
Spindasis ictis ictis
Spirogyra 506
Squatarola squatarola ...
Sterna albifrons
aurantia ...

bergii 0 ck
Streptopelia chinensis ...
orientalis ...
: --—— risoria
Strix ocellatum

Sturnia malabarica
Sturnopastor contra ...
Suncus caeruleus

Sus barbatus eed

——— ea

PRINTED AT

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

362

500 69
296

288, 296

E06 bier 300
361

LID os rd 4
eae Lak 23
23
405

joe eid

eee 387

ceo 298
sect n1GG

166
297
vee a 25
aor : 377
eee SO oid (GV/

cee 18
180
281

—- cristatus oe ace wee
Sus scrofa - Ri AA sid
—- verrucosus

Synedrella nodiflora
Syntarucus plinius

Tadorna tadorna . Pre fa8

Tarucus extricatus

Tchitrea paradisi SOCK
Telchinia violoe
Tephrodornis pondicerianus
Terekia cinereus

Tetraogallus sp. ? 58 900
Theretra clotho ... 200 500
Thoseacana- ... coe ase

- tripartita 500 500

Threskiornis- melanocephalus
Tichodroma muraria

Timalia pileata

Trabala vishnu ...
Trachelomonas ... woe ate

Trapa bispinosa $8 a

Treron bicincta ... ee
- curvirostra ase ise
- pompadora eee

Tringa erythropus 900 ae

Trochalopteron 1. ineatun
————- v. variegatum
Tros a. aristolochiae

Upupa epops

Vanessa cardui ...

Vipera russellii ... 000
Virachola isocrates

Wallagonia attu ... 500 eee
Xantholaema haemacephala ...
Xenorhynchus asiaticus 500
Ypthima s. sakra 500

Zetides agammemnon mentdes
Zemeros flegyas indicus
Zinckenia perspectalis ... tee
Zizeeria trochilus putli ...

Zosterops palpebrosa .,. 900

Zygnema ...

THE DIOCESAN PRESS, tADRAS—1949.—C10061

- glareola

- hypoleucus doc cee:
- nebularia wae 600
- ochropus 000 coe
- stagnatilis eee 60
-totanus ...

297

267
168
362

401
401
375

376
367
377
128
22
31
257
375
258
68
376
20
167

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Von 46, No. 1. APRIL, 1946, Price Rs. 12 nett.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natura History Socigry.

EDITED BY

-—__s«S. H. PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., C. MCCANN, F.L.S., AND
‘i SALIM ALI.

ea : ‘O\
AUG231946 7)
/:

> S Pees ay 7
~~ ZONA. WMUSEL é

PUBLISHED BY

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about 200 species of birds commonly seen

about towns, villages and jheels in the plains

of India, and about our sea coasts.

LIST OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO BIRD STUDY.

How TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE
FIELD.

USEFULNESS OF BIRDS.

BIRD MIGRATION.

. BIRD WATCHING.

. SOME NESTS AND NESTING BEHAVIOUR.
FLIGHT.

FuLL DESCRIPTIONS OF 197 SPECIES.

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1.
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46, No. 1.

PAGE

SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXII. By
N. L. Bor, C.1.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc.
(With 1 coloured, 4 black and white plates and 7 text-figures)

FrELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF COASTAL ARAKAN AND THE FOOTHILLS
OF THE YomAS. By Lt.:Genl. Sir Philip Christison, Bt., K.B.E., C.B.,
D.S.O., M.C., B.A., M.B.O.U., Major A. Buxton, M.c., and MajorA. M.
Emmet, B.A., assisted by Dillon Ripley, eh.p. (U.S.A.)

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN
‘Inpra AND Burma. Part X. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With
16 text-figures) 500 see see 00 ses

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XIV. By D. G.
Sevastopulo, F:R.E.S.... C60 ‘obo 0

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS; Two NEW
SPECIES OF COMMELINA FROM SoutH INDIA. By Edward Barnes
(Deceased). (With 2 plates) ets 504 Passer

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KaSHMIR. By Lt.-Col. B. T.
Phillips, 1.4. (Retd ). (With & plates) and 500 a0

On PESCHETIUS GuIGNoT (CoL. DyTISCIDAE) WITH A DESCRIPTION
OF A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA. By J. Balfour-Browne, M.A.,
F.Z.S., F.R.E.S. : z cece eco eae e@eo eco

MIcRODYTES GEN. Nov. DyTISCIDARUM (HYPHYDRINI). By J. Balfour-
Browne, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R.E.S. wee

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM. Part IV. By
H.G.H.M. eco eee eon eeo0 @oo

Fir~p NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE ANAMALAI HILiS (COcHIN). By
(ee R..Stonor ceo oer eco 000 eee cece

THE FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF AHMEDABAD, By S. B.
Setna, M.Sc., F.R.M.S., PH.D. (Cantab.), and C. V. Kulkarni, B.a,
(Hons.), M.se., Ph.D. (With a Map.) 500 ti ee ae ee

Some New Inpian Lithobiidae. By Capt. H. J. C. Larwood, M.sc.,
F.Z.S.,A.E.C.. (With 4 text-figures) 900 50 BS

ANNOTATED LIST OF CROP PESTS IN THE BOMBAY PROVINCE. By
K, N. Trehan, M.sc. (Punjab), ph.p. (London), and S. V. Pingle,
B.Sc. (Hons.) (Agric.) .. te% Bae oes anaes

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BoMBAY. By Ella A. Gonzalves, B.A., M.Sc.,
and Dwarka B. Joshi, M.se. (With 5 graphs and 8 plates)

103
106
108

119

126

133

139

154

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46, No. 1

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Rarity of Man-eating Tigers in South India. By R.C. Morris, F.z.s.,
F.R.G.S. (p 177). 2. Man-eaters in the Darrang District, Assam. By D.G.
Meston (p. 178). 3. Death of a Panther on a Tiger’s Kill. By R. C. Morris
(p. 179). 4. Sense of Smell of Tiger and Leopards. By D. G. Meston (p. 180).
5. Musk-shrew (Suncus caeruleus) attacking Bull-frog (Rana tigrina). By
K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 180). 6 Alarge Gaur Head. By Van Ingen
and Van Ingen. (Witha photo). (p.181). 7. Period of gestation of the Indian
Elephant (Alephas maximus). By A. Aiyappan. (With a photo.) (p. 182). 8.
Birth of an Elephant calf. By J. R. Vincent (p. 183). 9. The Ashy Swallow-
shrike (Artamus fuscus) 1n the Nilgiris. .By Major C. R. Stonor (p. 184). 10.
Occurrence of the White-bellied or Snow Pigeon (Columba leuconota leuconota)
at a low level in the Kumaon Himalaya. By D. Davis, 1.F.s. (p. 184). 11.
Migration of the Mallard (Anas Platyryncha) ; Recovery of Ringed Bird. By
Editors (p. 185). 12. Occurrence of the Pink-footed Goose (Amsery Fabalis
brachyrhynchus Baillon) in India ; An Authentic record. By Private Secretary
H.H. the Maharaja of Bikaner (p. 185). 13. Somecommon birds of Kathiawar—
Absent or rare in Kutch. By V.M. Vasu (p. 187). 14. ‘ Birds of Vizagapatam
District ’"— Some notable omissions. By R. C. Bell, 1.c.s. (p. 189). 15. The Birds
of Burma. By F. Kingdon-Ward (p. 191). 16. On.the breeding of the Tiger
Shark (Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle). By P. N. Sarangdhar, M.sc.,
PH.D. (p. 192). 17. A Note on the Conservation of our Inland Fisheries by
Legislation. By Hamid Khan, pu.p. (Cantab), F.a.Sc. (p. 193). 18. Ecological
and Specific variation in the camouflage devcies of Spider webs. By J. E.
Marson, F.R.E.S. (p. 194). 19. Notes on-the Giant Wood Spider (Nephzla
maculata) in Burma. By J. E. Marson, ¥.R.E.S. (With 2 plates). (p.195). 20.
The Butterflies of the Nilgiris—A Supplementary Note. By J. A. Yates
(p. 197). 21. Note on the Butterfly Melanitis phedima varaha. By J.A.
Yates (p. 198). 22. Stalked Cocoons. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. (p. 199).
23.. Instance of fasciation.in Palmyra (Borassus flabellifer). By K. R.
Srinivasan, M.A. (With a photo).. (p- 201). 24. An abnormal flower of
Gloriosa superba Linn. :By Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, S.J. (p. 202).

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Journ., BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.

DWARF POINCIANA.

CAESALPINIA PULCHERRIMA SW.
(4 Nat. Size.)

PLATE DOG,

JOURNAL |
OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1946. | VOL. 46. No. 1

—

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

INE eb ORS N CLISE ss eMcAG D:SCag Hake Sua ple. S.4
Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. Ratzapa, M.SC.,
Assistant Forest Botanist,
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XXII.

[Continued from Vol. 45, No. 4. (1945), p. 461].
(With 1 coloured, 4 black and white plates and 7 text-figures).

Caesalpinia Linn.

A genus of trees, shrubs and woody climbers belonging to the
family Caesalpiniaceae. The name perpetuates the memory of
Andreas Caesalpinius, 1519-1603, an Italian botanist.

The Caesalpiniaceae, at one time considered to be a section of
the Leguminosae, but now accepted by most botanists as a distinct
family, is a very well defined group of plants. Its. flowers are
intermediate between the regular flowers of Mimosaceae and the
extremely irregular flowers of Papilionaceae. The fruit, however,
is the characteristic and familiar pod of the sweet pea family.

The genus Caesalpinia is well represented in India and seve-
ral of the indigenous species as well as some exotics are culti-
vated in Indian gardens on account of their showy flowers and
handsome foliage. The family comprises trees, shrubs and woody
prickly climbers. The leaves are large and abruptly bipinnate.
The flowers which are usually yellow, sometimes red, are arranged |

2 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

in large many-flowered racemes. The calyx consists of five seg-
ments which are imbricate in the bud. The petals are orbicular
in shape with a distinct claw. Stamens ten in number, free. The
ovary is sessile upon a disk and is usually few-ovuled. Pod various,
sometimes covered with spines.

KeryY TO THE SPECIES.

Stamens very long, much exceeding the petals.
Stamens 3-5 in. long; sepals hairy on the margins, flowers

~ yellow.” C. Gilliesii.
Stamens less than 3 in. long; sepals. glabrous, flowers
red, red and yellow or yellow. . C. pulcherrima.
Stamens not very long, hardly exceeding the petals. A
“Pod prickly. C. Bonducello.
Pod not prickly, dry. eee
Pod flat.

Large shrub or small tree. C. sappan.
Climbing shrubs.
Leaflets 2-3 pairs. C. nuga.
Leaflets 8-12: pairs. ed Nee C. sepiaria.
Pod twisted.
Climber; flowers in racemes..’
Large shrub or tree; flowers in dense panicle.

digyna.
coriaria.

Caesalpinia Gilliesii Wall.
Bird of Paradise.

(Called after Dr. Gillies who introduced to Kew? in 1929 from
South America). 3

Description.—An erect shrub attaining a height of 6-7 feet.

Branches round, striate, covered with small, circular, raised len-
ticels, nearly glabrous but sometimes covered with short, crisped,
white hairs. Leaves alternate, compound, up to 1 ft. long, sti-
pulate, bipinnate; stipules at the base of the main rhachis, ovate-
acuminate in shape, ciliate or laciniate on the margins. Leaves
abruptly bipinnate; pinnae opposite or alternate, up to 1.5 in. long,
without stipellae; rhachis of the pinnae slightly swollen at the base.
Leaflets oblong, 1/6 in. long, rounded at both ends, shortly pe-
tioluled, rather thick, with a definite row of black glands inside
each margin on both: surfaces.

Flowers arranged in a_ terminal raceme, rhachis _ thick,
woolly and covered with numerous red-stalked glands. Individual
flowers pedicellate, each pedicel being supported by an oavte-acu-
minate deciduous bract which is hairy and glandular on the back
and glandular-subulate-laciniate on the margins; pedicel -of the
open flowers -75 in. long. Calyx-tube short, turbinate, 1/6 in. long, |
glandular and hairy; calyx-lymb of: five equal oblong seg-
ments covered on back and margins’ with flat-topped, shortly
stalked glands, hairy outside, glabrous inside, about ‘5 in. long,
Petals five, of a beautiful yellow colour, shortly clawed, seated.
on the margin of the calyx-tube 1°5 in. long, obcordate in shape..
Stamens 10, free, arising from the top of the calyx-tube; filaments

‘SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN.CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 3

4-5 in. long, crimson in colour, glabrous. Anthers oblong, ver-
satile. Ovary seated at the bottom of the calyx-tube, shortly

- stipitate, hairy, prolonged into a long style with a capitate

stigma. Fruit a falcate, leathery pod, beaked, 2°5 in. long.

Fig. 1.—Caesalpinia Gilliesti Wall. x3

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Fruits.—July-August.

Distribution.—Native of Mendoza, South America, now fre-
quently cultivated in all tropical and subtropical. parts of the
world, | a pei

_Gardening.—A very hardy shrub reaching up to 7 ft. in Dehra,
with graceful feathery, bipinnate foliage of small leaflets. It
flowers: profusely during the hot and rainy seasons, the flowers
being of a pale-yellow colour, the petals seldom fully expanding
but the long stamens which are crimson in colour protrude.
After two seasons or so the plant is apt to decay and look un-
sightly; it is consequently advisable to replace it by fresh seed.
in Dehra Dun and elsewhere in this country the pods are fre-
quently attacked by a borer which destroys the seeds. They
should, therefore, be covered with muslin to protect them from

4 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the ravages of these insects. Easily raised from seed sown dur-
ing the rains or even earlier. According to Sir W. J. Hooker
it was introduced by Dr. Gillies into the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, in 1829. It is popularly known as Dr. Gillies Poinciana,

as Hooker, when the plant was first discovered, described it as ©

Poinciana Gillies. It is a hardy plant and can be grown out
olf doors in England.

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz.

Dwarf Poinciana; Barbados Pride; Peacock flower.
(Pulcherrima means most beautiful in Latin).

Description——A handsome shrub reaching 6 ft. in- height.
Branches smooth, green or glaucous, glabrous, shining, with a
few prickles here and there. Leaves abruptly bipinnate, stipulate,
up to 1°5 ft. long; pinnae 6-12 pairs, opposite, with small stipel-
Jae at the base, up to 3 in. long; leaflets oblong, ‘5 in. long,
oblique at the base, emarginate at the apex with the midrib pro-
duced as a short mucro, very shortly stalked; each leaflet with
a very small pair of stipels at the base of the stalk.

Flowers arranged in an erect terminal raceme. Flowers pedi-
celled; the pedicels of the fully opened flower being up to 4 in.
long; pedicels supported at the base by a rapidly deciduous, lan-
ceolate-acuminate bract, ‘1 in. long, which can be seen at the
apex of the raceme surrounding the young flowers. Calyx-tube
turbinate, ‘2 in. long, glabrous; limb 4-partite, one sepal
larger than the others, hooded, glabrous, coloured red or orange
in the bud. Petals about °75 in. long, distinctly clawed; limb
orbicular in shape, often lobed on the margins, variously colour-
ed in red and gold, very often claw and centre of limb crimson,
red or golden-red, with a narrow margin of gold. Stamens 1o,
free, seated on the margin of the calyx-tube; filaments long, red,
rather thick at the base where they are covered with white hairs,
2°25 in. long, tapering to the versatile anthers. Ovary. seated

on a short gynophore arising from the base of the calyx-tube, |

glabrous, compressed, terminating in a long yellowish red style.
Pod nearly straight, narrow and thin, 2-3 in. long.
Flowers.—Hot and rainy seasons. Fruits.—Cold season.
Distribution.—Native country uncertain, perhaps South Ame-
rica. Extensively cultivated throughout the tropics.
Gardening.—A hardy, drought resistent, showy shrub up to
6 ft. or so in height. It flowers profusely during the hot and

rainy season making the plant very ornamental. It should be |

cut in closely in the cold season, as it is apt to grow very strag-
gly and becomes unsightly. It can hardly stand the cold of the
Punjab but flourishes there and in the United Provinces better
in the hot and rainy seasons than in Bengal. It is better to re-
place old plants every now and then by fresh plants raised from
sced.. This plant starts to flower as early as 8 months old. It
is best suited for growing on lawns and for hedging. Easily
raised from seed which it produces abundantly. According to

JouRN., BOMBAY im, JES, Swe; PLATE I

M. N. BAKSHI

Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.
New Forest, Dehra Dun.

JourN., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by
Caesalpinia sepiavria Roxb.
New Forest, Dehra Dun.

PLATE Tm

We i
M.wN. BAksHY

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 5

-Rheede, Hortus Malabaricus, it was in the gardens of India in
1680. It was introduced into Holland from Amboyna about the
year 1670. On account of its showy flowers and attractive, finely
divided foliage, this plant is a great favourite in all tropical and
subtropical countries. Although this shrub will thrive in poor
soil, an application of manure or chemical fertilizer may be given to
advantage causing it to make more vigorous growth and give
better and larger heads of flowers. |

C, pulcherrima Sw. var. flava Hort. A race with bright yellow
flowers, not nearly so handsome as the type. It is called ‘Radha
chura’ in this country, the red race being named as ‘Krishna
chura’.

Medicinal. and economic uses.—Burkill (Economic Products of
the Malay Peninsula) remarks that this plant has a few medicinal
uses in the Dutch Indies. The pounded roots are said to be useful
in cases of infantile qonvulsions. The flowers are used as a
remedy for intestinal worms, for coughs and chronic catarrh. The
leaves are reputed to have a purgative action, and also to be
abortificient. A decoction of the leaves is said to be useful in

eases of fever.

Caesalpinia Bonducella Fleming | C. crista ‘Linn. |.
Fever-Nut; Physic-Nut.

Fig. 2.—Caesalpinia Bonducella Fleming. Xx}

6 JOURNAL BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Description.—A prickly shrub, rambling or scandent. Branches
more or less covered with short, soft hairs and armed with stout,
sharp, straight or recurved prickles. Leaves compound 12-18 in.
long, abruptly bipinnate,* with the rhachis often produced as a
short mucro; rhachis stout, covered with very short brown hairs
and bearing sharp recurved prickles; pinnae up to 16 pairs, oppo-
site ; base of the rhachis of the pinnae with recurved stipellate spines.
Stipules large, foliaceous, often lobed. Leaflets 6-10 pairs seated on
very short pedicels with a pair of recurved prickles at the base,
somewhat oblique at the base, oblong or elliptic, obtuse with the:
midrib produced as a short mucro, glabrous or sparsely hairy:
above, puberulous below. y

Flowers arranged in axillary or terminal racemes, bracteate ;
bracts linear-lanceolate, tip subulate, “4--5 in. long, covered with
rusty-brown hairs. Flowers pedicelled; pedicel ‘2-°3 in. long,
rusty tomentose. Calyx-tube very short; lobes 5, ‘2--3 in. long.
rusty tomentose on both surfaces. Petals 5, golden yellow or the.
uppermost sometimes spotted with red, oblanceolate in shape.
Stamens 10; filaments short, hardly exceeding the petals, covered
with white hairs below. Ovary seated on a short gynophore which.
comes from the base of the calyx-tube. Pod broadly elliptic in
shape, beaked, coriaceous, 2-3 in. fong, covered all over with
sharp wiry prickles. a A a

Flowers.—August-September. /ruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—Wild or naturalized throughout the tropics.

Gardening.—A scandent. prickly shrub. with yellow flowers
which are produced during the rains. It is commonly met with
in a wild state in abandoned village sites or in hedges. It niakes an:
effective hedge-plant. Propagated easily from seed.

Medicinal and economic uses.—This plant, which bears the
Sanskrit name of ‘Pulikaranja’, has long enjoyed a reputation for
niedicinal properties and was well known to Clusius and Rumphius. |
The leaves and seeds possess a substance’ known as bonducin of
which the properties are not yet fully known. The substance is
extremely bitter and appears to be absent from the roots. In India
the seeds as well as the leaves are much used in native medicine
to relieve colic, fever, hydrocele, diarrhoea and rheumatism.

Caesalpinia Sappan Linn.

Sappan Wood.

(The specific name comes from its local name, sepang, in Java).

Description.—A thorny, shrubby tree reaching a height of about
20 ft. and a diameter of 6-10 in. Leaves up to 18 in. long, stipu-
late alternate, with 16-24 pinnae, each 4-6 in. long. Leaflets 20-
36, chartaceous, oblong, very oblique at the base, almost sessile,
rounded and slightly emarginate at the apex, glabrous above,
puberulous below.

Flowers in panicled racemes, 12-16 in. long; separate racemes
4-6 in. long. Calyx-tube short, bowl-shaped; lobes *4 in. long, 5
in number. Petals 5, orbicular, *3 in. long, yellow; base of up-

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 7

per petal pink. Stamens to free, arising from the lip of the calyx-
tube; filaments white, woolly in the lower half. Ovary stipitate,
erey-velvety. Pod woody, oblong, flattened, 3-4 in. long, 1°5-2
in. wide, polished, brown, beaked.

Fig. 3.—Caesalpinia Sappan Linn. X#4

Flowevs.—Rainy season. IF ruits.—Cold. season.

Distribution.—From India throughout Malaysia.

Gardening.—A large thorny shrub quite ornamental when
laden with its large panicles of yellow flowers, Easily propagated
from seed which it produces abundantly.

Medicinal and economic uses.—The wood yields a beautiful red
dye which is used to colour silk. The dye is also used for colour-
ing starch which is. scattered on the occasion of the Holi festival.

Caesalpinia nuga Ait.

Description.—A stiff, wiry, prickly climber with a_ blackish
bark and few ‘prickles. Leaves alternate with small | stipules,
bipinnate, 6-12 in. long, with 6-8 pinnae, often much less on flower-
ing branches, rhachis with recurved spines.- Rhachis of the pinnae
with recurved stipular spines at the base. Leaflets 2-3 pairs, light
green above, rather pale below, coriaceous, ovate or elliptic, acute
or obtuse, 1-2°5 in. long, ‘5 to 1 in, wide. ae

8 ~ JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Inflorescence a panicle of racemes; racemes racemosely arrang-
ed up to 6 in. long. Flowers fragrant, seated on pedicels, ‘3 in.
long. Calyx broadly obconic, very short (‘1 in. long), smooth,
glabrous, 1o-ribbed; limb consisting of 5 sepals, oblong, smooth
and glabrous. Petals 5, yellow, clawed; limb orbicular crumpled;
upper spotted with red; stamens ten, free; filaments hardly longer
than the petals, dilated at the base and woolly below; anthers
versatile. Ovary seated on an oblique gynophore, elliptic-com-
pressed, sparsely hairy; style short. Pod turgid, beaked, indehis-
cent, 2 in. long.

Fig. \y.—Caesalpinia nuga Ait. X4

Flowers.—May-October. Fruits. Cold season.

Distribution.—Found from Bengal to the Pacific, chiefly along
the coast, but also inland.

G ardening. —A vigorous prickly climber with yellow flowers
which against the glossy green leaves appear quite ornamental.
Readily propagated by seed which (as in all other species of this
genus) should be well soaked in warm water for some hours be-
fore sowing.

Medicinal and economic uses.—The roots of this plant are
stated to be diuretic by Watt. The same authority remarks that
the roots as well as the roasted seeds are used externally as well
as internally in diseases of the eye. In India the lac insect feeds
on this plant,

JourNn., BOMPAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

Caesalpinia sappan Linn.
New Forest, Dehra Dun.

Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Iv |

Pholo by M. N. BAKSHI

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw.
New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 9
Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.
The Mysore-thorn.

(Sepiaria is derived from the Latin verb saepio, to surround
with a hedge, as this plant is often used as an impenetrable hedge).

Description.—A branchy scrambling or scandent shrub with
dark red bark; branches glabrous or covered with dense rusty

Fig. 5.—Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. x

or golden-brown pubescence. Prickles numerous, recurved, stout.
Leaves compound, bipinnate, up to 1 ft. long, stipulate; stipules
small, caducous. Pinnae opposite, stalked with a pair of recurved
stipular thorns at the base, 6-10 pairs; leaflets rather thin, 8-12
pairs, shortly stalked, opposite, oblong, obtuse at both ends, em-
arginate at the apex, puberulous on the lower surface, green
above, pale below.

Inflorescence a terminal, erect raceme, many-flowered. Indivi-
dual flowers set obliquely on pedicles 1-25 in. long; pedicels as-
cending. Main rhachis. of the raceme and pedicels fulvous hairy.
Calyx-tube a broad inverted cone, fulvous hairy, ro-ribbed, +15 in.

10 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

long. Sepals 5, oblong, covered outside with golden hairs, glab-
rous inside, °3 in. long. Petals 5, obovate-obtuse, °5 in. long
yellow, Becomine, reflexed as the flower opens fully to expose the
bases of the filaments. Stamens to, free, arising from the lip of
the calyx tube. Filaments flattened at the base and distinctly
woolly, -4 in. long; anthers versatile. Ovary seated on an oblique
gynophore arises from the base of the calyx-tube, flattened-oblong,
hairy. Style short. Pod beaked, 3-5 in. long, woody, glabrous,
recurved, indehiscent, with the upper suture expanded into a nar-
row wing.

Flowers.—March-June. Fruits.—Rainy season.

Distribution.—Indigenous and _ naturalized throughout India
and Burma (ascending to 5,000 ft. in Jaunsar), extending to Cey-
lon, the Malay Archipelago, China and Japan.

Gardening.—A large prickly climber. The large racemes of
bright yellow flowers make a fine show. It makes an excellent
hedge plant. Easily raised from seed.

Medicinal and economic uses.—This creeper, thanks to its prickly
nature and very close mode of growth, is much used by Nagas
as one of their village defences. The Nagas of Henima in days |
gone by, grew it very thickly around the village. .The branches
were erected on forked poles over the paths into the village
during the day while at night the poles were removed and the
creeper laid on the ground forming an impenetrable barrier to
any marauder. This creeper may be seen to this day near the vil-
lage entrance of most+Angami villages.

The bark is said to be used for tanning in South India. It
is also stated that the lac insect feeds on this species.

Caesalpinia digyna Rottl.

Description.—A large, scandent, prickly shrub. Bark dark
brown or dark red with plentiful, strong, recurved prickles.
Leaves alternate, compound, bipinnate, stipulate, 6-12 in. long,
with 8-12 pairs of pinnae; stipules lanceolate, small, caducous;
rhachis sparsely hairy or glabrescent. Pinnae up to 2 in. long,
shortly petioled at the base, with a pair of stipular thorns. Leaflets
7-10 pairs, °3 in. long, rounded at the top, slightly and obliquely
cordate at the base, very shortly stalked; rhachis hairy.

Flowers yellow, arranged in terminal or supra-axillary racemes.
Individual flowers numerous, seated on. pedicels up to -8 in. long;
bracts very small, caducous. Calyx-tube very short, almost sal-
ver-shaped, glabrescent with age; sepals five, oblong, hooded,
rounded at the top, imbricate in the bud, the upper arching over
the others and falling as the flower opens. Petals 5, inserted on
the lip of the calyx-tube, orbicular, obovate or oblong, rounded at
the apex, very shortly clawed, -25 in. long. Stamens ro, free,
inserted on the lip of the calyx-tube; filaments dilated at the base
and very woolly, Pod fleshy, shortly stipitate, 1°5-2°5 in. long,
beaked, 1-2 seeded, twisted. ,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN.-CLIMBERS AND+SHRUBS rl

. Flowers.—Rainy season. [ruits.—Cold season. °
~~ Distribution. —Found in India, extending to the Malay Penin-
sula and Ceylon.

Neue

Vga

P\ OSS fle
ry so | Vy :
(Or

oS ea
is

WIS
IS
RY

¥ S\

Fig. 6.—Caesalpinia digyna Rottl. X%
J

Gardening.—A large woody prickly climber. It flowers abun-
dantly during the rains, the petals being yellow streaked with red.
Propagation is by seeds which are very hard and must be kept in
hot water overnight or filed or injured in some other way before
they will germinate. ;

Medicinal and economic uses.—The pods of this plant contain an
excellent tanning material. The roots are said to be of use in
phthisis and scrophulous affections.

Caesalpinia coriaria Willd.
The Divi-divi plant; American Sumach.

(Coriaria is a Latin word derived from corium, a hide or skin,
and refers to the use of the pods of this plant as a tanning’
material). :

Description.—A large bush or sometimes a small tree with mi-
mosa-like foliage on unarmed stems. Leaves compound, bipinnate ;
pinnae impari- or pari-pinnate, up to 6 in. long. Leaflets very
numerous and narrow, -25 in. long, linear, green above, pale below,
slightly obliquely-cordate at the base, emarginate at the apex,
shortly stalked; main rhachis and rhachis of the pinnae hairy.

12 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Flowers arranged in axillary and terminal dense panicles up
to 2 in. long. Individual flowers on short pedicels, bud. -2 in.
long. Calyx-tube -minute; lobes 5, oblong, rounded at _ the
top, 1/6 in. long. Petals 5, inserted on the lip of the calyx-tube,
spatheate, yellow. Stamens to, free, arising from. the lip of the
calyx-tube, dilated at the base and hairy in the lower half; anthers
versatile. Ovary stipitate, glabrous; style short. Pod twisted,
thin, up to 3 in- long by -5 in. wide.

Yl
SS

NY oF "4 ]
WY Wi? » Cone \Z
NY Y & OS \Z; \!
WA, { ro LA FZ
y (PXES

—_

ANU LLL
AUN

\\ Whi AZ a.

Fig. 7.—Caesalpinia coriaria Willd. x _

Flowers.—Sept.-Oct.. Fruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—Native of the West Indies and Central America,
now grown in gardens in this country.

Gardening.—A spreading umbrella-shaped tree with dark green
foliage and delightfully scented pale yellow flowers, suitable for
planting in compounds. It is easily raised from seed, but is rather
sensitive to frost.

Medicinal and economic uses.—The pods of this tree contain a
powerful tanning material and it is much cultivated in South India.

(To be continued.)

FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF COASTAL ARAKAN
AND THE FOOTHILLS OF THE YOMAS.

LT-GEN. SiR PutLip CHRISTISON, BT., K.B.E., C:B., D.S.O., M.C.,
B.A., M.B.O.U.,

Major A. BUXTON, M.-c., and

Mayor A. M. EmMmMET, B.A.,

ASSISTED BY
Ditton Ripiey, pu.p. (U.S.A.)

These notes have been compiled during the Arakan campaigns
Oi 1943 to 1945.

Subspecific names have not been added as we were unable to
secure a series for comparison, owing to lack of suitable ammuni-
tion. Doubtful species, however, were shot for identification.

These notes deal with the sandy beaches, tidal waterways,
mangrove swamps, scrub-covered islands, the villages and paddy-
fields, and the foothills up to 2,000 ft. which rise from the coastal
region often almost directly, and are covered with a variety of
dense mixed tropical jungle, with scrub, or with pure bamboo
jungle.

In the dry season, December to May, fresh water is very scarce
and local, and practically all the hill streams are dry. In the
monsoon, June to November, the rainfall is very heavy, averaging
some Igo inches.

It is hoped that these notes may provide a foundation for a
more critical study of the avifauna of Arakan at some future date,
and may prove of value in the preparation of the second edition
of the Birds of Burma.

ORDER: PASSERES.

FAMILY : CORVIDAE.

Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow.

Common.

C. splendens. House Crow.

Common about the village and tidal waters. Indian and Burmese races are
found together in North Ramree Island. Akyab, Myebon, and Baronga Island.
South of this area only the Burmese race is found.

Cissa chinensis. Green Magpie.

Foothills. One in May, blue being dominant colour. One in November
in fresh green plumage in Ngakyedaulk Pass.

iw JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. 46

Dendrocitta yagabunda. Indian Tree Pie.

Common in the low ground.

Garrulus leucotis. Burmese. Jay.

Sparsely distributed in the jungles North and South of Ruywa.
FAMILY : TIMALIIDAE.

Garrulax pectoralis. Black-gorgetted Laughing Thrush.

Local in hill jungle, and even at sea level in winter.

Pellorneum ruficeps. Spotted Babbler.

Common in open lower jungle.

Argya earlii. Striated Babbler.
Old grassy rice furrows. Scarce.

A. longirostris. Slender-billed Babbler.

Fairly common in low ground.

Timalia pileata. Red-capped Babbler.

Local in foothills. Found nesting in June.

Chrysomma sinensis. Yellow-eyed Babbler...

Local in scrub jungle near the coast, and in patches of open country out
of cultivation. ;

-Mixornis rubricapilla. Yellow-breasted Babbler.
Common in the jungle.
Pomatorhinus hypoleucus. Arakan Scimitar Babbler.

Scarce. Foothills of Mayu Range in bamboo.

Aegithina tiphia. The lora.

Common in. open jungle and round camps.

Chloropsis jerdoni. Jerdon’s Chloropsis.

Very uncommon. Low ground villages only in North Arakan.

C. aurifrons. Gold-fronted Chloropsis.

Common in foothills and round camps. This is the common. Chloropsis
of Arakan.

C. cochinchinensis. Burmese Chloropsis.

Uncommon. None seen North of Tamandu on Dalet Chaung.

FAMILY : PYCNONOTIDAE.
Molpastes cafer. Red-vented Bulbul.
Very common.

Otocompsa jocosa. Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Very common.

QO. flaviventris. Black-crested Yellow Bulbul.

Common in the foothills.

NOTES: ON THE BIRDS OF ARAKAN AND THE YOMAS 15

lole virescens. Olive Bulbul.
Occurs inthe thick Yoma jungle. Very secretive.
Alcurus leucogrammicus. Striated Green Bulbul.

Apparently locally migrant as not observed in April-October. One 5 Jan-
uary. One 7 March.

Microtarsus atriceps. Black-headed Bulbul.

Rare winter visitor.

Microscelis psaroides. Black Bulbul. :
Apparently a winter visitor from the higher hills. Latest 21 March.
Criniger flaveolus. White-throated Bulbul.

Sparsely distributed along the coastal hill jungles, and in winter along:
the coastal belt. Seen in parties of up to to.

FAMILY : TURDIDAE.
Saxicola caprata. Pied Bushchat.
Common round the coastal villages.
S. torquata. Stonechat.
Winter visitor to the coastal strip October-March.

-Enicurus immaculatus. Black-backed Forktail.

Common. The only Forktail seen.

Calliope calliope. Rubythroat.

Winter visitor. Leaves in early March.

Copsychus saularis. Magpie Robin.
Very common.

Kittacincla malabarica. Shama.

Uncommon, but occurs as its song has been heard’ on one or two occa.
sions, and one observed 25 October. Probably nesting in June and July.

Monticola cinclorhyncha. Blue-headed Rock Thrush.
Sparse winter visitor. Earliest 24 September. Latest 24 April.
M. solitaria. Eastern Blue Rock - Thrush.

Earliest 1 October, latest 5 May. Common in winter.

Miyophonus caeruleus. Whistling Thrush.
Winter visitor to the hill streams, being locally migrant as they dry up.
Geokichla cifrina. Orange-headed Ground Thrush.
One in a bamboo thicket 12 March. Another 10 February.
FAMILY + MUSCICAPIDAE.
Muscicapa parva. Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Very common in winter. First arrival 30 September. Latest 30 April.

Muscicapula rubeculoides. Blue-throated Flycatcher.

Common winter visitor to the foothills.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46
Culicicapa ceylonensis. Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Winter visitor in fair numbers to the thicker jungle from the higher hills.

Alseonax latirostris. Brown Flycatcher.
Sparsely distributed in the heavier jungle.

Hemipus picatus. Pied Shrike.

One 12 November, Mayu.

Rhipidura aureola. White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

Sparsely distributed about village gardens.

Hypothymis azurea. Black-naped Flycatcher. |

Sparsely distributed in the bamboo and thicker shadier jungles.

Tchitra paradisi. Paradise Flycatcher.

On winter passage from Duars. Chestnut phase of plumage usual, but one
white phase seen 10 November.

FAMILY : LANIIDAE.

Lanius cristatus. Brown Shrike. 5
Very common in winter. First arrivals 6 September. Latest 4 May.
L. nepatensis. Grey-backed Shrike.

Winter only.

L. masutus. Black-headed Shrike.

One 31 October. One 15 November in foothills.

L. colluroides. Burmese Shrike.

Winter visitor from 3 October to foothills.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus. Wood-Shrike.

Sparsely distributed around villages. One 7 July. A pair 5 January.

FAMILY : CAMPEPHAGIDAE.

- Pericrocotus roseus. Rosy Minivet.

Several flocks seen and specimens secured in March and April.

P. peregrinus. Little Minivet..

A few flocks observed in the open jungles in October contained only males.

Breeds in the Casuarina trees on the coast north of Akyab and at Teknaf. Also
seen at Ruywa.

P. speciosus. Scarlet Minivet.

A pair on the Mayu Range 7 November. Resident.

Lalage sykesi. Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike.

Winter visitor in small numbers arriving about mid-October, leaving in

April.

Graucalus novaehollandiae. Large Cuckoo-shrike.

Common among the: wood oil trees in the lower jungles.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF ARAKAN AND THE YOMAS 17

FAMILY : ARTAMIDAE.

Artamus fuscus. Ashy Swallow-shrike.
Common.

Famity: Dicruripar.
Dicrurus macrocercus. King Crow.
Common in the North. Scarce and local South of Maungdaw.
D. leucopheus, Ashy Drongo.
Pair 12 October. One 21 January. Sparse winter visitor.
Chaptia aenea. Bronzed Drongo. 7
Thick jungle. Very local, but usually to be seen in same area.

Dissemurus paradiseus. Large Racket-tailed Drongo.

Common in deciduous jungle.

Bhringa remifer. Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo.
Less common than the last named.
Chibia hottentotta. Hair-crested Drongo.

The most common of all the Drongos and well distributed.

FAMILY : SYLVIDAE.

Acrocephalus stentoreus, Great Reed Warbler.

Local winter visitor to suitable reed-beds and clumps of pine-apple. In full
song, 1 May at Akyab.

A, agricola. Paddyfield Warbler.

Rather scarce. Local winter visitor.

A. dumetorum. Blyth’s Reed Warbler.

As above.

Megalurus palustris. Striated Marsh Warbler.

Common in the coastal belt from about 10 October to 15 April.

Orthotomus sutorius. Tailor Bird.

Common.

Franklinia gracilis, I'ranklin’s Wren-warbler.

Common in scrub jungle.

Prinia flavyiventris. \ellow-bellied Wren-warbler.

Common in coastal plain in winter,

Cisticola juncidis. The Streaked Fantail Warbler. -
Fairly common in the coastal plain. Resident.

Horeites brunnifrons, Rufus-capped Bush Warbler.

Common winter visitor to scrub jungle.

Phylloscopus fuscatus. Dusky willow warbler. -

Common in winter in the coastal swamps.

18 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

: FaMILy: IRENIDAE.
Irena puella. Fairy Bluebird.

_ Small parties of 5 or 6 seen on several occasions, in the tall trees in thick
mixed jungle. Common in the Mayu Range.

FAMILY : ORIOLIDAE.

Oriolus xanthornus. Black-headed Oriole.
Common.

0. chinensis. Black-naped © Oriole.

One 15 March. Pair nesting April in Yoma foothills. Uncommon and not
seen in the coastal belt. One at Akyab 12 April.
FAMILY : GRACULIDAE.

Gracula religiosa. Indian Grackle.

Fairly common where there are high trees in the open.

FAMILY : STURNIDAE.

Aplonis panayensis. Glossy Stare.

Very local. Nests in old holes of woodpeckers in May. One found at sea-
level and watched till young hatched.

Sturnia malabarica. Grey-headed Myna.

Common.

Acridotheres tristis. Common Myna.

Very common.

Athiopsar fuscus. Jungle Myna.

Very common.

Sturnopastor contra. Pied Myna.

Very common.

Gracupica burmanicus, Jerdon’s Myna.-

Flock of 20, 15 October in foothills.

FAMILY ; PLOCEIDAE,

Ploceus infortunatus. Eastern Weaver Bird.

Common.

P. manyar. Striated Weaver Bird.

Very local in reed-beds, but occurs in suitable localities and breeds.
Lonchura punctulata. Spotted Munia.

Winter visitor in small flocks.

L. striata, Striated Munia.

Common in flocks in the foothills April-January and in late September.
Absent in the monsoon and in winter.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF ARAKAN AND THE YOMAS 19

L. atricapilla, Chestnut-bellied Munia.

Very common. Nest with eggs 22 November shows this species is not ne-
cessarily a pre-monsoon nester.

FAMILY : FRINGILLIDAE.

Passer domesticus, House Sparrow.

Common around villages.

P. flaveolus. Pegu House Sparrow.

Very local. Observed on the islands off the coast at Ruywa in March,
and one cock watched near Ruywa on the mainland.

Emberiza aureola. Yellow-breasted Bunting.

Singly and in flocks in winter and on passage.

FAMILY : HIRUNDINIDAE.
Riparia riparia. Eastern Sand-Martin.

A.few in winter only.

R. paludicola. Indian Sand-Martin.
Common.

Hirundo rustica. Eastern Swallow.

Very common in winter.

H. tytleri. Tytler’s Swallow.

Common in winter.

H. daurica. Red-rumped Swallow.

Common in winter.

H. smithii, Wire-tailed Swallow.
Fairly common in winter.

FaMILy: MOTACILLIDAE.

Dendronanthus indicus. Forest Wagtail.
Sparsely distributed in the thicker jungle.

Motacilla alba. White Wagtail.

Common in winter.

M. cinerea, Grey Wagtail.

Common in winter.

M. flava thunbergi. Grey-headed Yellow Wagtail.

A few on passage singly. All in April.

M. flava beema, Yellow Wagtail.

One 20 April. One 24 April. One 21 November.
M. citreola. Yellow-headed Wagtail.

One 14 May. Fairly common on passage, especially in April, and spends
the winter.

20, JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46
Anthus rufulus. Indian Pipit.
P (Common and. resident.

A. hodgsoni. Indian Tree-Pipit.

Common winter visitor.

A. rfichardi. Richard’s Pipit.

Common winter visitor.

A.cervinus. Red-throated Pipit.

Winter visitor and passage migrant. Uncommon.
FamILy : ALAUDIDAE.

Alauda galgula, Indian Skylark.

Rather scarce and locally migratory in the wet season.

Mirafra assamica. Bengal Bush-Lark.

Very common in the low ground.
FAMILY : ZOSTEROPIDAE.

Zosterops palpebrosa. White-eye.

Rather local; not common. Coastal plain and edge of foothills.
FAMILY : NECTARINIDAE.

Ginnyris asiaticus. Purple Sunbird.

Fairly common. Nests in March-April in Soa plain.

C. zeylonicus. Purple-rumped Sunbird.

Fairly common.

C. flammaxillaris. Yellow-breasted Sunbird.

Fairly common on the coastal plain south of Akyab.

C.brasiliana. Van Hasselt’s Sunbird.

Very local, but haunts same places. Smythies’ description does not do this
lovely bird justice. :

Athopyga siparaja. Yellow-backed Sunbird.
The most common Sunbird.

Anthreptes malaccensis, Brown-throated Sunbird.
Not common. Observed in Mar. near Myebon, and two other records.
Arachnothera longirostra Little Spider-Hunter.
Common in the foothills.
FAMILY DICAEIDAE,

Dicauem erythrorhynchos. Tickell’s Flower-pecker.
Not common. A few pairs seen in May in gardens.

D. chrysorrheum. Yellow-vented Flower-pecker.

Very local. Hill jungles. The race here appears to have dark streaks on
breast and not the dark line described by Smythies.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF ARAKAN AND THE YOMAS 21

D. cruentatum. Scarlet-backed. Flower-pecker.

Common.

—

D. trigonostigma. Orange-bellied Flower-pecker.
Three pairs in March near Ruywa.

D. concolor. Plain-coloured Flower-pecker.

Common on the coastal islands from. Myebon to Ruywa.
where.

Not seen else-
FAMILY: PITTIDAE.
Pitta nipalensis. Blue-naped Pitta.
Very shy though often heard. One obtained in Mayu Range ‘in Oct. was
definitely this species.

ORDER: PICI.

FAMILY: PICIDAE.

Picus canus. Black-naped Green Woodpecker.

Fairly common locally.

Dryobates mahrattensis. Mahratta Woodpecker.
Fairly common.
D. macei. Fulvous-breasted Pied Woodpecker.

The race here has no white underparts. It is fairly common, especially at
Akyab.

D. analis. Siamese Pied Woodpecker.

Lower hills. Scarce in Mayu Range. |

Brachypternus benghalensis. Golden-backed Woodpecker.

Common.

Chrysophlegma flavinucha.’ Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

Lower hill jungles. No red on crown.

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus. Tickell’s Golden-backed Woodpecker.

Less common than the former.

Mulleripicus pulverulentus. Great Slaty Woodpecker.

Sparsely distributed in the jungle, but its distinctive cry is not uncommon.
-Sasia ochracea. Rufous Piculet.

Common locally in the low ground.

. Jynx torquilla. Wryneck.

One 27 Sep., one 25 Nov. Mayu Peninsula.

FAMILY : CAPITONIDAE,
Cyanops viridis. Lineated Barbet.
Common in the low ground. ©

C. asiatica. Blue-throated Barbet, | : a ree
Common in the hills.

22 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

C. duvaucelii. Blue-eared Barbet.
Fairly common in hill jungle.
Xantholaema haemacephala. Coppersmith.
Very local and scarce except at Akyab.
ORDER: COCCYGES
FAMILY : CUCULIDAE.
Cuculus micropterus. Indian Cuckoo.

Common in winter. Earliest 7 Oct. Heard in April.

Hierococcyx varius. Common Hawk-Cuckoo.

Less common in winter. Heard in April.

Cacomantis merulinus. Plaintive Cuckoo.

Sparsely resident. All had lower parts russet, white.
Clamator jacobinus. Pied Crested Cuckoo.

One 25 May 1944.

C. coromandus. Red-winged Crested Cuckoo.

Fairly common in winter.

Eudynamis scolopaceus. Koel.

Scarce and local.

Rhopodytes tristis. Large Green-billed Malkoha.
- Fairly common.

Centropus sinensis. Crow Pheasant.

Common.
ORDER: PSITTACI.

FAMILY: PSITTACIDAE.

Psittacula eupatria. Large Parakeet.
Scarce and local.

P. krameri. Green Parakeet.

Very common.

P. cyanocephala. Blossom-headed Parakeet.

Generally scarce and locally migratory, but very common in Mar. and Apr.
at Ruywa.

P, fasciatus. Orange-breasted Parakeet.

The most’ common after the Green Parakeet.

Loriculus vernalis. Loriquet.
“Common.

ORDER: ANISODACTYLI.
FAMILY : CORACIADAE.

Coracias benghalensis. Roller,
One in thick jungle Oct,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS. OF ARAKAN ANL THE YOMAS
Eurystomus orientalis. Broad-billed Roller.
Common in open woodland.

Family: MEROPIDAE.

Merops orientalis. Green Bee-eater.

Very common.

M. superciliosus. Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Breeds in May and June. Locally migratory. Family party in Oct.

Kalapanzin Valley. Very common at Akyab in April.

M, leschenaulti. -Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.
Resident but locally migratory.

Melittophegus erythrocephalus. Bronze-capped Bee-eater.

Appears to be a winter visitor.

Bucia athertoni. Blue-bearded Bee-eater.

in’

Scarce. Nests in May. Resident and found nesting on summit of Mayu

Range at 1,850 ft. in Oct.

FamiLy : ALCEDINIDAE.

Ceryle rudis. Pied Kingfisher.

Fairly common on the tidal chaungs and estuaries.

Alcedo atthis. Common Kingfisher.

Very common.

Ramphalcyon capensis. Stork-billed Kingfisher.

- Scarce and confined to flooded rice fields and inland pools.

‘R. amauroptera. Brown-winged Kingfisher.

Locally distributed in tidal chaungs and swamps Not north of Dalet

Chaung, and never noted at fresh water.

Halcyon smyrnensis. White-breasted Kingfisher.
Very common.

H. chloris. | White-collared Kingfisher.
Common in tidal chaungs.

H. pileata. Black-capped Kingfisher.

Common in tidal chaungs.

FAMILY : BUCEROTIDAE.
Dichoceros bicornis. Great Hornbill,

Fairly common.

Anthracoceros coronatus. Pied Hornbill.

Rather rare.

FAMILY : UPUPIDAE.
Upupa epops. Indian Hoopoe.
Fairly common on passage and in winter. Absent jn the monsoon. |

24 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

ORDER: MACROCHIRES.
FaMILy : MICROPODIDAE.

Micropus affinis. Indian Swift.

Fairly common in winter.

Cypsiurus parvus batassiensis. Eastern Palm Swift.

Fairly common in winter.

Chaetura gigantea. Brown-throated Spinetail.
Flocks in thick jungle on Mayu Range.

FAMILY : CAPRIMULGIDAE.

Caprimulgus asiaticus. Indian Nightjar.
$
Uncommon. I have only heard it in April and early May when it utters
a *Tuk-tuk-tuk-tuk-chirrh !’
C. macrurus. Horsfield’s Nightjar.

Its monotonous ‘Chunk-chunk’ is a very common sound Mar-May. Resident.

Lyncornis macrotis. Great-eared Nightjar.

One pair observed at dusk for several evenings in Mar. at Ruywa, looking
rather like harriers, and uttering a call on the wing like ‘Pee-wheeoo-wheeoo-
wheeoo’ repeated a variable number of times, followed by a protracted quavering
whistle ending in a cadence. This was varied by a repetition of ‘Hee-ho-hee-ho-
hee-ho,’ the ‘ho’ being a semitone lower than the ‘hee.’ Also heard at Myebon
in Feb.

ORDER: STRIGES.

FAMILY : STRIGIDAE.

Strix ocellatum. Mottled Wood Owl.

- Common.

Bubo ketupa. Brown Fish Owl.

Sparsely distributed, but not uncommon.

B. coromandus. Dusky Eagle Owl.

Often heard and seen sitting on the tracks at night.

Otus sunia. Burmese Scops Owl.

‘Tonk tonk ka-tonk’ is the commonest owl sound in Arakan.

0. bakkamoena. Collared Scops Owl.

Appears scarce and local. Nests in Apr. Utters a dismal ‘whoo’ at intervals.

0. spilocephalus. Eastern Spotted Scops Owl.

Fairly common. Utters a double whistle which is usually answered after
an interval.

Athene brama. Spotted Owlet.

Common in the low ground.

Glaucidium radiatum. Jungle Owlet.
Fairly common in the jungles and high open forest.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF ARAKAN AND THE YOMAS 25

ORDER: ACCIPITRES,
FAMILY : PANDIONIDAE.

Pandion haliaetus. Osprey.
A straggler in small numbers singly, in winter, to River Nat. Earliest
27 August.

FAMILY : VULTURIDAE.

Gyps indicus. Long-billed Vulture.

y
Very common.

Pseudogyps bengalensis. White-backed Vulture.

Scarce and appears migratory. It is absent May to Oct.

Sarcogyps calyus. King Vulture.

Common.

FAMILY : FALCONIDAE.

Aquila clanga. Greater Spotted Eagle.

Several observed in winter. Very tame and often allowed an approach to
10-15 yds.

Circaétus ferox. Short-toed Eagle.
One obtained Myebon in Jan.

Spliornis cheela. Crested Serpent Eagle.

Common.

Haliaétus leucoryphus. Pallas’s Fishing Eagle.

Local and uncommon.

H. leucogasier. White-beilied Sea Eagle.

Common.
Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus. Large Grey-headed Fishing Eagle.
Occasionally seen in winter.

Haliastur indus. Brahminy Kite.

Common.

Milvus migrans govinda. Pariah Kite.

Common but very few remain in the monsoon.

Elanus caeruieus. Black-winged Kite.
Very tame. Hovers like a kestrel. Winter visitor to Akyab.

Circus macrourus. Pale Harrier.
Common winter visitor. Arrives Nov.

C. melanoleucus. Pied Harrier.
Arives 1 Oct. Fairly common in the coastal plain and islands,

C. aeruginosus. Marsh Harrier.
Common winter visitor.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Astur badius. Shikra.

Common. : |

Falco peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon. a aos ote |

Winter visitor in small numbers. Latest 4 Apr.

Falco severus. Hobby.

Winter straggler. Two observed.

F, tinnunculus. Kestrel.

Winter visitor in some numbers to Mayu Valley. Scarce elsewhere.

ORDER: COLUMBAE,

FAMILY : COLUMBIDAE.

Crocopus phoenicopterus. Common Green Pigeon.

Common in flocks.

Treron pompadora. Ashy-headed Green Pigeon.

Common in the Yomas: A few shot at Ruywa.

T. bicincta. Orange-breasted Green Pigeon.

Common in flocks. The most common of all.

T. curvirostra. Thick-billed Green Pigeon. _

_ Scarce.

Ducuia aenea. Green Imperial Pigeon.

Usually seen in pairs. Fairly common.

Chalcophaps indica. Emerald Dove.

Common in the shadiest jungle.

Columba livia. Blue Rock Pigeon.
Rather scarce and local. ™“~

Alsocomus puniceus. Purple Woodpigeon.
One 17 Nov. and one § Dec. in thick tree jungle. Very shy.

Streptopelia risoria. Ring Dove.

Appears very scarce and local. Absent in the monsoon. One shot at Ruywa
Mar. A few seen at Maungdaw in Feb.

S. orientalis. Rufus Turtle Dove.

Scarce and local. A few shot at Akyab in Jan.

S. chinensis. Spotted Dove.

Very common.

Oenopopelia tranquebarica. Red Turtle Dove.

Common locally. Often in large flocks till May. Absent in the monsoon.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF ARAKAN AND THE YOMAS 27

ORDER: GALLINAE.
FAMILY : PHASIANIDAE.

Gallus gallus. Red Jungle Fowl. =

Common everywhere.
Gennaeus horsfieldi. Black-breasted Khalij.
Fairly common even at sea _ level.

Arborophila rufogularis. Arakan Hill Partridge.

A few were reported in the lower Yomas.

Excalfactoria chinensis. Blue-breasted Quail.

Common singly.
ORDER: GRALLAE.
FAMILY: RALLIDAE.

Amaurornis akool. Brown Crake.

Fairly common.

A. fuscus. Ruddy Crake.

Common.

A. phoenicurus. White-breasted Waterhen,

Common.

Gailin ula chloropus. Waterhen.
Very local.

Gallicrex cinerea. Water Cock.

Scarce and very. shy.

Porphyrio poliocephalus. Purple Coot.
Two or three at Royal Lake Akyab in winter.

FAMILY : GRUIDAE.

Grus grus. Common Crane.
Two 4 Nov. Three 26 Mar.

ORDER: LIMICOLAE.
FAMILY : GLAREOLIDAE.

Glareola pratincola. Large Indian Pratincole.

Flock 27 Oct. Common and locally migrant. Breeds early among the
dunes in Mar. and Apr. on Ramree and at Akyab.

FAMILY : JACANIDAE.

Metopidius indicus. Bronze-winged Jacana.
Common in suitable spots.

Hydrophasianus chirurgus. Pheasant-tailed Jacana.
Very scarce and local.

28 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

FAMILY : ROSTRATULIDAE.

Rostratula benghalensis. Painted Snipe.
Very local. Resident.

FAMILY : BURHINIDAE.

Burhinus oedicnemus. Stone Curlew.

Ramree and Akyab in the dry west coast scrub. Rare and absent in the’
monsoon.

FAMILY > CHARADRIIDAE. i

Arenaria interpres. Turnstone.
Large flocks on the coast on passage. Winter visitor to Ramree.

Squatarola squatarola. Grey Plover.
Scarce winter visitor. A pair in breeding plumage at Ramree 30 Apr.

Haematopus ostralegus. Ovystercatcher.
A few each winter Akyab, St. Martin’s Island, Ramree.

Charadrius alexandrinus. Kentish Plover.

Scarce. One or two flocks which arrive in Nov. and leave in Mar. Latest
4 Apr.

C.dubius. Little Ringed Plover.

Common.

C. mongolus. Lesser Sand Plover.

Very common on the coast and on the mud flats in winter.
C. leschenaultii. Large Sand Plover.
Common winter visitor.

Pluvialis dominica. Golden Plover.

Very common winter visitor. Starts to arrive 25 Aug. Leaves in Apr.
Latest 8 May.

Hoplopterus duvaucellii. Indian Spur-winged Plover.

An odd pair or single bird usually seen where there are sand banks on

the river.

Lobivanellus indicus. Red-wattled Lapwing. k
Common.

Microsarcops cinereus. (irey-headed Lapwing.
Small parties late Oct. Winter visitor till Apr.

Numenius arquata. Curlew.
Common winter visitor. Arrives Sep. Leaves as late as May.

N. phoeopus. Whimbrel. |
Common. : Arrives later than the last, and leaves earlier.

Limosa limosa. Black-tailed Godwit. AP goes
Several shot last week in Apr, feeding on paddy at Akyab,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF ARAKAN AND THE YOMAS 29

Terekia cinereus. Terek Sandpiper.

Common. Flocks in Apr. on the coast. Most of those shot in Jan.-Apr.
had drab legs, but some had orange. :

Tringa ochropus. Green Sandpiper.

Common. An early winter arrival.

T. stagnatilis. Marsh Sandpiper.

Common winter visitor.

T. hypoleucus. Common Sandpiper.
Very common in winter. Only absent from May to Aug.

T. glareola, Wood Sandpiper.
Very common in winter, and numbers pass through up to early May.

T. totanus. Redshank.

Common. An early winter arrival in small flocks. Stays into May.

T. erythropus. Spotted Redshank.

One 15 January. One 12 March on the coast.

T.nebularia. Greenshank.

Common singly and in pairs. An early winter arrival.

Erolia minuta. Little Stint.

Common. A late winter arrival, not being seen before November. Leaves
in late April and early May.

E. temminckii. Temminck’s Stint.

One 15 November.

Calidris tenuirostris. Eastern Knot.

Scarce winter visitor to the coast.

Scolopax rusticola. Woodcock.
Three together on 16 March on Ramree.

Capella gallinago. Common Snipe.

Common winter visitor, but practically mone are shot before 1 November
or after 1 April. In October out of 54 shot 48 were stenwra and>only 6
gallinago. In November out of 51 shot 48 were gallinago and 3 stenura.

C. stenura. Pintail Snipe.

Very common. An early winter arrival, appearing in small numbers about
15 August and gradually increasing till November. Stragglers still seen 15
May.

ORDER: GAVIAE.
FAMILY: LARIDAE.

Larus ichthyaetus. Great Black-headed Gull.

Often an odd one about the River Naf in winter. 20 seen near Foul Point

in January. Small parties seen near Ramree and Baronga Island from time
to time. ;

30 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46
L. brunnelcephalus. Brown-headed Gull.
Very common winter visitor but a late arrival. November to Many.

Chlidonias hybrida. Whiskered Tern.

A few on passage only.

Gelochelidon nilotica. Gull-billed Tern.

Common singly on the River Naf in winter only.

Sterna aurantia. Common River Tern.

Common, but absent September and October when presumably it is breeding.

S. bergii. Large Crested Tern.

Common. Breeds on St. Martin’s Island.

S. albifrons, Little Tern.
One 10 April. One 6 December. ‘Three 3 April.

ORDER: STEGANOPODES.

FAMILY : PELECANIDAE.
Pelecanus roseus. Spotted-billed Pelican.
Odd ones usually frequent the River Naf all the year round.
FAMILY PHALACROCORACIDAE.

Phalacrococorax carbo. Large Cormorant.
One shot 2 November. One 29 April. No others seen.

P, niger, Little Cormorant.
Common. Breeds in August and September.

Anhinga melanogaster, Indian Darter.
Very uncommon in spite of suitable localities.
ORDER: HERODIONES.
FaMILy:; IBIDIDAE.

Threskiornis melanocephalus. White Ibis.

Common.

Pseudibis papillosus. Black Ibis.
Uncommon. I know of only one small nesting colony near Tumbru.

FAMILY : PLATALEIDAE.

Platalea leucorodia. Spoonbill.

Stragglers in winter only. One 5 January. One 21 Jan.
FAMILY : CICONIDAE.

Dissoura episcopus, White-necked Stork.

Common in small parties and singly.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS .OF ARAKAN AND THE YOMAS 3t

Xenorhynchus asiaticus. Black-necked Stork.
Large flocks pass over going South in October. Stragglers remain in winter.
Leptoptilos dubius. Adjutant.

Scarce. Stragglers in winter. _

L. javanicus. Lesser Adjutant.
Common in winter. .
Ibis leucocephalus. Painted Stork.

Usually one or two about the River Naf and Kaladan delta in autumn
and spring.

Anastomus oscitans. Open-bill Stork.
A flock of 40 going South 2 November. over Maungdaw. Odd ones seen
in winter.
FaMILy : ARDEIDAE.
Ardea purpurea. Purple Heron.

Common in the mangrove swamps in winter.

A. cinerea. Common Grey Heron.

Winter visitor arriving November.

A. Sumatrana. Dusky Green Heron.
Fairly common in the creeks in mangrove swamps.

Egretta alba. Large Egret.
Common.

E. intermedia. Smaller Egret.
Scarce.

E. garzetta. Little Egret.
Very common.
Bubulcus ibis. Cattle Egret.
Rather scarce and local. Parties arrive about 1 October and winter, leay-
ing in April.
- Demiegretta asha. Reef Heron.

Grey phase usual but one of white variety seen. Common on the Dalet
Chaung.

Ardeola grayi. Paddy Bird.

Very common.

Butorides striatus. Little Green Heron.
Haunts jungle streams in the Yoma foothills.
Nycticorax nycticorax. Night Heron.

Fairly common. Party of 20 disturbed from trees during the landing at
Myebon in January. Also seen at Ruywa.

Ixobrychus sinensis. Yellow Bittern.
Very local, but resident and nests in September in reed-beds near the coast.

32 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46
1, cinnamomeus. Chestnut Bittern.
Common in the coastal plain.
Dupetor flayicollis, Black Bittern.
Common in the coastal plain.
ORDER: ANSERES.
FAMILY : ANATIDAE.

Sarkidiornis melanotus, Nukta.
Very local. One 12 December Nhila.

Nettapus coromandelianus. Cotton Teal.

Fairly common in suitable spots.

Dendrocygna javanica. Lesser Whistling Teal.

Common in flocks of up to 4o birds. y:

D. fulva. Larger Whistling Teal.

Scarce. Usually seen in pairs.

Casarca ferruginea. Ruddy Sheldrake.

Fairly common winter visitor.. Does not arrive till end of November.

Tadorna tadorna., Sheldrake.
One flock of 7 going South 2 November.

Anas penelope. Wigeon.

An erratic passage migrant only. Not seen 1943-44 but huge. flocks seen

flying North over Dalet Chaung in first half February 1945.

A. crecca. Common Teal.

Common November to April. First arrivals 10 October.

A. querquedula. Garganey.

Rather scarce winter visitor with Common Teal.

A. acuta. Pintail.

Enormous flocks arrive in December and leave early March. They frequent
inaccessible mangrove swamps by day, and feed in the shallow weedy fresh

water pools at night. Stragglers arrive from mid-October.

A. clypeata. Shoveller.
Winter visitor in small numbers.
Nyroca nyroca. White-eye.

N. baeri. Bayer’s Pochard.

A fair number pass through on passage in November and December,

again in February and March. Those shot had dark brown head with a green-

ish sheen (baeri), but I have reports of the typical race too.
ORDER: PYGOPODES,
FAMILY PODICIPIDAE.

Podiceps ruficollis. Littie Grebe.

Very common on the scanty fresh water pools along the coastal belt.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER
SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

BY
A. ST. J. MACDONALD.

(With 16 text-figures)
ParRT UX.
(Continued from page 507 of volume 45).

Dont’s and Do’s about Rods (1). Fast Joints (2). Rods when out of
use (3). Reels (4). Line Drier (5). Keeping swivels and split rings (6).
Keeping large hooks (7). Killin wire (8). Gut (9). Wire for Mounts (10). Spoons.
made from old pots and pans (11). How to prepare atta or dough (12).
Dressing lines with tallow (13). Dressing sea lines (14). Keeping dressed
lines (15). Treating tacky lines (16). Rod and tackle varnish (17). Cob-
blers’ wax (18). Steadying a boat. (19). Releasing hook hold in rapid .
water (20). How to weigh Giant Fish (21). Weighing fish with two or more
scales (22). Calculating the weights of fish (23). Picking dead bait (24).

~ Catching live bait (25). Determining the age of fish (26). Spikes for boots.

(27). Leeches and ticks (28). Maps (29). Rod cases (30). Clearing drink-
ing water (31). Trophies of fish (32). Catching frogs for bait (33). Biting
flies and how to evade them (34). Soldering Traces *(35). Marking fish (36).
Poaching (37). Butterflies (38). To soften butterfly’s wings (39). Fish dis-
playing temper (40). Record Mahseer (41). Thermometer (42). Photography
(43). Formalin (44). Borax (45). Tackle Boxes (46) Fishing stools (47).
Best Books on Fishing and Sport in India (48). Newman & Co. Calcutta (49).
Sealing Wax (50). Enamel Paint (51). Packing and carriage of fish (52).
Protecting flies from the ravages of insects (53). Dying Gut (54). Manu-
facture of Silk Worm gut (55). Knots for tying Gut, Flies, Hooks and Lines.
(56). Nylon for Casts (57). Garters (58). Ankle Puttees (59). Sore Toes
and Feet (60). Sun Burn (61). Glare Glasses (62). Topee (63). Jacket (64).
Tackle Outfit (65). To Skin and Preserve a Mahseer (66). Medical (67).
Medicine (68). Wounds (69). Foul Hook (70). Bleeding (71). Blisters. (72).
Boils (73). Stings. Scorpion Stings (74). Septic Wounds from Tiger and
Panther (75). Fever (76). Drowning (77). Addendum to Chapter ‘Scraps from
-my note book’ (78). Hardy’s gut, wire, hooks etc. .

t. Don’ts and Do’s about Rods.—Don’t put a rod away in a damp
cover, or tops in damp cases. Don’t use vaseline or oil on rod
ferrules; tallow, raw mutton fat, or soap are the best lubricants.
Don’t tie rod cover tapes tightly when putting a rod away for
any length of time. Don’t hold the wood, or cane when putting
a rod together; grip the metal ferrules in turning the rod joints
or when pulling them apart.

_ Get your rod overhauled at the end of a season, or coat it
over with varnish yourself; it will give you endless service if you do.

2. Fast joints.—If, as so often happens, ferrules get stuck a
good tip in the first instance is to get two pieces of rubber (the
inner tube of a car or motor cycle cut up does excellently), and
wrap them around the joints, this will give you a good purchase,
and will generally work the deed. Should this not prove success-
ful, then heat the ferrule with a candle flame (BUT WELL Away

34 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

FROM THE LASHING), until it is too hot to touch, pour cold

water over the joints when with the aid of the rubber it should
come away. In case of an extremely tight joint a small pair of
gas pliers will grip one socket without damage, and so enable the
most obstinate of joints to be drawn apart. ;

3. Rods when out of use.—Hang up rods when not in use on
a wall free from damp, and in a room that is in constant use, your
dressing room for instance, so that they can be frequently looked
over. Be careful to keep the plugs in, or a ‘mason wasp’ will plug
it for you! : 7

4. Reels.—Keep nuts and screws tight while in use, and look
them over daily, or better still, after each run by a fish. One sinall
screw lost, may put the whole reel out of action for the trip, un-
less you have spares. It is the hardest worked item of the outfit,
and one which tackle makers have much to learn about and improve.
Carry spare springs, ratchets and screws.

Fig. 1.—Line Drier.

5. Line: Drer.—Vhe.four sides A. B. ‘C. D. come-apart, alse
the 4 stays connecting A. & B. and C. & D. When built up as
in sketch, the handle and spindle E. is put through and keeps the
frame together by a pin through the hole at top end of spindle,
the handle is held in the left hand and the small handle F. on B.
is the winding handle. Line can be cleared off a reel in a few
moments. The size of the arm is 18 inches and width 6 inches.
A. and B. are dove-tailed to. take C. and D. inside at. point of
intersection. Many other forms are also offered by tackle dealers.

6. Keeping swivels and split rings.—I have found the best and
most convenient way of keeping all small gear, like swivels, split
rings, small hooks, etc., is by making use of small bottles and tins,
putting them into these with oil. They keep for ever and save many
a disappointment.

7. Keeping large hooks.—Hooks, and large or small trebles,
keep best put into a tin with grease and the lid closed down. They
are an expensive item and worth this additional trouble.

8. Killin wire.—Killin wire for traces, unless kept well oiled,
will rust and many a spoon will be lost. This can be avoided by

CIRCUMVENTING FHE-MAHSEER ~~ 38:

wrapping a small strip of flannel dipped in oil around the reel of
wire.

Gut.—Gut kept in flannel dipped in glycerine, will keep fresh, ‘
and will last for several seasons. . at
- 40. Wire for Mounts.—Cheap galvanised wire procurable in
any bazar, or off a whisky case, makes excellent mounts for large’
spoons. (See chapter V, under ‘Tackle’).

1. Spoons made from old pots and pans.—Old cooking pots of |
copper, aluminium, or brass, make up into most useful spoons.
These .can be made up in any bazar ata quarter of: the price one
has to pay in tackle shops.

12. How to prepare atta or dough.—The best way to prepare
atta, so that it sticks on one’s sehoot in running water, is to have
it first kneaded into a fairly thick mass, wrap a piece of fine cloth
around it, then put into a pot and boil for a few moments, in this
can be included any fancy smelly ingredients. Take out and knead
until it is sticky and soft.

13. Dressing lines with tallow.—Plaited lines dipped in melted
tallow make excellent spinning and casting lines. Coil the line into
a convenient. sized pot, with enough tallow to cover the line (a
couple of tallow candles), when the tallow has melted, dip the
line in for a couple of minutes, or until the tallow starts setting.
Take the coil of line out, and with a flannel rag work a couple
of yards at a time with the fingers, until it gets warm to the touch,
move on to the next couple of yards and so on. This will give
you excellent results, as it prevents the line swelling and does not
rot the line. The more work you put in with the fingers the better
is the result. Another good dressing, which also floats a line,
consists.of one ounce clean bees wax and one ounce (liquid mea-.
sure) vegetable oil. Warm the bees wax and mix; treat line as:
for tallow dressing. 3

14. Dressing sea: lines.—Stockholm Tar 2 ounces, methylated
spirits 20 ounces, dissolve until well mixed. Coil line in a wide
mouthed glass jar, pour in the mixture. Keep jar tightly closed
for 48 to 60 hours. Then remove line and hang up to dry. Mixture
will keep and .can be used again. Sea lines, whether dressed in this
way or not, should every day be washed in fresh water after use. .

Synthetic resin glues, one of the discoveries of the War, form a
bond of enduring strength, and is used in its different formulas to
bond metal to metal or metal to wood or wood or metal to rubber,
etc. It is as yet in its infancy so far as the household uses are
known, but of its efficiency we may only look at the Mosquito,
one of the best kites in the air today; all wood and bonded by this
synthetic discovery. Here are some names to keep in mind, and
watch out for their commercialization.

| PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE GLUE, Champion of all in waterproofing
qualities, it is derived from phenol which is carbolic acid. It has
stood six years of soaking at the Forest Products Laboratories in
‘the U.S. and showed no more deterioration tnan the wood it join-
ed. Once set no amount of heat:can melt. it. Other names to
keep in mind are MELAMINE, UREA, RESORCINOL, and: FURANE.

36 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

But the glue that is likely to prove the Angler’s friend is PENa-
CoLitE G 1131 and CascopHTEN Rs 216. These are made by
the Pennsylvania Coal Products Co., Petrolia, and Casein Co., of
America, respectively. Both these phenolic-type resins set without
heat, which is of the utmost importance as it permits of use without
access to: special equipment found. only in factories. It brings its
use within the scope of the layman and amateur craftsman. This
glue is a liquid that will set at room temperature—from 75 degrees
F. upwards after the correct catalyst is added. It is claimed to be
far superior to cold-setting UREA resins that have been in wide
usage for several years. Not only is it more waterproof ‘but it
requires less critical technique in handling. It remains immune to
heat, humidity or wetting (a consideration in the varied Indian
climate).

CyCLEWELD made by Chrysler Motors and PLIOBOND made by
Goodyear Tyre and Rubber Co. are two of the better known com-
pounds used for bonding rubber and wood or metal.

REANITE, METLBOND, and REDUx are other adhesives of that type.
Synthetic resin glues are turned out as powders, liquids, emulsions,
and films. Cold-setting resin powder of the UREa type is sold
across the counter and available in hardware and paint stores. It
is used by mixing with water.

Cold-setting phenolic liquid is expected to be offered to the
general public in small packages shortly in America.

There must be the equivalent in as many makes in England
or Britain but I have no details. Rod makers of repute will be
closely interested, and quick to take advantage of this new dis-
covery.

15. Keeping dressed lines.—An aluminium cigar-drier makes an
excellent jar for keeping dressed lines, likely to get tacky, or in
fact for any lines during the monsoon.

16. Treating tacky lines.—Most waterproof lines, so excellent in

the English climate, get sticky. and tacky out here, in a season. |

This can in most cases. be cured in ‘Lime Water’ (sold by all
chemists). a ek ee : Rah ve

Put the lime water into a wide bowl or cooking pot, then put
the tacky line in, coil by coil, so that it does not adhere, and
prevent the liquid getting to parts on the surface. Allow it to
soak in this over night (it does not damage the line), take the
line out, remove as much liquid from the line, as you can, and
hang out in a shady spot to dry. It is a good thing when dry
to rub the line over with Ceroline or any animai fat. This should
restore the line to its original texture.

17. Rod and tackle varnish.—Shellac and spirits of wine. make
an excellent varnish which dries soon after use. Shellac can be
purchased in flake form in most bazars. Put flakes into a bottle and
add spirits to give the required thickness. It melts in a couple
of hours and no further treatment is necessary. Turpentine var-
nishes are also excelleht, but take longer to dry. Cutex nail polish
also makes a good varnish.

18. Cobbler’s wax.—A mixture of equal parts of bees wax, lard
and turpentine, make an excellent cobbler’s wax.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER BF,

19. Steadying a boat.—A good tip when only a light boat is
obtainable, is to tie two’ or more large bamboos on either side
along the whole length of the boat, they have a most steadying
effect and prevent the boat rolling or taking in water while shoot-
ing a rapid. This is practised by the Shans and: Kachins with
good results in the upper waters of the Irrawaddy.

20. Releasing hook hold in rapid water.—The spoon is often
caught up in snags and rocks in a rapid-where a boat cannot go.
A good dodge is to attach the line to a piece of bamboo or small
forked branch by a running loop. Get above the spot where you
are hung up, and. release the bamboo, so that it will pass over
where you are snagged. Give plenty of line, and as often as not,
when the bamboo passes over or gets below where your hook is
fast, it will come away. An excellent tackle release—vouched for
by a correspondent who has used it a great deal, is a three-quarter
inch piece fairly hard wood four inches in diameter, with a _ be-
velled hole through the centre, this hole big enough to aliow larg-
est sinker used to pass through. Outside edge of disc should be
rounded: and the wood. be sand papered and painted white. The
disc is slipped on the line by means of a V slit cut to centre hole
and stopped by a smoothly and accurately fitting wedge. The disc
on reaching the water works its way to where the bait is fast and
the action of the water releases the hook. It ‘works’ in most
cases; but not, of course, if the hook is in a ‘snag’. Cost is_ nil,
it is nearly always recovered as when a break away has to be made
it floats and can be chased and collected by an attendant. It is
worth its weight in gold as a saver of tackle.

21. How to weigh giant fish.—Cut two bamboos of equal length
Nemandurbs. fixe them im the
ground so that they give you
a clearance of a foot at least,
above the length of your fish.
Slot these bamboos to take a
third across C. Now mark
off the centre of the bamboo
C, and from here’ suspend
your fish. With spring bal-
ance hook on one end, lift
bamboo C and as soon as it
moves take your reading.

This doubled will give you
the weight of your fish. |!
have tested this method and
found it works out exact with
weighed fish. It would only
be used on fish with greater
weight than your scale _ regis-
WEI Fig. .2.—Weighing giant fish.

22. Weighing fish with two
or more scales.—The following is from the Rod in India and is
produced here for information.

33 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

‘When I bought my fishing tackle, I thought a spring balance weighing
up.to 32 ibs. was big enough for any man. But one fine day I had the mis-
fortune to catch a mahseer well over that weight, and, of course I was parti-
‘ cularly anxious to know its exact weight. I had in camp two spring balances
weighing respectively up to 28 and 32 lbs. I passed a stout cord through. the
rings of the two, and suspended them from above. Then a cord attached te
the fish and passed over the two hooks suspended the fish simultaneously from
them both. Reading off the weight indicated by the’two instruments and adding
them together, the result was the weight of the fish, 46 lbs. If neither of the
springs is pulled down beyond its power of springing, the total’ is bound to be
accurate. I have tested it.’ ;

23. Calculating the weights of fish.—By the common formula
laid down in ‘‘The Angler’s Hand Book’’, I have not found this
work out consistently on the large fish. I have reproduced here

four examples, in which only one is really anywhere near correct,
still if no other means are available, it gives the approximate weight.

Examples.

Length and one-third length x Girth squared in . inches
OOO Saas icine

= weight

of fish.

Rivett Carnac’s record mahseer of 11g lbs was oH) inches: in

length and 42 inches in girth. Example:— :
(64 tah) x 422) «149940
1000GNs 000%

My three best fish, all healthy and game, work out as follows :—-
Weight 75. lbs. Length 50 inches, girth 34 inches, according to
formula works out to 72 Ibs. Three pounds short of actual.

Weight 50 lbs. Length 564 inches, girth 28 inches, works out
to 58 lbs. 8 pounds in excess of actual.

Weight 44 lbs. Length 52 inches, girth 264 inches, works out
to 48 lbs. 4 pounds in excess of actual. It is stated to me
by a correspondent that such a formula is accurate to a pound if
the measurement of length is to fork of ile tail and one quarter

L+iLxG An
1000 is a goo Ce

= 149. 20 lbs. in eXcess.

and not one-third is taken e.g

Brother Anglers may try it out for themselves.

24. Pickling dead bait.—Before inserting in the formalin solu-
tion, cut off the fins, all except the anal fin. When the fish
begin to stiffen in the solution, the required sideways bend
should be given to the tail: some to right: some to left. This
bend cannot be given after the fish are stiff. Only actual practice
will teach the angler the correct strength of formalin to use. If
too strong the fish will be white; the weakest solution compatible
with preservation will give the best results. The following two
recipes for preserving minnows as spinning bait, are taken from
the Fishing Gazette, with acknowledgements :—

t. ‘Kill the minnows in a solution of formalin and water. In 24 hours or
thereabouts, wash the.minnow under the tap, in order to take as much of the
smell ‘of formalin out as possible, then place them. in a wide-mouthed jar. Dis-
solye sugar and water and pour it. over the, minnows, leave the lot exposed to

‘the air; in a week or so smell the minnows to see if the formalin taint has
disappeared ; sugar and water in which they are may ‘be kept for months.’

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 39

‘Minnows ‘preserved for use as spinning bait should be free from the smell
of cee Satvaltive. Salted specimens are good, but not so well suited to the purpose
as those prepared by the following method: <F ormalin as sold to the public is
acid and for our purpose should be non-acid. The necessary change can. be
eftected by adding a pinch of baking powder to an oz. of formalin. Keep~ the
minnows alive for 48 “hours in a basin of water to which has been added a.
teaspoon of common salt; this will reduce the size of their bellies. Kill by a
flick on head with finger ‘nail and place in a bottle to be tightly closed (Prune
jar excellent) in which is: distilled water 99 parts, non-acid formalin one part.
After a few days change the solution. The fish will keep for a long period.
When required for use remove any smell of formalin there:may be, by washing
in salt water; and if possible, to/make quite certain, mix the prepared minnows
with fresh ones and all smell will disappear: If the baits are large, they can
have a bend given them te assist spinning. This bend they will retain.’

About a dessert spoon full of formalin to a pint of water is enough
for small baits. The more formalin, the more difficult te: get rid
of the smell; so use it as weak as suffices to preserve the min-
nows in the first instance. The sugar solution should be. weak,
merely a thickish fluid, the formalin makes the minnows tough
and if too strong, turns the eyes white, and takes the colour
out. of the fish. If the sugar solution is too strong, it is apt to
shrivel the bait. The minnows are not ready to transfer to the
sugar and water until they are firm to the feel, and rubbery to
the touch. Sometimes .a-scum comes on to the top of the sugar
solution, but this does not matter and is caused by not completely
covering the fish with the solution. When required for use, a few
fish can be taken out, washed, and carried in a tin box, surplus
minnows being returned to the solution at the end of the day..

Several fish can. be killed on the same minnow. The formalin
solution should be 2 per cent or one part formalin to 49 parts water.

There are other ways too of pickling dead bait, but I think the
latter of these two is the simplest and the most convenient as well
as the best.

Taint of preservative of any kind will be removed from prepared baits by

smearing them with Pilchard oil (doubtless Sardine oil equally effective).”’
—Fishing Gazette 6-8-1921.

Another method of preserving fish, is to place the chilwa on a
board with the tails curved by means of pins. These are then
painted with a strong solution of formalin (3 teaspoons formalin
to 2 tablespoons water). After ten minutes the baits are absolute-
ly set, and are then placed in a jar containing two tablespoons
of formalin per pint of water. In three days the baits become
rubbery and hard. Once the baits have become saturated with
formalin, they can be carried dry during a fishing trip.

3 Catching live bait.—In a running stream, if you are unable
to catch small fish for bait, a useful tip is to dig a small channel
a few inches across and a couple of inches deep, and connect it
a few yards above into a small pool where fish can be seen. - In
this run put some atta, tied up in a cloth so that it runs down
mixed with the water. This should be done at night. Early next
morning, the channel should be closed at-both ends; you will be
unlucky if you are not provided: with bait -for that day. It is
not always possible to dig-.a channel. If-there is-a fall, erect a small
platform with cloth or. fine net.and arrange your atta in the. same

40 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

way, so that it washes through to the pool below. The small fish
will jump to get up to better feeding, and get caught on the plat-
form. It should be erected low enough to catch jumping fish,
but should not hold water, or they will jump out again. This
‘method can_also be applied from a boat, by erecting your trap
over one side, and holding a lantern on the edge. Fish have a
strong curiosity for lights. If no suitable small stream is near by,
and there are only large pools, get a basket:and cover it over with
a fine cloth, lower the basket into the water until it is covered by
about ten inches of water, in it should be put rice atta or any
other suitable bait. Make a few holes in the cloth so that the
bait can run out and fish go in. Fish find their way in and get
trapped.

26. Determining g the age of fish. (From the Scientific American) :

‘The age of a fish can be determined with accuracy by inspection of the oto-
liths or bony concretions, which are found in the auditory apparatus. The oto-
liths increase in size during the entire life of a fish, each year adding two layers,
a light coloured one formed in summer and a dark one formed in autumn and
winter. The alternate layers are sharply contrasted and very distinct, so there

is no difficulty in counting them. The number of pairs of layers is equal to the
number of years a fish has lived.’

27. Spikes for boots.—Whiteaway Laidlaw & Co., Calcutta, sell
excellent screws for boots called ‘Plus Four Screws’. Rowe & Co.,
Rangoon, also stock excellent studs sold with a punch and screw-
ing device complete. A very handy and cheap addition to one’s
fishing kit.

28. Leeches and ticks.—Never pull off a tick or leech, one is
seldom without matches and an attendant. Burn a leech with the
flame of a match, by holding its body away and applying the flame,

it will at once leave go. For a tick, too small to burn, heat ‘

a pin point and touch it with it. Here are one or two sug-
gestions as a precautionary measure against these pests. When
there is no wading to be done, a strong infusion of tobacco leaves
with addition of salt is effective, and does equally well for master
and his bare legged followers. Wear two pairs of stockings wool-
len below and a pair of cotton stockings soaked in the mixture
above. _ The wearing of a high spat well damped in kerosine and
worn over woollen and cotton stockings, as above, will keep off
leeches, whether you wade in water or not. Kerosine must not
get to the skin or blistering will result.

A sure preventative against tick bites is.—Cocoanut oil 90 parts,
eucalyptus oil 10 parts. Anoint the whole body neck to toe, before
dressing. Ticks may crawl, but they won’t bite. (You can decide
for yourself which is preferable tick bite or this oil bath !) |

29. Maps.—Whenever undertaking a trip into unknown country,
a large scale map of the locality is of great value. One is able
to mark in good spots, letter runs and rapids,. which serve with
notes for any future trip. These are obtainable from the Govern-
ment Map Depot, Wood Street, Calcutta, at a very nominal charge.

30. Rod cases.—A cheap and most serviceable rod case can be
made up from the large hollow bamboos that are common in Burma
and India. Cut a section from one of these, long enough to take

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 4)

a rod leaving a knot intact at one end. From the other end, burn
or cut out the knots, and have a leather cup fitted with strap and
buckle. If this is not possible cut the length of bamboo in half,

Fig. 3.—Rod Case.

cut out the knots and bind together geniF, with the same fitting
as in the first case. See diagram.

31. Clearing drinking water.—Ilf one is dependent on the river
for drinking water, and it should come down in spate, a pinch of
alum put into a bucket of discoloured water will soon clear it. It
is a handy commodity to have by one, being an excellent preserva- |
tive for skins. Or you can dig a hole some feet away from water’s
edge and obtain reasonably filtered water.

All drinking water should be boiled: but on occasions when
this is not possible one drop of tincture of iodine of seven per cent
strength to a quart of water: and the water then well shaken:
will, in 20 or 30 minutes, kill all the harmful bacteria that are likely
to be there. The amount of iodine added is too slight to even taste.

32. Trophies of fish.—The gill plates and teeth of large mahseer
make good souvenirs. They can be made up into a quaint mascot
for a car, or mounted on a shield. Scales make useful luggage
tickets, and menu cards, but are a temptation to the souvenir
hunter.

33. Catching frogs for bait.—Frogs are curious little creatures
and if one dangles a piece of rag tied on a hook above them they
will surely jump to catch it, in this way you can fill a pot, should
you want them for bait. Most predatory fish relish frogs. The
green and yellow, or brown, are the best. Do not confuse frogs
with toads.

34. Biting flies and how to evade them.—Citronella or. Flit, keeps
off the many varieties of biting flies met with in the densely forested
areas, particularly in Burma and Assam. Smeared over the knees,
hands, and neck prevents much discomfort and misery. These
liquids are evanescent. Citronella mixed into white vaseline (as
done by the Forest Dept.) forms an unguent which has lasting
effect.

B50 Soldering M7aACeS. ——einols is san excellent soldering paste
for securing the ends of wire. A little applied to the end of wire
and passed through a lighted match sets it firmly, causing no da-
mage to the wire. The ‘Britinol soldering outfit’ or one of similar
efficiency, is essential to an Angler.

36. Marking fish.—This is unfortunately little practised out
here, because of the size of rivers and a shifting community. Where
ever it is possible, as in the case of fishing clubs, marking of
fish should be introduced, as it gives most interesting results. A

42 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

simple’ method is witha small. brass or copper foil plate; 14 inches

long by 4 an inch wide fixed to the dorsal fin by thin copper wire

with distinguishing letters, and a note made in the fishing book at
the club or fishing hut. (See diagram.)

37. Poaching.—The Bur-

man is an adept at poach-

» ing. The cleverest thing I

Dieecal! Fin witnessed in this line was by

_- my: servant. -If a jungle

fowl ‘called, he would go into

the forest as near as possible

to the cock, sit concealed in

a bush, and utter noises like

Fig. 4.—Method of marking fish. : : :
he accompanied. this with a

most original clucking noise. Frequently the cock would come to
investigate, when he would shoot it. He kept me provided in this
way, though most of them were tough patriarchs. In Ceylon,
jungle cock are enticed in a similar way by a handkerchief loosely
held and brought together by the hands to make a ‘clapping’
sound, taken by the cock to be the challenge of a rival.

38. Butterflies.—A small net for catching pee eee is a handy

and useful addition on a fishing trip. On the odd day when the
river is coloured and fishing not possible, a few hours can be well
spent gathering a variety of butterflies. Small paper packets for
preserving specimens can be made up from greaseproof. paper ;
and even though not up in the scientific names, you will find lots
of people who will be pleased to take your collection. Burma has
some beautiful specimens, which if set and arranged in a case make
a useful ornament in the home.
39. To soften butterflies’ wings.—Take a tin of convenient size
one inch deep, and fill it with saw-dust, then place a sheet of damp
blotting paper soaked in a solution of water, with a féw drops of
Carbolic acid, this is added to prevent moulds which otherwise grow:
quickly. Put the dry insects into the tin and keep for six hours,
or until the wings are moist enough for setting.

40. Fish displaying temper.—l saw a fish display what one would
feasonably describe as temper. This was in a stream, in Burma,
a few yards from my bungalow. I had some 200 mniieee collected
from 4. pounds down to a few ounces, where I used to feed them
daily under a large concrete bridge. They were protected and no

fishing allowed. The stream was no more than 6 yards across and -

4 ot 5 feet deep and crystal clear. They made an interesting
study. It was here that I saw a fish of at pounds clear the hole
of some 60 or 7o large fish. The trouble arose when | put ina
short hand line with a fly spoon’ to catch a fish or two for pur-
poses of marking. This fish broke my line and the small Mother-
o-Pearl spoon could be seen distinctly hanging from’ the fish’s
mouth. Any fish that came’ near it was chased. The whole per-
ene was clearly visible and most amusing. — :
Record Mahseer.—F rom The Field -datéd’ 11+1-1920, by.
Mr V; an Ingen: ¥ RO esa Ch amen

a hen scratching and feeding,.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 43

‘Whilst fishing onthe Cauvery last Christmas, with Mr. P. F. Bowring;

D. C., Mysore, Col. J. S. Rivett Carnac and Major C. Jackson, V.C., I had the

pleasure of witnessing the capture of the largest mahseer ever caught on rod
and line in India. This mighty fish was caught by Co). Rivett Carnac on Decem-
ber 28th, 1919, and was of the following measurements, weight 119 pounds ;
length 64 inches; girth 42 inches; tail fin 203 inches; circumference of mouth
26 inches. Previous to this, the record mahseer caught in India, was 104 pounds,
caught in 1906 by the late Mr. C. E, Murray Aynesley, at the junction of the
Hutty and Cauvery rivers in Coorg, and the largest fish (other than the mahseer
was a 112 lbs. Goonch). I feel sure that many years will elapse before the
Colonel’s record is beaten.’

‘This 119-pounder on being hooked, put up a tremendous fight, running out
about 125 yards of line in her first rush (so characteristic of the mahseer), and
had she kept on straight a break was inevitable, hardly 5 yards of line remaining
on the reel, but fortunately for the fisherman she turned and made up stream,
and the Colonel was able to recover line. After that the fish made several other
big rushes, but there was line to spare. I was keeping time, and it was 25
minutes before we got a glimpse of her, and finally, when she was gaffed by
Mr. Bowring and drawn ashore, the excitement ‘was so great that I quite forgot
the timing. The average for 1,600 lbs. of mahseer caught this season, works
out at about 4 Ibs. a minute, so the 119-pounder must have taken half an hour
or more. This old. hen-fish had_a huge hog back, and her body almost cylin-

‘drical in-shape and must have seen many monsoon floods; and, judging from the

age of sacred fish in Mysore, she must have been 200 years old. Major

Jackson hooked a’ fish immediately after this big one was landed,- and. in

almost. the same place, probably her sister. This fish ran out .about 160
yards of line, and after two hours’ hard work got round a snag and broke.
The scale used for weighing this mahseer registered only up to 112 lbs, and
we were obliged to cut the fish in two pieces and weigh both pieces separately ;
consequently some blood was lost in this. operation, and the fish had been

in the sun and .wind for, three. hours before weighing. Yet with all this,

the actual weights ‘registered, totalled 119 Ibs. I am sure had we suitable
scales, ‘the fish immediately after capture would have been 120 Ibs.’

In contrast to Mr. Van Ingen’s account, I reproduce Mr. Lacey’s
fight with a 61-pounder at Tangrot, from The Angler’s Hand
‘Book :—

‘This last fish the biggest on caeone in the Tangrot Angler’s book up

to the present, was hooked. about 9-30 a.m. He rushed all my line out,
“140 yards, just as I landed from my boat, and was pulling dead on the
-knot:* [ran on, but fell in the mud, when my boztman Rokundin, to
‘whom great praise is due, seized up the rod, and rushed into the water,
the fish now making straight across the water for the ‘‘big rapid’’. Most

fortunately Deputy .Surgeon-General Collis’ boat was following. mine, and
getting into it, we followed the fish down the rapid, at a frightful pace
and at one time must, I believe, have passed the fish, the 140 yards of line
being loose inthe river, but providentially it caught in no rock, and ‘I
found the fish on when I landed below. T-wo or three times he had taken
all the line out, and was pulling dead on the knot; but by a miracle nothing
broke. The fish took to sulking, and for fully 3} or 4 hours, I hung on to him,
but could not move him. At last at about 2 P.M. he gave in, and I landed
him. ‘A’ female fish 4 ft 7 inches in length, and 23 ft in girth, weight 61. lbs.

‘Caught on a 33 inch silver and brass spoon and treble gut. trace.’

42. Dermonieter. —A small thermometer is a very useful article

to include in one’s kit, as the study 7 of the temperature’ of the water

* From this remark the reader will be left. with the impression that 150

yards of line is sufficient and that my estimate of .the fighting powers . of

the large fish are grossly exaggerated, These fish are, I believe, mostly
taken on paste, and have resorted to bottom feeding, living a lazy life and
‘gone to seed, as this is certainly not characteristic of the-mahseer of. northesn
India, Assam or Burma, taken on spinning bait. re

44 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

is a very big consideration. Note down what it is when fish are

well on the feed, and when not. We have lots to learn about the”

almanac of fhe) and their feasting and fasting days.

43. Photography. —If developing in hot weather, when the tem-

perature of the water is warm and likely to melt the dressing of

a film, first of all wash in a solution of formalin AD: this fixes and.

hardens a film and is a certain cure.

44. Formalin.—Formalin is the angler’s friend, being useful for
so many purposes. The collection of small fish as specimens, is a
very simple matter and gives little trouble. - Requirements: A bottle
of formalin (formaldehyde) as sold by chemists; a coil of Zinc
foil; a reel of thin copper wire; two wide mouthed bottles (Prune
Jars): one or more empty one-pound biscuit tins.

The specimens should be washed in clean water, after making

as small a cut as possible in the belly, to remove intestines, and

wiped dry. Then place in a bottle containing clean boiled water
(cold) 20 parts; formalin 4 parts. After a few days change to the
other bottle, in which there is similar lotion. Then remove to the
biscuit tin, wrapping each specimen in a piece of linen soaked in
the solution, and pack after the manner of sardines. Specimens
should lie straight, and therefore not be longer than the biscuit
tin. Each specimen before going into the first bottle, must have
attached to its tail (by passing a piece of wire through the fleshy
part), a 4 inch square zinc label numbered, to correspond with entry
in the note book in which are the following particulars :—Serial
number, locality latitude, name of rivers, stream or lake, local name
of fish, size to which said to grow, nature of stream or water, food,
api etc., any remarks.

A copy of entries goes with each tin, which is colored down
and despatched by registered post to ‘The Curator of the Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.’

At the commencement of the collection, the strength of the
solution should be watched and increased if necessary, for good
preservation. The nose will test this, care should be taken to use
as weak a solution as is compatible with proper preservation; for
strong solution causes too great a change in colouration.

Meat painted with it will keep longer in the heat. Fish can
be preserved for specimens for museums. Dead bait can be pre-
served for months in it; it is a very handy thing to have by one.
See under (24) ante for removing formalin taint.

45. Borax.—Obtainable in any bazaar. In warm weather wrap
your butter in a piece of muslin dipped in 2% solution of borax,
and it will remain hard.

46. Tackle Boxes.—Allahboy Vallarjee, Multan, makes up excel-
lent tackle boxes. They are strong and last for ever. It is the
best tackle box I have seen, and costs with two trays Rs. 30/-

There is no better tackle bag than the British troop’s webbed
haversack, obtainable on payment from the Quarter Master’s stores
of any British Regiment.

47. Fishing stools.—The ordinary ‘Mora’ made from the tough
grass common in India, obtainable in most towns for a few annas,
adds much to one’s comfort while fishing from a_ boat.

- CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 45

48. Best Books on Fishing and Sport in India :—

1. “The Rod in India’ by H. S. Thomas, published 1897. Undoubt-
edly the most complete book ever written on Indian fishing.

2. ‘Tank Angling’ by the same author, has useful information for the
beginner.

3. ‘The Angler’s Hand Book’ by G. H. Lacey, published in 1905. Has
a number of maps of good localities, and deals chiefly with the north of India.

4. ‘The Angler in India or Mighty Mahseer’» by Skene Dhu, published
in 1923. Has 400 pages devoted to localities all over India.

_5. ‘Hints to Amateurs in Tank Angling’ by P. N. Bhattacharyya, This
is the best guide I know on this form of fishing.

6. ‘Game Fishes of Bombay, The Deccan and Neighbouring District’ hy
Sir R. Spence and S. H. Prater.

Besides these books there are certain clubs that have magazines
issued quarterly or annually, dealing with local areas or provinces.
Chief among these are:

(a) ‘The Nilghiri Fishing Association’, Ootacamund, South India.
_ (b) ‘The Dehra Dun Fishing Association’, Dehra Dun, U.P.

‘-(c) ‘The C.P. Angling Association’, Jubbulpore, C. P.

(d) ‘The Myitkyina Fishing Club’, .Myitkyina, North Burma.

Other general books useful on a fishing or shikar trip:

(a) ‘Identification of Indian Butterflies’ by Brig. W. H. Evans.
(b) ‘Identifieation of Poisonous Snakes’ by Wall.

(d) ‘Popular Handbook of Indian Birds’ by H. Whistler.

Big Game and Shooting books:

(a) ‘Wild Animals in Central India’ by Dunbar Brander.
(b) ‘Big Game Shooting in the Indian Empire’ by G. H. Stockley.
-(c) ‘A Game Book for Burma’ by E. H. Peacock.

49. Newman & Co., Calcutta, in 1919 made up for me an excel-
lent Log Book, 93 by 84 inches of strong paper and bound in leather:
Small leather tags show different compartments, the left hand sheet
ruled off in manner shown on specimens, the right hand sheet left
blank for notes. Under the four headings:

Fishing. Small Game. Big Game. Pig Sticking.

50. Sealing Wax.—A few sticks of Sealine Wax in various
colours are handy for painting spoons. These dissolved in spirits
of wine make the best paint for spoons.

51. Enamel Paint.—Good enamel paint is available in most
Indian bazaars and is sold in convenient sized tins. They cover
a wide range of colours.

52. Packing and carriage of fish.—Directly a rsh is taken out
of water, it should be killed, disemboweled and cleaned (not with
water), with a bundle of grass or dry cloth. The inside should
then be sprinkled with charcoal and salt alternately. Oil rubbed
over the inside surface is also used. In England stinging nettles
are much used for packing fish, it greatly preserves the bloom and
freshness. +

SOCIETY, Vol. 46

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

’ | .
nares sees ee eT ee eee eee reer errr errr Eee

QINIHSIA

SALON
ge SS SSeS SSS
: HLONG | |
SUNVNAY RATAOV I], INV LIVG ane ee LHOIAM HSI ALITVOO'T ALY

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 47

33. Protecting flies from the ravages of insects.—

1. Napthaline crystals efficiently protect Salmon flies from
insects. Fill a small pill box with powdered: crystals, then cover
over with a double layer of muslin instead of the lid, and place with
the flies. The crystals must be replenished every few months, as
they evaporate. Flies keep better in a tin case than in an ordinary
fly book. |

2. Keep your flies flat between layers of silver paper, in a
close shutting tin box, and they will keep for vears. If the tinsel
gets tarnished ‘rub it gently with a piece of soft wood (wedged
off to a point), with a little plate powder, to regain its brightness.
In both instances exclusion from light and air is essential.

54. Dyeing Gut.—To dye gut green, boil a strip of green baize
with a small piece of alum, while the liquid is still warm place the
gut in it, and allow it to stand for a few hours.

To dye gut blue, heat some ink and in it soak the gut. Do
not allow it to stand too long. 20 minutes is enough. It can be
stained to any degree of colour, depending on the mixture. A strong
decoction of tea, well boiled will stain gut; use in the same way
as ink.

55. Manufacture of Silk Worm gut.—Messrs. S.° ‘Allcock & Cor
of Redditch, England, have “published an interesting article in
their fishing tackle pamphlet. on gut, which reads as follows :—

‘This is perhaps the most curious and interesting of the many departments
in the manufacture of fishing tackle. All anglers make use of. silk worm gut,
but large numbers are quite ignorant of its origin. In»some parts: of the kingdom
it is called Indian weed, and looked upon as a species of grass, and any
attempts to prove its being really the entrails of an insect are derisively resisted.
The breaking strain of salmon gut when made into casts is as under :—

Sizes eat 1/5 Va) 3/5 4/5
Breaking strain a 15 02 10 9 Ibs.
Lake and trout casts :—-~
Padron Regular Fina Refina lx Drawn 3x Drawn.
8 7 5 4 lbs. 3 1 |b.

Gut is made from two small organs situated in the body of the
silk worm. These organs contain the silk before it is developed
or has been spun by the silk worm; great nicety is entailed in taking
the worm at the proper time, otherwise the gut is useless. The
worms. are thrown into vinegar, and there left for some hours. This
process kills the worms and solidifies the organs. These are now
taken out of the worm, and pulled out as far as they will go,
from end to end. These organs thus extended, being in fact ‘the
gut’, are now left to dry. They are in this stage more or less
rough and stringy, but are polished and finished off with some soap
and a little soda. According to the size of the organ, so depends
the thickness and length of each strand of gut. The strands are
then sorted and laid out according to thickness. Gut is, there-
fore, nothing more than solidified silk; thick gut is doubtless made
from larger worms, which are difficult to obtain, and hence the cost
is much increased. ‘Drawn’ gut is very fine, and is made by scrap-
ing it down and drawing it through a gauge or standard.

Messrs. Hardly Brothers produce in their Anglers’ Guide, some
interesting facts of experiments on gut, which I reproduce :—

48 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

‘Gut or gut casts cannot be tested with a view of giving a guaranteed breaking
strain, but in order to give some tangible idea as to the strength of good gut,
elaborate experiments have been carried out in a Science department of one of
the Universities. The apparatus used measured simultaneously the strain ap-
plied and the elongation produced. These results must be taken as a general
guide and not in any form of a guarantee.

The following details from an article in The Field are extracts from these
tests :—

1. The strength of gut is surprisingly high, calculated from minimum
and maximum data actually observed, breaking at 17-23 tons per square inch.

2. The strength of gut is chiefly dependent on the rate of smooth con-
tinuous loading. No comparison between the strength of specimens can be
made unless the rate of loading is kept constant in ali such experiments.

3. The strength increases the higher the rate of loading. Thus a test
piece of 2x cast which broke at 3:4 Ibs. when the rate was 8-1 Ibs. in 100
seconds, broke at 5 lbs. when the rate was 8-1 lbs. in 50 seconds. The bearing
of this on the sudden strain involved in striking a fish is obvious.

4. Although of no practical interest to anglers, it was found that dry
gut was stronger than damp. .

5. The diameter of the casts varied but slightly throughout their length ;
it increased slightly on damping, and was very constant.

6. The table below gives the smallest breaking stress which was_ ob-
served in testing various sizes of gut. The average strength would be higher
in all cases, but the tests actually made on small pieces cut from the various
casts shewed that these would have broken at the loads given in column 3.

Designation of Cast. Diameter in Strength in
Inches. Lbs.
4x sae eee °006 ilo
2x a ate 009 aii
Ox ede a 011 3°5 (another 4°4)
7/5 a aie’e °013 6:3
6/5 a ei. °015 6°6

7, As the stress was applied to ‘the test pieces they elongated, the in-
strument registering an elongation of 10 per cent. per piece before breaking.’

56. Knots for tying Gut, Flies, Hooks, and Lines.—The variety
of knots used by fishermen ts numerous, and each angler has his
own favourite, to which he attributes advantages over all others,
so that for purposes of choice, I have listed 24 varieties in diagram,
which can quite easily be followed by placing the diagram before
one, and with one or two pieces of line the fancied knot can be
practiced and mastered. I have mentioned my choice in Chapter V.

Ba. tome cee ana —

1 Bugger Knot 2 Dowdle Buyer

4 Surgeon S Double Surge Orn SBarrel Knot

Fig. 5. Vo tie two strands together.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 49

ORO: Qttaching
a Dee Strand

7 —

Dropperloop 10 aE in g, ii Dropper SE, oop

Fig. 6. To tte Loops in Gut.

aa o.

iS same Hitch
cutest ie

La ae Oe -~

ate 5 Sp

a: 17 JamPdtch
14 Giller Flttch 16 Serr Kot

Fig. 7.—Attaching Line to Trace.

57. Nylon for casts.

From The Field dated May 27, 44 :—

‘I think the difficulty of knotting Nylon has been grossly exaggerated. It
has been made to appear a sort of voodoo rite which only a witch doctor can
perform. This is not my experience at all. For trout and sea trout flies
I find an ordinary Turle knot perfectly satisfactory. For salmon flies the
knot made by passing the gut thrqugh the eye, over the neck of the fly and
back through the eye and finishing off with a half hitch seems perfectly safe.

For joining two lengths the double fisherman’s knot has served me faithfully.
I recently received some Nylon from America, and the firm which made it,
one of the Pioneers of Nylon for lines and casts, recommend the single fisher-
man’s knot for joining two lengths. | Anyway after the war Nylon will be ob-
_tainable in long lengths, I have some to-yard lengths now, and so the knotting
problem will be less acute—if it ever really was.

58. Garters.—I find I can never keep my stockings up for long,
while wading about in rapids. I have tried the ordinary woollen gart-

50 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

18 Furle Knot ¢ Vp
Ga
21 Wemyss Eyed Fly Knot : BC ae

19 Half Fittch Jam - é Gi

i, se

20 ued Fly Jam 2% JamDoubleHitch 24 JamHitch with Kast

Fig. 8.—Attaching Gut to Flies oy Hooks.

ers, and elastic, and have now resorted to cutting strips of rubber
cross section, through an old inner tube of a tyre, and find they
work excellently.

59. Ankle Puttees.—Puttees tied over the boots will save many
a sore patch on the foot, as however careful one is in tying a boot,
shingle, coarse sand and gravel will find its way in through the top.

60. Sore Toes and Feet.—With constant wading the feet are
sometimes apt to get very sore between the toes, and a form of
eczema, rather similar to ‘Bengal Rot’ attacks the skin of these
parts. Grease freely applied will save the feet to a certain extent.
Frank Ross & Co., Chemists, Calcutta, make a special ointment
for the infection, which I thoroughly recommend. I have found the
water so bad in some rivers, that both the boatmen and I were
hardly able to walk. The local fishermen told me that if the water
is at all discoloured, from storms in April’ May, they rub mustard oil
over their legs and feet before wading. This curious condition is
apparently caused by rotten vegetation or toxic salts being washed
into the river. Oxide of zinc powder will disinfect and dry up the
sore places between the toes.

61. Sun Burn.—Vaseline rubbed over the face, hands and knees,
will save peeling and blisters, and much discomfort, if one is not
accustomed to the sun, It sounds a messy job, but is really not as
uncomfortable as it sounds.

62. Glare Glasses.—Sun glasses are very necessary, as one is
facing the sun most of the morning and evening (that is if fishing
correctly) and the glare off the broken water in a rapid, is intensi-
fied, and most trying. Care should be taken to see they are strictly
neutral. The recently invented ‘Polaroid’ glasses enable one to
see under the surface of the water. |

CIRCUMVENTING THE: MAHSEER gi

63. Lopee.—A topee of the Pigsticker type, with a large brim
and worn back to front, protects your face. The usual small ven-
tilation holes can be enlarged by insertion of cut revolver cartridge
cases, much to the cooling of one’s skull.

64. Jacket.—A sun proof or khaki drill sleeveless jacket, with
lots of pockets that button, is handy for carrying small pliers, scis-
sors, a small tin with fly spoons, swivels, split rings, etc. The
buttoned pocket will save losses one can ill afford, as tosses are
inevitable while wading.

65. Tackle Outfit.—Do not try to buy a complete outfit of tackle,
all at once, it hits the ‘exchequer’ rather hard. Get the few neces-
sities, and add to them each year. A good way of doing this, is
to give yourself a birthday or X’mas present, or better still give

-your wife a nice rod or reel, when her birthday comes along !!
66. To Skin and Preserve a Mahseer.—With acknowledgements
to Van Ingen and Van Ingen Taxidermists, Mysore :—

‘Lay the fish on a board, and make an incision—not down the belly—but
along the centre of the side from gill to tail, the heavy bone or scapular arch
under the gill covers being cut through at this point, the object being to
remove the body from the skin with as little disturbance of the scales as possible.

When skinning, leave plenty of flesh attached to the skin. This can be re-
moved later and do not lift or pull the skin in any way as it is apt to dis-
place the scales. ,

When the back is reached, place the point of the knife against the base of
the fins, and strike the back of the knife smartly with a biock of wood, and
the obstruction can in this manner be cut through easily.

The body should be disjointed near the head and tail and removed in pieces.
The gills, tongue, eyes and all the bones, etc., inside the head be cut clean
away. The flesh on the cheeks is covered with very delicate skin. All this
flesh should be carefully removed, but from inside the head, so that this
skin is not injured.

The head, when finished, should be just a shell. The lips, which are very
thick, must have incisions made inside to allow the preservative to get well in.
While cleaning the head, particular care should be taken not to bend it back
over the skin where it joins the head which is quite narrow and this is where
the scales always come away.

After cleaning the skin thoroughly of all flesh and fat, paint the ‘inside with
arsenical soap and fill lightly with straw, and small sticks arranged lengthways
which will prevent the head being bent over accidentally, and draw the edges
together with a few stitches. The skin will then dry in some shape. The
fins need not be spread out to dry. A little arsenical soap may be applied to
these also. Never use salt or alum. Arsenical soap is the only suitable pre-
servative for fish. Save any of the scales which may happen to work loose.’

_ 67. Medical.—Fishermen journey to wild places, far from medi-
cal assistance, so should have some knowledge of medicines and
first aid. The iocal jungle people will call for it, and help given
will be greatly appreciated. The following list is offered as a guide,
which can be added to or altered, according to individual ideas and
requirements :—

68. Medicines.—

Boric. powder : Camphorodyne.

Essence of ginger for stomach colic (servants often need it). Tartaric acid
and Chlorate of Potash for scorpion stings.

M. and B. 693 tablets for pneumonia and lung troubles.

M. and B. 720 tablets for septic wounds and pneumonia.

M. and B. 125 tablets for septic wounds.

52 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

(a) Calomel 1-grain tabloids.

Cascara. 2-grain tabloids.
Epsom Salts. :
Quinine. 5-grain ‘abloids.
Mepacrine.

Salicyllate of Soda. 5-grain tabloids (for Rheumatism).
Genaspirin or Aspro.

Tine. Benzoine. Co.
Hydrogen Peroxide.
Germoline.

Todex.

Winter Green.

Oriental Balm.

Iodine. Rect.

Essential Oil (for Cholera).

D.D.T.—One of the greatest discoveries of the War and res-

ponsible for the saving of thousands of lives from Malaria and_

discomfort from crawling creatures.

5% solution sprayed in the room or tub or to the walls
or sides will kill all insects and small creatures that come in contact

with the sprayed surface for 1o days. It may well revolutionise

poultry farming and rid the rooms and house of ticks that pester
the canine species during the hot weather.

Mepercrine.—Yet another discovery of the War against Malaria,
it has no taste or ill effects except perhaps a yellowing of the skin,
but for risk of visits to water and jungles that would otherwise be
death-traps in north of India.

(b) Appliances.
Bandages.

Eye bath. Eye lotion, Sulphate of Zinc, 2 grs. to ounce of distilled water.

Lint.

Cotton wool.

Permanganate of Potash crystals.

Resinol ointment (for burns and wounds).

Surgical knife, scissors, needles, silk in sterilised bottle.
Two thermometers.

Glass syringe in bamboo case.

Z.Q. Plaster.

Prontosil (for sceptic wounds).

69. Wounds.—Should be washed by some antiseptic, Peroxide
or E.C. Carry a curved surgical needle in case stitching should be
necessary. Ordinary gut does excellently for this purpose, in the
absence of Suture silk.

70. Foul Hook.—I have had the misfortune of having a hook
cut out of my calf with a blunt penknife, with two massive beings
sitting on top of me, so offer a more kindly way as a suggestion.
Take a pair of wire cutting pliers, and snip off the hook below the
barb, slightly above where it has buried itself, apply a hot fomen-
tation or poultice, and after this has cooled, push the point through
the skin forward, DO NOT TRY TO BRING THE BARB BACK THROUGH
THE HOLE IT MADE ON ENTERING, Or you will suffer agony, and make
a nasty mess. Apply iodine, and the wound will heal quickly. If
the seat of the wound permits of an incision being made, make
a cut along the hook, and it will come away.

71. Bleeding.—To check arterial bleeding apply pressure above

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER wee

the wound, by bandaging or a tourniquet, but if the tourniquet is
kept on for more than 20 mins. at a time, without release, there is
danger of gangrene. Make sure you have stopped the bleeding,
before bandaging the part, or serious loss of blood may result.
Tincture of steel applied to the wound, is the best remedy I know.
A copy of Moore’s Family Medicines for India should be carried
in one’s kit.

72. Blisters.—Never cut or remove the skin, prick on one side
and allow the liquid to flow out. Homocea is a good dressing. To
ease the feet on long marches on hot days, boric powder dusted
into a silk sock will generally prevent blistering of the feet. Zinc
ointment plaster (z.o) over a blister or shoe bite on heel or toe,
will enable you to walk in comfort, instead of being dead lame;
and the part heals under the plaster which does not come off while
bathing or washing. This plaster is invaluable for all small cuts
and wounds, also excellent as tape for splicing Castle Connel pattern
rods. . :

73. Boils.—Boils can be .brought to a head with mixture of soap
and sugar, and burst by hot poultices.

74. Stings. Scorpion Stings.—The best cure for scorpion sting
is the immediate application on the seat of the sting, of a pinch
of permanganate of potash mixed with a powder of equal parts
of Tartaric Acid and pot. Chlorate. Then apply a few drops of
water, leave on for as long as the patient can bear it, then apply
water freely. This is a drastic treatment, and may leave the seat
of the sting sore and blistered, but it will give relief from the hours
of pain otherwise suffered. Keep the permanganate and the other
powder in separate bottles, and only mix when applying to a sting.

75. Septic wounds from Tiger and Panther.—A very serious
thing at any time. Epsom’s salts freely applied to the wound is
effective (in powder form); but best of all, if you can obtain it, is
Prontosil. A German preparation, sold in tubes. Hurry off the
patient to the nearest hospital, as blood poisoning is almost always
the result. M and B. 125 is now the remedy. This is the same
as Prontosil not now procurable.

76. Fever.—Prevention is better than cure. Whisky and Qui-
nine are good in moderate doses, for one’s self, and quinine for
the followers. But I find a good day’s fishing and Whisky ‘dawai’
in the evening, with a flitted net to sleep under, is good enough
precaution.

_ 977. Drowning.—Artificial respiration, if applied correctly, will
often bring a patient round, and should be tried out on any case
with any visible signs of life.

Professor Schafer’s method which is adopted by the Metropo-
litan Police, and also by the Royal Life Saving Society, is the best.
Professor Schafer’s method has two very great advantages. First
the patient is-laid in a prone position, thus obviating the danger
of the tongue falling back and blocking up the Pharynx and at
the same time helping in the escape of any water remaining in
the lungs; and secondly, far less labour is necessary. The whole
procedure is exceedingly easy, and there is no risk of any injury
to any of the internal organs, and it has this further advantage,

54. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

that no time need be lost after recovering the patient from the
water while removing clothing. But Schafer’s method must be
applied with some care—rough or hasty usage may result in frac-
ture of the ribs with perhaps fatal results.

The patient should at once be placed face downwards on the
ground, with a folded coat or rug if obtainable, under the lower
part of the chest, the arms extended in the front, and the face
slightly on one side, so as to keep the mouth clear. The operator
should place himself on one side of the patient’s body in a kneeling
position, and facing his head; his hands should be placed flat over
the lowest part of the back (on the lowest ribs) one on each side,
and the weight of the operator’s body should be gradually thrown
forward on to the hands, so as to produce firm pressure—which
must not be violent—upon the patient’s chest. In this way, if there
is any water, it is driven out of the patient’ S lungs.

Immediately. afterwards the operator’s body is raised slowly, so
as to remove the pressure, the hands being kept in the same posi-
tion. This forward and backward movement (pressure and relaxa-
tion of pressure) has to be repeated every four seconds, 15 times
a minute, so as to approximate to the natural process of breathing.
These movements should be continued, according to Dr. Schafer’s
instructions, for at least half an hour, or until the natural respira-
tions are Fecumed.

Shock from lightning, if ‘not serious, should be treated in the
same way.

78. A wife’s point of view.—-From THE WOMAN,

‘T-t-turn the p-point of the b-boat to the p-p-point of that island!’ suddenly
stutters my husband. He has just seen a swirl on the water, indicating that
a trout is on the move.

Now, what is the perfect wife to do? Around us there are three islands,
each of which possesses two points. The boat, not being of the square-sterned
variety, has two points. Therefore, I have to choose the correct direction out
of twelve possibles—and in about the fifth of a second.

Just let me tell you a few of the things expected of me when on the
loch with my husband.

I am expected to have a complete and detailed knowledge of the loch, its
deep places, its shallow and its skerries. In fact, I must know the bottom
of the loch as completely as I know my permanent wave. I am expected to
be a first-class oarsman, and must be able instantly to translate a vague
wave of the hand into a complicated piece of navigation.

I am expected to fill his pipe exactly to his liking—which is not so easy
as it sounds—and I must even light it for him sometimes.

On the few occasions that my husband does hook something, I am apparently
expected to fold up the oars and put them out of the way into my handbag.

I am expected to. come off the loch. ene bright and cheery after several
hours of cold, bleak monotony.

Yes, this fishing is a queer business. At home, my husband is rather faddy
about things. The’ table-cloth must be spotless, the silver must be shining,
the glasses must be polished. The tea-table must be ‘just it.’ Bread must be
cut thin and cake thick. Yet, on the loch, he will cheerfully eat sandwiches
out of a grubby bag and he will cheerfully drink ‘thermos tea.’

At home, an expensive easy chair cannot soothe his limbs. He is restless;
he fidgets. First he flings one leg over one arm of the chair; five minutes later
he twists. around and flings the other leg over the other arm. I often ask
him if he would not like to lie on the mat. But, on the loch, he will sit
happy for hours on a cold, HARD board... .

Why -do I do’ it? Well; m/’dear, look at these ducky little fishing hats
IT wear and, believe me, you can get the most gorgeous sunburn on ‘the loch !

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

on
on

78.—ADDENDUM TO CHAPTER ‘SCRAPS FROM MY NOTE BOOK’
For easy reference and convenience, the following blocks, kindly

lent by Messrs. Hardy Brothers, Alnswick, England, have been in-
cluded, with a few details of gut, wire, etc.

GUT SIZES AND DESCRIPTIONS.

Size Name of Size Description
‘021 and above . | IS, Crown
020 Extra Stout Salmon ~ 0/5

019 Stout Salmon et Ws

‘018 Fine Stout Salmon = HS)

017 Medium Salmon oe 3/5 :
‘016 Fine Medium Salmon aes 4/5 |
015 Fine Salmon 5/8)

014 Extra Fine Salmon ers OD

013 Stout Grilse ise ds

012 Grilse ue ESS

‘011 Heavy Lake os 9/5

010 Medium Lake sh Ox

009 Fine Lake se i<

008 Stout Trout ose ax

007 Medium Trout ss Ox

‘006 Fine Trout ee 4x

‘005 xe see Six

In the specification of all casts listed, the above descriptions are
referred to as the thickness of the Casts.

NATURAL GUT IN HANKS OF 50 AND 100 STRANDS.

For those wishing to make up their own traces the following
note will help when ordering Gut :—

REFINA.—Fine. work.
FINA.—General trout fishing.
REGULAR.—Heavy Trout and course fish.
PADRON. 2nd.—Trout Spinning traces.
PADRON. tst.—Sea Trout and light grilse.
MARANA. 2nd.—Grilse. |
MARANA ist.—A light Salmon gut.
IMPERIAL.—General Salmon work.
ROYAL.—The heaviest gut.

The best sizes for Mahseer are those listed as ‘Fine Stout Sal-
mon’ to ‘Heavy Lake’ sizes 2/5. to 9/5.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

WIRE FOR TRACES.
‘Punjab’ Cable-laid Steel Wire.

Made in 8 sizes as below, in coils of 5 yards only.
Colour Black, plated and oxidized to prevent rust.

No. 0

Fig. NPE EN :

No. 0 soo. Jl) Woes, No. 3 70 lbs.
ea | soo Ee) Mok ne 85 lbs.
eo soo os) WOKS tess .. 130 Ibs.
eee 50 Ibs. ese 209 lbs.

CENTRAL WITH BEARING

ENLARGED ViEW OF THE “HARDY” SwivEL

Fig. 10 (a)—The ‘Hardy’ Swivel.
(Is ideal for mounting Fly Spoon).

HARDY’S ALNWICK

Fig. 10 (b)—The Safety Clip and Close Box Tested Swivel.
(or loading and mounting spoons, such as the Myitkyina Spoon),

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 57

HARDY BROS:
ALN WIGK

Fig. 11.—Size Scale of Swivels (Standard). Link Swivel.

PN : : ee .
NEW NS? 000 oo oC 22
| OLD Nes i7 e 13

(Single Hooks) Old and New Scale.

SU oe

Niky, 10g

Fig. 14.—(Treble Hooks) Ordinary Scale.

No. 12.

No. 10.

No. 7.

No. 6.

No. 4.

No. 2.

No. 1/0.

B. No. 2. on No. 9),

Hardy's Patent “OVAL” Wire
Double and Treble Hooks ~

HARDY S ALNWICK

Fig. 15.—Hardy’s Patent ‘OvaL’ Wire Treble Hooks.

Extra strong ‘Oval’ wire. The Best Treble for Mahseer.

A.—Trebles Tapered or eyed.

B.—Double eyed Self-fastening Trebles.

C.—Doubles, spiked, with eyes or tapered.

‘T-t-turn the p-point of the b-boat to the p-p-point of that island !’ suddenly
happy for hours on a cold. Warp board... .

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA:

BY
D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

Part XIV.
(Continued from p. 198, Vol. xlv.)
RHOPALOCERA.
PIERIDAE:

— Catopsilia pomona F,
de Nic., Journ. As. Soc. Beng., \xix, 251. 1900.
Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1, 221. . 1907.
Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies (2nd edit.), 1, 495. 1989.

Head green with minute black dots. Body green, the skin very
rough and shagreened, the points black. A white spiracular line,
above which is a dotted black line and below which is a subspira-
cular olive green stripe. Venter whitish green. In larvae reared
in captivity the black lateral line often develops into a wide black
stripe extending to the subdorsal area.

Pupa boat-shaped, the thorax slightly keeled and the head pro-
duced to a point. Colour apple green, a yellow line on the thorac-
ic keel and another from the head along the dorsal edge of the wing
case and laterally along the abdomen to the cremaster. A dorsal
blue line on the abdomen, often very faint. Cephalic point yellow
with a black spot at the apex. A faint black line across: the eye.
Suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk.

Food-plant—Cassia fistula L. and C. siamea L.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 17-1x-48, pupa-
ted 19-ix-48, and a female emerged 24-ix-43,

de Niceville, Bingham and Talbot all quote a description by Bell
which gives various points of difference between the pupa of this
species and that of C. crocale Cr. I have been quite’ unable to
detect the difference in the thoracic angle mentioned, and the bleck
line across the eye is common to both sR, not present in crocale
and wanting in pomona as stated. The ‘white spiracular band
touched with bright yellow on segments 2 to 5’ is only found in
larvae preparing to pupate, earlier the stripe is white without any
yellow.

SATYRIDAE:
Elymnias hypermnestra Li., undularis Drury.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 397. . 1988.

Ovum—Almost spherical, slightly higher than broad. At first
creamy white, later ope Howe Laid singly on palm fronds, gbove or
below. :

60 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

ist instar—Head black, terminating above in two short tuber.
cles surmounted by a black spine, two more spines and the vestiges
of a third spaced equally, and projecting outwards, between the tu-
bercle and the jaws. When first hatched body pale yellow, after
feeding pale green with a darker dorsal line. Under a lens seen to
be clothed with sparse colourless hairs, each holding a drop of liquid.
Anal processes pale green and terminating in a black bristle.

2nd instar—Sinilar. The cephalic tubercles larger and branch-
ed, the two lateral spines stouter, the vestigial spine obsolete.
Body with a yellowish double dorsal | ine, subdorsal stripe and la-
teral line. Anal processes blackish.

brd instar—Similar.

Ath (penultimate) instar—Head black with a yellow lateral
stripe in continuation of the subdorsal body stripe, and a double
pale yellow spot between the cephalic processes. Shape square,
_ the processes larger and spined and a series of small spines along
the sides of the face. Body as in previous instar. Anal processes
pale orange above and black .below, laterally greyish.

Described from larvae bred in Calcutta in October 1948.

NYMPHALIDAE:

Ergolis merione Cr., tapestrina Moore.
Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xii, 812. 1989.

Ovum—White. To the naked eye like a speck of mildew,
under a lens spherical with a flattened base and covered with fairly
- long spines, rather like a miniature sea-urchin. Laid singly on
the underside of leaves of the food-plant.

Ist instar—Head pale brown. Body whitish green with a
transverse brown dorsal band on the 8rd, 6th and 10th somites.
Head and body with black bristles in place of the branched spines
of later instars.

2nd instar—Similar, but with the bristles replaced by short
branched spines, all of approximately equal length.

8rd instar onwards similar to adult. 3

During the first two instars it feeds on the lower surface of
the leaf, later on the upper.

Described from larvae bred in Calcutta in August 1948.

LYCAENIDAE:

Chilades laius Cr., laius.

Mimo. OM, TEGO, MIMS. J, Mo OO. ty Al, ole 2), tae, I, ila, IWS.
de Nic., Butt. Ind., ii, 89. 1890.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Buiterflies, 11, 866. - 1907.
Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliv, 417, 1944.

Head small, black, shining and retractile. Colour pale, bright
sereen. <A darker green dorsal stripe. narrowing from front to rear,
and edged by a paler line. Traces of a double dark subdorsal line.
A pale subspiracular line, Ant gland and tubercles not prominent.

THE EARLY SLAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPVERA 61

Clothed with short, sparse pubescence. ‘he usual Lycaenid wood-
louse shape. One larva had the dark markings replaced by deep
purple.

When wild, attended by a very vicious, large, red ant, but did
not seem to suffer from lack of its attentions in captivity, as all
larvae lived through at least one complete instar before pupating.

Like many Lycaenid larvae, it 1s apt to eat its eee and
moulting companions.

The pupa varies considerably in the amount of black THRPIAHas:
those formed close together or on a dark background are heavily
marked and have a certain amount of black putaueto, whilst those
formed singly on young leaves are unsuffused and have the mark-

ings obsolete or nearly so.
~ Food-plant—Citrus spp.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 28-vuni-43,
pupated 81-viii-43 and a male emerged 5-ix-43. .

Bingham gives the following description, quoting de Niceville,
‘Pale green at all stages, of the shade of the young leaves of the
lime and pummeloe bushes on which it feeds. When full grown
it is about seven-sixteenths of.an inch in length, onisciform as usual;
the head black, smooth and shining, with a somewhat dark green
dorsal line down the body, the whole surface but very shghtly
shagreened and covered with extremely fine and short downy hairs.
The constrictions between the segments slight. ‘There are traces
of two pale subdorsal lines, and there is a pale lateral line below
the spiracles. The usual extensile organ on the- twelfth segment
short. The larva has no distinctive markings by which it can be
easily recognised; it is altogether a very plainly coloured and
marked insect. I have found it common in Calcutta during the
rains, the ant which attends it betraying its presence. ‘The latter
has been identified by Dr. A. Forel as Camponotus rubripes Drury
(sylvaticus Fabr.) subspecies compressus Fabr. (Now known as
C. compressus Fabr.)’

HETEROCERA.
ARCTIDAE: |

Nola fuscibasalis Hamps.

Head very ‘pale brownish green. Body pale whitish green
with a white dorsal stripe containing a median yellow line. A
subdorsal, lateral and sub-lateral series of small tubercles tufted
with pale hair, the sub-lateral series largest and with the largest
tufts. The colour is an almost exact match of the underside of
the leaves of the food-plant and ihe larva is extremely difficult
to see.

Cocoon canoe-shaped, of felted, greyish-brown silk, with a
distinct keel, the front truncate and surmounted by two short
tufts of silk, sometimes the tufts are longer when there is a second
double tuft towards the posterior end. A slit in front through
which the imago emerges. Pupa pale olive green, the dorsum
tinged with chestnut. Head and anal end obtuse.

62 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Hood-plant—Zizyphus jujuba.
Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 1-xi- 43, spun
2-xi-43 and a male emerged 12-xi-48.

LLYMANTRIIDAE:

Dayenn: pennatula I. (securis Hbn.)

Moore; Lepe Ceyl) 1,9), ples hoe enon eS S2 6a.
Hamps., Fauna Pail lina, Moths, 1, 404. 1892.
Letroy, Indian Insect Life, 460, pl. 39, fig. 7. 1909. .
Gardner, Indian Forest Records, vi, 301. 1941.

Ovum—Straw coloured, almost spherical with the top depressed,
muicropyle an orange speck. Laid in neat batches and covered
with a layer of dried froth. Laid 8l-viii-483. Hatched 6-ix-48.

Ist instar—Head black. Body blackish brown, the thoracic
somites somewhat paler, clothed with longish, singie, black hairs.
Ist somite with subdorsal tubercles. After feeding becomes pale
grey with transverse black bands on the abdominal somites.
Dorsal glands orange. Prolegs orange.

2nd instar—Very similar, but the ground colour tinged with
ereen and the single black hairs replaced by tufts of greyish.

3rd instar—Similar. Head grey, the clypeus and central part
black. The thoracic somites with narrow black transverse bands.
All the bands interrupted on the dorsum by a _ blue-grey spot.
Tufts from the subdorsal tubercles on the ist somite black. Hairs
of the lateral tufts plumose.

4th instar—Similar, an intersegmental black transverse dorsal
line.

5th instar—Very similar. The ground colour now a definite
very pale greenish yellow. 4th somite with a minute rufous dorsal
tuft. The grey-blue dorsal markings more extensive. 12th somite
with a backward pointing fringe of long black hair.

6th (final) instar—Head grey, clothed with short silky grey
hair. Ground colour pale yellow green, with intersegmental black
lines and transverse black dorsal bands, 8th somite backwards
with a black dorsal stripe. An interrupted blue-grey lateral stripe,
immediately below which is a similar silver-grey stripe, the two
separated by a black line. Below the silver-grey stripe are two
series of black spots. Ist somite with black subdorsal tubercles,
tufted with a pencil of long black hair, and a double dorsal wart,
the whole with a fringe of forward-pointing grey hair. <A subdorsal,
lateral and sub-lateral series of greyish warts giving rise to tufts
of pale cream hair, the sub-lateral series the densest and containing
an admixture of plumose hair. 12th somite with a loose tuft of
backward-pointing long black hair. 4th to 7th somites with short
dorsal brushes of pale golden hair, each brush rising to a central
point. Dorsal glands scarlet. Legs and prolegs orange. Venter
blackish speckled with greenish yellow.

Food-plant—Grasses,

Described from larvae bred from ova laid by a Caleutta caught
female. All my larvae died soon after entering the final instar,
possibly through feeding on too lush grass.

THE KARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 63

Moore's description is “Larva black, with a few ochreous hairs
along the back and black hairs from the sides, two long tufts of
black hairs projected in front of the head and a tuft trom anal
segment; a short dense dorsal tuft of red hairs on fifth to eighth
segments, and a smaller tuft on tenth and eleventh segments;
a dorsal and lateral row of green spots, and a similar coloured
lower lateral line; head and legs red. Cocoon fusiform, olivaceous
green. Pupa olivaceous green, hairy, thorax and wing cases black,
abdominal segments with longitudinal black streaks’, and this
forms the basis of Hampson’s description. The dorsal tufts im
Moore’s figure are dark brown, not red. Lefroy gives an aimost
unrecognisable figure and no description, but states that it feeas
on cereals, grasses, crucifers and other cultivated plants.

SPHINGIDAE:

Acheroniia lachesis F..
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliv, 419. 1944.

Brown form—Head pinkish ivory, clypeus outlined in black, a
double black line from just outside the clypeus to vertex, and a
broad black lateral stripe. Thoracic somites with a broad, olive-
brown dorsal stripe, darker at both ends and widening from front
to rear and with a whitish median line. An ivory white subdorsal
stripe, the lateral area olive brown mottled with darker. Abdo-
minal somites with the dorsal area clay brown, the secondary
segmental rings with lines of very minute white-ringed black
specks, these specks increasing in size and density on the lateral
and ventral areas and also from the 11th somite backwards. A
subdorsal blackish spot on the anterior edge of somites 4 to 10.
Traces of a blackish spiracular stripe. Spiracles black, very nar-
rowly ringed with yellow. Legs black, speckled with pinkish.
Prolegs black. Anal claspers and flap deep olive brown with a
pale border. Horn olive brown, the tubercles ivory pink. ‘Thoracic
somites with the ridges rather more noticeable than in the
ereen form.

Food-plant—Duranta ellisti (Verbenaceae).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 4-1x-48,
buried itself 6-ix-43 and a male emerged 27-ix-43. ;

Theretra clotho Drury, clotho.

Hamps., Fauna Brit, Ind., Moths, i, 98. 1892.

JolawnayOSo, JMS Jal@ii., wx, 5 jOll) Cloris amker IKOR SEs)

Mell, Biol. u. System. der Sudchin. Sphing., 294, pl. xix, figs.
%), UO, joll, sori, ines, th, We ISP,

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 565. 1929.

Scovummlourns, Bomb. Nav. Hoshi (Soc. xxxv. pl. ui fie. 3: 1931.

Bell & Scott. Faun. Brit. India., Moths v. 485, pl. v, figs. 18,
IQ), BO, jolle sani, ine, HD, pollo rove ime. WA, CRE

ad green. Body green, abdominal somites from
posterior half of 5th somite backwards minutely speckled with
darker. 4th somite with a subdorsal ocellus consisting of a pale

64 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

blue pupil, palest in the centre, surrounded by a cream ring, wider
below than above, and the whole edged by a black line, wide below,
very narrow at the sides and above. ‘Traces of a bluish dorsal and
a yellowish subdorsal line from the middie of the 5th somite and
meeting at the base of the horn. Horn purplish, a black basal
spot, the extreme tip whitish, covered with minute hairs, long
ahd straight, and capable of being moved up and down. Spira-
cles brownish purple. Legs yellowish. Prolegs green. First four
somites tapered. . |

4th instar—Similar, but the ocellus on the 4th somite consisting
of a horizontal white near pupil in a green iris, the whole sur-
rounded by a cream ring and edged with dark blue above and black ~
below. Legs reddish banded with yellow. Horn paler than in
previous instar and without the black basal spot.

Final instar—Similar to preceding, except that the horn is of
medium length, mauve, minutely tuberculate and slightly down-
curved. Dorsal line tinged with mauve. Ocellus surrounded by a
dark green line above and deep purple below, the purple diffusing
slightly into the cream ring. Subdorsal stripe edged above with
dark green. 7

Brown form—Head brown, the clypeus and a narrow stripe
to the vertex paler. Body pinkish brown. A dark dorsal line,
almost obsolete on the abdominal somites except on the interseg-
mental areas. A narrow dark subdorsal stripe from Ist somite
to base of horn, edged below with paler. Thoracic somites very
slightly speckled with darker dorsaily, the abdominal with the
speckles arranged in minute checks and with a darker x-shaped
dorsal mark on each somite. The ocellus on the 4th somite
with the pupil white, the iris olive brown, the surrounding ring
cream edged with black, shape as in the green form. Lateral
area darker brown on somites 1 to 4, the same colour as the
dorsum on the others and with a series of roughly triangular,
oblique, dark streaks. Venter dark brown on somites 1 to 4, pale
pinkish brown on the others. Legs pinkish. Prolegs dark brown.
Spiracles brown. Horn purplish.

When alarmed the head and first two somites are withdrawn
into the third, and the ocelli on the 4th somite protrude slightly.
_ Pupa in a slight cocoon of netted threads spun among dead
leaves and litter. Ground colour pinkish bone very heavily suffused
and speckled with black except on the dorsum of the first three
abdominal somites. A broad blackish green dorsal stripe. Spira-
eles black. Venter less suffused with black. Proboscis sheath
projecting slightly frontally and rather more ventrally. Cremaster
black, short and triangular, and ending in two slightly separated
points, concave below and with a deep pit running. from the base
forward into the 18th somite.

Food-plant—Ampelopsis sp., Vitis sp. Scott adds Dillenia
gyna Roxb., D. indica L., Hibiscus mutabilis L., Fuchsia,
Amorphophallus, and Seitz mentions Cissus. |

Described from a larva found in Caleutta, pupated 27-vii-48
and a female emerged 10-vili-43.

Hampson’s description in the Illustrations is as follows:—
‘Pale green, thickly speckled with darker spots and striae on

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 65,

fifth to tenth somites; the fourth somite swollen, bearing a pair
of large ocellated spots, green, bordered with yellow above and
_ pink below, and with a central linear white spot; a pale lateral
line with dark upper edge from anterior edge of fifth somite to
root of horn; stigmata edged with pink; horn purple, stout and
curved. Legs pink; claspers green. There is a variety in which
the green colour is replaced by brown, with the exception of the
ocellated spots, which remain olive green. In some specimens.
there are traces of irregular diagonal spots between the spiracles.
The young larva has a long-thin horn, recurved at the tip.’, and
this, in an abridged form, is repeated in the Fauna. Seitz writes.
‘Larvae green or brown. On the 4th ring a fictitious eye with
a horizontal slit pupil, behind this on each ring a blind eye below
which there is a dark oblique shadow.’ Scott mentions that the
blind ocelli may extend from somites 5 to 10, be confined to that
on 5 only, or be entirely absent.

LIMACODIDAE:

Thosea cana Wk.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 129, pl. 180, fig. 3b. 1882-83.
Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind:, Moths, i, 878. 1892.
Hering, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 718. 1981.

Head green marked with brown above the mouth-parts, retrac-
tile. Ist somite green, retractile. Colour pale green with a
narrow bluish white dorsal stripe. A subdorsal series of ten
shortish green scoli tufted with yellow bristles and a lateral
series of ten similar but larger scoli, the first scolus of each series
rather shorter than the others. A series of. irregular depressed
marks edged with yellow between the two series of scoli. A sub-
lateral yellow line. Venter yellowish. Before pupation the co-
lour becomes duller and the dorsum develops a reddish suffusion
at each end.

Cocoon of the usual hard Limacodid type, ovoid, of a dark
chestnut brown colour. Empty pupa skin brownish yellow.

Food-plant—Cassia fistula L.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 10-viii-48.,
spun 14-vii-43 and a female emerged 26-ix-43.

All the published descriptions are based on that of Moore :—
‘Larva onisciform, oblong, convex above, green with a _ pale
yellowish, white dorsal band, a subdorsal row of very short
spinous tubercles, and a sub-lateral row of somewhat larger tuber-
cles; spiracles with pale rings. Cocoon oval, purple brown.
Feeds on Cassia auriculata, etc.’

Thosea tripartita Moore. |
Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlv, 198. 1945.

Head brown, retractile. Ist somite green retractile. Body
grass green with a bright blue, narrow, dorsal stripe, edged with
darker blue and bordered by a narrow yellow stripe. A paired
dorsal series of dull bluish glandular-looking specks, barely visible
5

66 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 40

without a lens. A subdorsal series of ten short, erect, green scoli
tufted with greenish bristles, and a sub-lateral series of larger,
outward-pointing scoli, the first scolus of each series smaller than:
the others. A series of irregular sunken marks outlined by a
yellow line between the two series of scoli. Ventral surface paler
green. When full fed the ground colour becomes bluer and the
yellow dorsal stripes fade. Immediately before pupation, the
ground colour turns to a golden brown slightly tinged with pink,
the dorsal line pinkish.

There is considerable minor variation, one larva had a small
white dorsal spot in the middle of the blue stripe on the 4th and
7th somites; another had the dorsal stripe purple with a central
white line from 2nd to 4th somites, then blue with a skort purple
bar surrounding a white spot on the 7th and a purple-ringed white
spot on the 10th somite.

Food plant—Ricinus communis lL. (Castor).

Described from a number of full fed larvae found in Calcutta,
one of which spun 31-vii-438 and a female emerged 18-1x-43.

Altha nivea Wk. |
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli,. 288. 1941.

Very young larvae are a translucent greyish-white with a trans-
verse olive brown band anteriorly, centrally and posteriorly, the
central band rather broader than the others. Under a lens there
is a double dorsal series of six transparent, glassy humps. Later
the colour becomes green, but the humps persist until the larva
is more than half grown.

When small the larva feeds on the upper surface of the leaf,
eating out a narrow, semi-transparent track.

Food-plant—Ricinus communis 1. (Castor).

Described from larvae found in Calcutta in August 1948.

NOCTUIDAE:

Phlegetoma delatrix Guen.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., iii, 63, pl. 151, fig. 6a. 1884-87.
Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 391. 1894.
Hamps.,. Cat. Leps Phat xi 63> Soi:

Gaede, Seitz Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 360. 1937.

Head yellow green, somewhat flattened. Body rather bluer
sreen, the intersegmental folds yellower, a yellow subdorsal line,
almost obsolete on the thoracic somites, and a faint yellow spira-
cular line. A pulsating dark dorsal line. Spiracles yellow. Legs
and prolegs very pale green. The younger larvae with the abdo-
minal somites suffused with purplish due to the colour of the food
in the intestines. A few short colourless hairs. Shape short and
stout, the posterior somites with a somewhat square appearance.
Turns purplish just prior to pupation.

Pupa in a slight earth covered cocoon attached to a leaf in
captivity, in the wild state probably among litter on the surface
of the soil. Dark mahogany, the wing cases, leg and antenna

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 67

‘sheathes paler, the intersegmental areas and an indistinct dorsal
line darker. Cuticle punctate. The abdomen ending in a blunt
cone without any trace of cremaster or bristles.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 18-vii-438,
pupated 21-vii-43 and a male emerged 31-vii-43.

Moore’s description is as follows:—“Larva green, paler on the
sides; with a slender subdorsal whitish line and a row of small
lateral spots. Pupa red, enclosed in a slight cocoon under portions
of leaves and excrement’, and this appears to be the basis of the
other published descriptions.

Achaea melicerte Drury. |
Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 319. 1939.

1st instar—Head yellow brown. Body aes brown, becoming
darkish green after feeding. Under a lens with minute black
specks giving rise to short colourless hairs. A semi-looper.

2nd instar—Head brown, clypeus filled in with white, and with
two white spots on each side of the vertex. Body grey, thickly
coated with a white mealy powder. A lateral series of black spots,
increasing in size from 8rd to 4th somites and then decreas-
ing again to the 9th, and a dorsal series on the 4th to 7th somites.
Traces of a white subdorsal line. 11th somite with a dorsal pair
of black tubercles each bearing a black bristle, 12th somite with
a similar but smaller pair. Legs black. Prolegs blackish, : first
pair obsolete, second obsolescent.

3rd instar—Similar to preceding but with much less of the
mealy covering. Head with a white lateral blotch.

4th instar—Similar to preceding but without any mealy cover-
ing. Ground colour grey minutely speckled with darker. In some
specimens the dorsum distinctly blacker than the rest of the body.
Lateral black spots ringed with whitish. A transverse black dorsal
‘band on the posterior edge of the 4th somite, with a series of four
white spots immediately behind. Head with the ground colour
black.

5th (final) instar—There is very considerable variation. In
some cases the black dorsal and lateral stripes are wanting, whilst
in others the black colouration is increased completely obliterating
the usual brown areas, the larva appearing to be black with a
whitish subdorsal line, a yellowish supra—and a reddish subspira-
cular one. In these examples the ground colour of the head is
black, the transverse black band on the 4th somite invisible but
the spots behind very noticeable. Some of the unicolorous, pale
specimens lacked the cream coloured lateral patch on the head.

Food-plant—I have also found this larva on cultivated Roses.

Described from larvae bred in Calcutta in October 1943.

GEOMETRIDAE:

Ptochophyle togata F.

Pupating larva—Head green, bifid. Body green, the abdominal
somites with a dorsal stripe composed of small purple blotches.

68 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCHHIMUN Vals AG

Pupa formed in the trough of a leaf, the edges pulled together
slightly by a few strands of white silk, attached by the cremaster
and a girdle to a slight carpet of white silk. Colour frosted green,
the head and prothorax truncate and olive brown in colour. Cre-
master purple brown. The end of the abdomen -just anterior to
the cremaster is angled so that the pupa stands at an angle of
about 45° from the vertical. .

Described from a pupating larva found in Calcutta 28-viii-48.
Pupated 28-vii-48 and a female emerged 1-ix-43.

PYRALIDAE: —

Zinckema perspectalis Hbn.

Head brownish black, very shiny. 1st somite with a’ shiny,
brownish black dorsal plate, divided in the middle by a white
stripe. Body green, paler below the spiracles. A pulsating dark
dorsal line, a pale spiracular line. A few single colourless hairs.
Legs and prolegs almost colourless. Turns red before pupation.
, Pupa in a silk-lined cell formed by biting through a leaf of the

food-plant almost to the centre vein and joining the two flaps thus
formed together. Pale chestnut brown, not very slender, the leg
and proboscis sheathes not extending beyond the wing cases.
Male pupa with a small projection behind the eye, containing the
tooth on the antenna.

Food-plant—Garden Balsam. The larva spins the leaves at
the tip of a shoot together and lives and feeds within.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 26-vui-48,
pupated 29-vii-43 and a male emerged 0-ix-48.

Phryganodes analis Snell. | |

Head very pale ivory white, the mandibles blackish and with
a fine blackish line above the antennae. Body with the thoracic
somites very pale buff, the abdominal bluish white, the colour due
mainly to the contents of the intestines. A pulsating dark dorsal
line. Legs old ivory. Prolegs bluish white. Spiracles white. So-
mites rather deeply divided, thoracic somites somewhat ‘attened.
A few, fairly long colourless hairs. Turns pink before pupation.

Pupa in a folded leaf lined with white silk. Reddish brown,
slender. The cremaster fairly long and fixed in. the silk hning
of the leaf. :

Food-plant—Cassia fistula L., spinning two leaves together and
living and feeding between.

- Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 28-vii-43,

pupated 31-vii-43 and a male emerged 8-vili-438.

Lepyrodes neptis Cr. |
Head yellow green. with a blackish lateral line. Body jade ~
green, rather more opaque than most Pyralid larvae, with a darker
dorsal stripe. 1st somite with a very minute black subdorsal dot,
2nd somite with a slightly larger dot. A few short colourless
hairs. ives in silk-lined, spun-together leaf. 7
Pupa in a spun-together leaf. Emerald green with a darker

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN ed 69

dorsal abdominal line. Very long and slender, the head produced
to a snout, the body widest just before the middle of the thorax
and then tapering towards the cremaster. Legs and antenna cases
very long and extending almost to the end of the abdomen. Cre-
master a black triangular point armed with short hooked spines.
Food- -plant—J asmine.
Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 3-x-48, pe
pated 5-x-43 and a male emerged 10-x-48.

Leucinodes AS ae Guen.

Cotes Indian Museum Notes, iii, 100.
Lefroy, Indian Insect Life, 518. 1909.

Head chestnut brown. 1st somite with a brown dorsal plate.
Body pinkish brown with a darker dorsal line. Anai plate blackish .
brown. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse series of six olive
green warts bearing colourless bristles. Abdominal somites with a
subdorsal, suora- and sub-spiracular series of similar, but smaller,
warts, all of which are only visible under a lens. Venter and pro-
legs very pale pinkish brown. Legs blackish. Spiracles blackish.
Turns pink before pupation.

Pupa in a flat cocoon of pinkish, parchment-like silk spun be-
tween leaves, in nature probably among dead leaves on the ground.
Stoutish, the dorsum of the abdominal somites deep pink, the
venter pale yellow, thorax and wing cases brownish yellow. Leg
and proboscis sheathes extending slightly beyond the edge of the
wing cases. Cremaster short, spade- shaped and fringed with very
fine hooked spines.

Food-plant—Various species of Solanaceae, feeding in the

fruits.
Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 15-x-43, spun
17-x-43 and a female emerged 28-x-43.
. Lefroy describes the larva as being pink, smooth and almost
hairless, boring in the fruit of wild and cultivated Brinjal.

Pyrausta incoloralis Guen.

Head yellowish green, bearing a few colourless bristles. Body
rather bluer green, chiefly due to the contents of the intestines.
A white spiracular line. 2nd somite with a minute black subdorsal
speck. A few colourless hairs. Legs and prolegs pale glassy green.
The larva lives under a web spun on the underside of a leaf of the
food-plant and is extremely difficult to detect as the colour of the
silk is an exact match of the silver- -erey colour of the leaf.

Pupa in a cocoon of fairly dense white silk spun in a turned
over leaf. Very pale green, the abdominal somites tinged with
_ whitish. A very fine transverse brown line dorsally on the “posterior
edge of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd abdominal somites. Leg and proboscis
sheathes slightly longer than the wing eases. Cuticle of abdomen
very minutely punctate.

Food -plant—Calotropis procera IB SES

Described from a full fed larva found in Caleutta 12-xi-43,
pupated 16-xi-48 and a female emerged 24-xi-48.

(To be continued.)

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN |
COMMELINAS; TWO NEW. SPECIES OF COMMELINA
FROM SOUTH INDIA.*

EDWARD BARNES
(With two plates)

It is well-known that in the genus Commelina the spathe usually
contains two cymes, that the flowers of each cyme open one at
a time and remain open only for a few hours, and that the flowers
of the inner cyme are often infertile. Very little further informa-
tion about the flowering of these plants appears to be available.
The writer has made observations on the sequence of flowering
in a number of South Indian species, the details of which are
recorded below under each species. It is found that each species
has a more or less characteristic behaviour, the average interval
between the opening of successive flowers, and the variation of
this interval, differing in different species. This behaviour is no
doubt affected by temperature, humidity, fertility of soil and other
external factors, but it appears to be largely characteristic of the
species, as most species will grow and flower only between cer-
tain limits of warmth and moisture.

An interesting fact noticed during these observations is that
the development of the pistil in a flower of the outer cyme depends
on whether or not the previous flowers of that cyme have been
fertilised and are forming capsules. Usually the first few flowers
on the outer cyme have completely developed and fertile pistils.
After one or more capsules have been set, subsequent flowers have
pistils aborted to various degrees. The stages of abortion are
usually—shortened style, further shortened style which remains
coiled, small ovary and almost no style, vestigial ovary. In all

flowers the stamens are fully developed and fertile. If, however, —

each flower is removed after opening, or even if the partially

*Except for a few very minor details, the ms. of this article was complete
at the time of my husband’s death. Owing to the difficulty of correspondence
with Britain during the War, he was unable to send specimens of the two new
species to Kew Herbarium for examination and report, and he planned to con-
sult specialists in India before publishing the descriptions. This he was pre-
vented from doing by illness and death. He had, however, named both species,
and written the Latin diagnosis for C. Pehiscens. Niivsrailes are due to
Mr K. Cherian Jacob of the Government Agricultural College, Coimbatore,
and Dr S. K. Mukerjee, Curator of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic
Garden, Calcutta, for their kindness in scrutinising specimens and studying
the written descriptions. They have confirmed my husband’s opinion that both
Commelina indehiscens. and Commelina tricolor are new and distinct species.
Dr Mukerjee kindly supplied the Latin diagnosis for C. tricolor.

Avice M. Barnes.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS 73

developed capsule or capsules are removed from the cyme, the
subsequently opening flowers develop fertile pistils. On the other
hand, the removal of the whole outer cyme from a spathe while
in bud does not appear to induce the infertile flowers of the inner
cyme of that spathe to develop pistils, although vestigial pistils
may be present, and although perfect flowers producing capsules
may very occasionally occur on the inner cyme in that species.

In identifying the plants used, it was found that both the pub-
lished descriptions and the reference herbarium material are often
incomplete. This is especially the case as regards the flower. The
petals are very delicate, soon shrivel and stick to the pressing
paper; the filaments and style although slender are succulent, and
_ they coil together and lose most of their characteristics on drying.
Consequently very few herbarium specimens have flowers of which
the details can be made out. As the original descriptions of a
number of species were made from herbarium material, the details
of the flowers appear never to have been recorded in these cases.
It therefore appeared to be desirable to give a description of the
living flower, especially as the flower does not appear to vary
much in the different forms of the same species, and as there
are sometimes characteristic features or combinations of features
useful in identification.

In this genus identification is frequently difficult. Not only are
the flowers often undescribed or inadequately described, but the
leaf and stem are often very variable, and in most species there
are a number of forms or varieties differing in habit, hairiness and
other characters. Classification is based largely on the characters
of the spathe, capsule and seed. But unfortunately, in spite of free
flowering, it is often remarkably difficult to find ripe capsules and
seeds of the plants in the wild state. Probably birds or field mice
search systematically for the maturing capsules. This may account
for the fact that many herbarium specimens are without mature
capsules and seeds, and it is not surprising that much confusion
exists as to their identity. In order to establish the identity of
the plants referred to, and because the details, if recorded, are not
easily available, descriptions of the spathe, capsule and seed have
also been given in this article for each species.

Method of Observation:

The method of observing the sequence of flowering was very
simple. A small numbered ticket was attached to each spathe
when it first flowered, and each morning it was recorded .which
marked spathes had flowers; the state of development of the pistil
in each flower was also noted. As far as possible observations
were made on plants growing in their native habitat. It was found,
however, that such plants suffer many casualties. The flowers and
spathes are attacked by many insects, and the plants being succu-
lent are sought for by browsing animals. Consequently with un-
protected plants only a small proportion of marked spathes usually
survives for complete observation. Where observation could not
be made in the field, the plants were planted in pots and kept in

72 JOURNAL BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the writer’S’ garden, but observation was not begun for some
weeks or months so that the plants should have become accli-
matised to their new situation.

A Method of Preserving the Flowers :

As it is very desirable that herbarium material should include
well-preserved flowers, the following simple method of collection
and treatment is given. The flowers are usually open only in the
morning and shrivel soon after collection. They should therefore
be pressed on the field. A small easily portable press about 10 x6
ins. made of 3-ply wood and with three butterfly screws, and con-
taining sufficient absorbent paper, is convenient. An envelope con-
taining pieces of good quality white tissue paper about 2 ins. square
and folded double should be kept in the press. In addition to com-
plete specimens of the plant, several flowering spathes should be
gathered. The spathe should be opened out and any mucilage
absorbed and then the flower and open spathe should be carefully ~
pressed between a*folded tissue paper. The pressing paper should
be changed without opening the tissue papers till the flowers and
spathes are quite dry. Then a quantity of Canada balsam diluted
with toluene or xylene is applied to both sides of each folded tissue
paper which is then pressed between two microscope slides so as
to expel air bubbles and excess of balsam. The slides are then
dried in a warm place. If the tissue paper is of good quality, it
becomes almost completely transparent in Canada balsam, and the
details of the flower can be clearly seen even with a lens. The
colour of the petals is not affected by long exposure to light if
preserved in this way. Instead of using glass slides, a patch of
Canada balsam may be applied to each side of the folded tissue
paper over the flower. After drying for some days, these papers
may be mounted on the sheets with the rest of the plant. The
result without glass is not however very permanent as after some
months or years the Canada balsam turns brown and the colour
of the petals fades.

Some observations have also been made on self-fertilisation by
the coiling together of the stamens and style. In some species this
coiling is highly developed and is very successful in ensuring fer-
tilisation, while in others it is quite ineffectual. The style and the .
anthers of the lateral stamens are coiled in the bud, and the coiling
in the latter stages of flowering is apparently a reversal of the
process of expansion. Only in some species has this movement
been elaborated and adapted to self-fertilisation. The fact that coil-
ing of’ the anthers occurs in male flowers as well as in perfect ones
suggests that the action is purely mechanical.

In some species the spathe contains mucilage in which the flower
buds remain immersed. The purpose of this mucilage appears to
be to prevent the buds from being attacked by aphides and other
small insects. The buds of species that do not produce mucilage, »
such as C. clavata and C. indehiscens, are often much attacked by
aphides which are placed in the spathes by small ants.

Some brief notes about distribution, forms and habits are given.
It is remarkable that even the colour of some common species does

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS 73

not appear to have been correctly recorded. Some species have
several different forms differing in leaf, size and shape and in habit.
Some of these forms appear to be sufficiently distinct to be given
the status of varieties, but much more complete collections and
many more field observations appear to be necessary before this
can be usefully undertaken.

Commelina nudiflora Linn.
Flower and Spathe.

Spathe rather variable in shape, ovate-cordate, tapering to an acute or acu-
minate tip, the two halves folded together, or oblong-lanceolate, the two halves
folded together at the base but the upper portion flat and ligulate with a more
or less rounded tip, up to 3.5 cms. long and 1.5 cms. broad (opened out),
glabrous, without mucilage; peduncle slender, from about half as long as the
spathe to much longer, sometimes slightly hairy at the upper end, solitary,
‘leaf-opposed. Inner cyme branch nearly twice as long as. the outer.

Two anterior sepals broadly ovate, concave, joined together at the base for
about 1/3 their length, white or tinged blue, with 2 or 3 obscure greenish nerves,
tips rounded; posterior sepal. broadly boat-shaped, with 3 or more prominent
green nerves, tip incurved. Two posterior petals cordate-reniform, unequal-
sided, .6-.7 cm. dia. claws narrow, at about right angles; anterior petal a little
smaller, cordate, concave, margin irregular, tip rounded or bluntly triangular,
claw very short; all usually deep blue, sometimes paler. Two lateral stamens
with long blue filaments and small anthers with blackish margins; median
stamen with shorter filament, another larger, deep yellow, the cells curved and
diverging at the base, connective between the cells white or blackish. Pollen
grains yellow, narrowly ovoid, with a longitudinal groove, surface smooth,
minutely pitted,- rather variable in size, .04-.05 xX .02-.03 mm. Staminodes
more often 2 than 3, filaments slender, blue, about half as long as those of

the lateral stamens heads yellow with two long large lobes and usually several
’ small round ones; third staminode when present often without a head. Ovary
ovoid narrowed to the style, papilose, pale green: style about as long as the
longer stamens blue curved forward. ;

Sequence of Flowering.

There are normally two cyme branches in the spathe. The inner bears usu-
ally one but sometimes up to 3 flower buds. With very few exceptions’ the
first two of these on opening are found to be male; the third does not mature.
Of the 3 or 4 flower buds on the outer cyme branch the flower developing from
the first is almost always perfect, but only a small percentage of second and third
flowers have fully developed pistils, and the fourth rarely opens. Plants from
Chembarambakkam and from the Unamalai Hills, both in the Chingleput
District, were grown at Tambaram and 123 spathes were marked between
December and April. Of these on first flowering, 99 had a perfect flower
on the outer branch only; in 15 there were both a male on the inner and @ per-
fect flower on the outer branch; 6 had a male on the inner branch only; 2 had
perfect flowers on both cymes, and one had an imperfect flower on the outer cyme
branch. Of those that first produced a perfect flower on the outer branch,
37 next had a male flower on the inner branch (25 next day, 7 after an
interval of 1. day, 5 after 2 days, 3 after 3 days, 1 after 5 days). Of the 15
that first opened flowers on both branches, 3 next opened a second male on the
inner branch (after 2 days), and 2 produced an imperfect flower on the outer
branch (after 1 and 2 days). Two of the spathes that first had a male on the
inner branch next opened a perfect flower on the outer branch (after 1 and 2
days), and one had an imperfect flower on the outer branch (after 1 day). The
2 spathes that had a perfect flower on each cyme: produced an imperfect flower
on the outer cyme after one day, and one of these opened a second perfect
flower on the inner branch on the following day. Of the other spathes that
were in flower on a third occasion, 14 had perfect and 17 had incomplete flowers
on the outer branch; 2 had second male flowers on the inner branch, and.
one had a male on the inner and a perfect flower on the outer. Very few

spathes produced a further flower, and these were mostly incomplete ones on
the outer branch.

74 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol.: 46

Plants from Palmaner (Chittoor District) grown at Tambaram_ behaved
similarly. Of 10 spathes, 7 produced first a perfect flower on the outer branch,
followed in 3 cases by a male on the inner next day or after an interval of one
day; 3 had a male on the inner and a perfect flower on the outer branch on first
flowering, followed after an interval of a day by a second perfect or imperfect
flower on the outer branch.

Plants from Trivandrum also behaved in a similar manner except that more
frequently two flowers opened on the inner cyme branch with intervals of 1
to 3 days.

As in the case of C. kurzii, the removal of a perfect flower has the effect of
causing the next flower to become perfect. The perfect flowers on the outer
branches of 7 spathes were cut off. In each case the second flower was perfect.
These were removed and the third flower was also perfect. From 6 spathes
the capsule which had developed on the outer branch of the cyme was removed.
In five cases the next flower on this branch was perfect, and in the other the
flower had an imperfect pistil. Occasionally a flower on the inner cyme branch
is perfect and a capsule may be formed. It was thought that by completely
removing the outer cyme branch some days before a flower opened, the flower
or flowers of the inner cyme might become perfect. However, after removing
the outer branch of the cyme while in bud from 6 spathes, it was found in each
case that the flower that later opened on the inner cyme branch was male.

Self-fertilisation.

The filaments of the lateral stamens coil strongly and the filament of the
median stamen also coils at its upper end. The style bends so that the stigma
usually comes in contact with the anthers. The staminodes do not usually coil.
An examination of numerous spathes with capsules showed that in most cases
a capsule was formed from the first flower of the outer branch. This suggests
that self-fertilisation is usually effective.

Capsule and Seed.

Capsule ovoid-oblong, slightly constricted at the middle, buff-coloured,

surface smooth or very finely furrowed, tip shortly cuspidate, 3-celled, 2-valved,
2-cells, 2-seeded, posticous cell 1-seeded. and indehiscent. After dehiscence both
valves remain attached to the pedicel. The peduncle becomes more or less de-
flexed before the capsules dehisce, and so the seeds of the two anticous cells
usually fall out. Some time after dehiscence the peduncle becomes detached
from the plant, and the brown and shrivelled spathe containing the 1-seeded
indehiscent cell of the capsule falls to the ground and is likely to be blown to
some distance by the wind. Not infrequently two capsules mature on the
outer cyme branch. Very rarely there may be a capsule on the inner branch.

Seeds ovoid, truncate at one end, 2.5-3 mm. long, greyish-black, cindery,
surface coarsely reticulate and with finer reticulations in the pits, one face
flattened and with a longitudinal ridge (hilum), one edge with an obscure
round pit with a blunt process at the centre (micropyle).

From flowering to dehiscence of capsule averages about 18 days, variation
16 to 21 days.

Distribution, °

This plant is common on the margins of ponds and in other wet places
on the plains and up to the Mysore Plateau (Chingleput, Nellore, Chittoor,
Trivandrum). It roots very freely at the nodes, the roots often being 6 inches
long or more before reaching the ground. The roots are fibrous. The plant
is an annual but is able to persist if conditions remain moist.

Commelina indehiscens E. Barnes sp. nov.

C. nudiflorae Linn. affinis, sed major, capsula 1-sperma indehiscente, floribus
cleistogamis, capsulis subterraneis differt.

A much branched extensively-running prostrate, probably perennial herb.
Roots long and fibrous. Stems round, up to about. 6 cm. in diameter, glabrous,

green, often with red longitudinal striations. Leaves ovate to broadly lanceolate, :

slightly unequal-sided, up to 13 cms. long and 3.5 cms. broad, usually smaller,
apex acute or acuminate, base rounded and then narrowed to a petiole up to

Commelina indehiscens Barnes Sp. Nov.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

5 a

Bt,
Hh og
),

Commelina tricolor Barnes Sp. Nov.

Pate II,

E Barnes

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON. SOUTH {INDIAN COMMELINAS 75

about 1 cm. long, with short stiff somewhat bulbous-based hairs on both
surfaces, sometimes almost glabrous, margin minutely serrate; sheaths up to
2.5 cms. long, strigose, mouth ciliate, often lax and striated and mottled with
red. Spathes broadly cordate, apex acute, the two halves folded together, usu-
ally about 2 cms. long and broad (opened out), sometimes larger, outer surface
somewhat strigose; peduncles up to 3 cms. long, strigose, leaf-opposed. Poste-
rior sepal boat-shaped, apex narrowed and concave, anterior sepals ovate-orbi-
cular, concave, fused together for about 1/3 of their length, colourless and
transparent. Posterior petals with broadly reniform or deltoid lobes, up to
about .g cm. diameter, claws slender, at about right angles to one another ;
anterior petal a little smaller, sometimes with a blunt triangular apex, claw
short; all bright blue. Staminodes 3 or 2; filaments slender, about as long
as the median stamen; heads yellow, with 2 larger and 2 smaller lobes on
- narrow stipes, often wanting in. the posterior staminode. Lateral stamens with
long, slender more or less straight filaments; anthers small, yellow margined
with bluish-grey, cleft at the base; median stamen with shorter filament and
larger anther the cells of which diverge at the base. Pollen grains ovoid-
oblong, slightly curved, .07-o9 x .o4 mm., surface finely and densely spinulose.
Ovary slightly papillose tapering to the style, 2 cells 2-ovuled, 1 cell 1-ovuled;
style a little longer than the stamens, curved forward. Capsule indehiscent,
3-celled, 2 anticous cells linear, empty, posticous cell gibbous, keeled, 1-seeded,
apex acuminate, sometimes curved, surface light brown, finely wrinkled. Secd
(after removing the adhering cell-wall) ovoid, .5 cm. long, black, surface reti-
culately pitted, the ridges forming the reticulations brown, irregular and ‘with
short lateral branches, a round “pit with a central point on one side (micropyle).

Sequence of Flowering.

Plants from the Billigirirangan Hills were grown at Tambarem and 28
spathes were marked (Feb. and March). Their flowering was found to be
much more irregular than any other species. examined. Six of these spathes
had a small leaf in place of the inner cyme, and 13 others had no inner cymie,
or it did not mature any flowers. The remaining g spathes had together 18
flowers on the inner cyme; 13 of these were male or had an incompietely
developed pistil, and 5 were perfect, three being on the same cyme. On the
outer cyme branch, 7 spathes first produced one or more perfect flowers to be
followed by flowers with pistils aborted to various degrees. Successive flowers
followed on the next day in 7 cases, after an interval of 1 day in 11 cases, and
after an interval of 2 days in 5 cases. As judged by other species, this may
be regarded as the probable normal behaviour. Seven other spathes, however,
behaved in the opposite manner, producing first one or more male or imper-
fect flowers and then producing perfect flowers. Three spathes produced only
imperfect flowers on the outer cyme. Nine others produced only perfect flowers
on the outer branch, several having as many as 7 Opening on successive days,
or after an interval of 1 day. No capsule was formed in these nine spathes,
as self-fertilisation does not occur in this species.

Self-fertilisation.

The lateral stamens coil only after the petals have begun to wilt. The
staminodes do not coil and the median stamen does not appear to coil although
it becomes curved inwards as a result of the shrivelling of the petals. The
style does not coil but remains erect when the flower has completely shrivelled.
Self-fertilisation therefore does not usually occur. The small percentage of
capsules set by perfect flowers when the plants are grown where they are not
visited by the insects of their native habitat, confirms this (see above). The
same plants when pollen was transferred by a brush, produced capsules readily.

Underground Capsules.

On examining the root system it was found that at a number of nodes,
in-addition to several roots, slender underground stems bearing capsules have
their origin. These underground stems are white, having usually 4-6 nodes,
each with a scarious ovate acute leaf about .5 cm. long or less. A small
root usualiy emerges from the node. just above the capsule. The capsules are
similar to the normal capsules but are stouter and with less acute tips; they

76 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

also contain a single seed in the posticous cell. The seed is .6 cm. long with
the surface very obscurely reticulate. These capsules originate from underground
cleistogamous flowers. . ;
No underground cleistogamous flowers were found, but several flowers inter-
mediate between normal and cleistogamous ones were seen. These are formed
when the node bearing a slender lateral branch that would normally produce a
cleistogamous flower is not in contact with the ground owing to a rock or
other obstacle, and so the lateral branch is not able to penetrate the soil. Such
branchlets are strongly geotropic and run vertically from the node towards the
ground. They bear at their ends a very small green spathe containing one or
two reduced cymes. Each of the spathes seen had a flower on the outer
branch. These flowers had 3 blue petals more or less equal in size but much

smaller than in normal flowers. They had well developed pistils but with |

short styles; and three staminodes. One had all three stamens fertile; in
one the lateral stamens only had a little pollen; and the other had all three
anthers infertile. The flowers were facing the ground and one was face down-
wards on the ground.

Occurrence.

This plant occurs in swamps and on the margins of streams in wet ever-

green forest on the Billigirirangan Hills, Mysore, 2t about 4,000 ft.—Minchiguli__
Valley, and near Bedaguli. It flowers in June when the underground capsules -.

are also present. Plants seen in September had neither flower nor underground
capsules. It was also found to be common in the Ouchterlony Valley, Western
Nilgiris, along streams at about 3,000 ft., and in the Nilgiri Wynzad about
a mile west of Nadgani, flowering and with underground capsules in August.
It was-also found at Palaar, Travancore High Range, Fl. May Nos. 1527, 1776,
2135-7, 2163-5, 2296.

The spathe; after a capsule has formed and the flowering is over, becomes
_ deflexed so that the open edge rests on the ground.

A stem that was measured was 7.35 metres long and was still growing.

It had rooted at most nodes and at 24 of these nodes there were semi-erect leafy
branches up to 25 cms. long. The same plant had a number of other main stems
several metres long, running in other directions. About half the flowers seen
had only 2 staminodes.

_ This plant is probably common in evergreen forest at 3-4,o00 ft. It superfi-
cially resembles C. clavata (Clarke), and has probably often been mistaken
‘for it. The indehiscent capsule is a unique character, and the combination—
complicate, not funnel-shaped, spathe and cleistogamous flowers—distinguishes
this plant from other South Indian species. :

Commelina hirsuta Clarke.
Spathe and Flower.

Spathe solitary, leaf-opposed, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 1.8 to 4.0 cms.
long, 1.0 to 1.5, cms. broad (opened out), the two haives folded together, base
rounded or somewhat cordate, apex acuminate, margin dark red, with stiff white
slightly bulbous-based hairs along the basal half or throughout, outer surface
sub-glossy, with very short hairs, mucilage absent or scanty. Peduncles sjender,
up to 7°5 cms. long, hirsute, often reddish. Inner cyme branch usually barren
and: only a few mm. long, hairy, tip pointed, rarely’ bearing a single flower

with an undeveloped pistil; outer cyme branch 3-to 5-flowered, broad, channelled j

on the inner side, hairy, often with a very narrow collar-like bract below the
pedicels; pedicels hairy. Posterior sepal broadly boat-shaped, with 3 broad
green veins, margin colourless; anterior sepals obovate-oblong, fused together
near the base, concave, colourless with 1 or 2 diffuse veins. Posterior petals
orbicular unequal-sided at the base, up to 1.3 cms. dia., margin irregularly
crenate sometimes shallowly toothed, claws rather short; anterior petal a
little smaller, cordate, apex bluntly triangular, claw short; all petals deep
turquoise blue. Two lateral stamens with rather thick, nearly straight, blue
filaments and large yellow anthers, the cells separated at the base; median
stamen similar but filament about 2/3 as long and anther cells diverging below.
Three staminodes with slender filaments 1/3 to § as’ long as those of the

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS rhe k

lateral stamens, heads small and variable in shape, usually with an irregularly
roundish on pear-shaped lobe or two-lobed, white, blue or purple. Ovary tomen-
tose; style about as long as the lateral stamen, more or less straight and
erect; tip turned back, blue.

The small staminodes with irregular heads, and the dark turquoise blue
petals are characteristic.

Sequence of Flowering.

There is a longer interval between the opening of successive flowers of
the same spathe in this species than in any other studied. For 37 .cases of
plants growing on the Nilgiris at 6,500 ft. and flowering in June to August
the avearge interval was 5.2 days. ‘The periods were :—3 cases 3 days, 7-4
days, 11-5 days, 13-6 days 3-7 days. The first flower on the outer branch is
perfect and subsequent flowers are perfect till a capsule is formed, after which
some flowers have an undeveloped pistil with short white coiled style, but most
are perfect. The last one or two buds on the cyme do not usually develop.

Selj-fertilisation.

Only the filaments of the lateral stamens coil and these complete only about
one coil. . Neither the style, the staminodes nor the median stamen coil before
the petals shrivel. As the style is erect and its tip turned away from the
stamens the motion of the anthers of the lateral stamens on coiling does
not bring them near the stigma, and so self-fertilisation is not brought about
by these movements. The petals on shrivelling close over the stamens and
style, and it is possible that occasionally the stigma may thus be bent down
to the coiled stamens. On wet days the shrivelling of the petals may not
occur till nightfall. Observatoin shows that only a very small percentage of
flowers form a capsule, more than one capsule being found in a spathe only
verry rarely, and often there is none.

Capsule and Seed.

Capsule 4.5 mm. long; anticous half ovoid-oblong, flat, green, hairy, with
a slightly narrowed tip; posticous half broadly semi-ovoid, glabrous, yellowish,
slightly keeled and wrinkled; 2-valved, 3-celled, posticous cell one-seeded, the
other two cells empty or with an undeveloped seed. Seed ovoid flattened on
one side about 4 mm. long and covered by the firmly adhering cell wall.

Occurrence and Habit.

_ This is a characteristic plant of the high grasslands (6,500 ft. and alove) ;
in wet regions, as on Gudalurmalai, Nilgiris, it occurs down to 6,000 feet or
a little lower. F.M.P. gives ‘Flowers yellow drying deep blue,’ which is
apparently taken from F.B.I. Fyson gives ‘Flowers blue, yellow on the plains’.
All flowers seen by the writer were intensely blue. When growing among
short grass it becomes tufted, probably owing to grazing, in thickets and tall
grass its stems are long and straggling. Occasionally glabrous plants are
found. At lower nodes there is a cataphyll between the peduncle and the
stem and clasping the stem.

Commelina clavata Clarke.
Spathe and Flower.

Spathes ovate-cordate, acuminate, the two halves folded together but usually
somewhat apart towards the tip, without mucilage, usually about 3 cms. long
and 2 cms. broad (opened out), margin ciliate near the base, inner surface
glossy, outer with scattered short stiff hairs; peduncle solitary, leaf-opposed,
usually as long as or longer than the spathe, with stiff downward-pointing
hairs denser near upper end. Cyme branches 2; inner about twice as long
as outer, usually 1- or 2-flowered, sometimes 3-flowered ; outer usually 4-flowered
occasionally with 5 or 6. Two anterior sepals broadly ovate, concave
whitish or flushed blue, joined only near the base; posterior sepal broadly
boat-shaped, white, with 3 green nerves. Two posterior petals orbicular-reni-
form, about 1 cm. dia., with narrow straight claws standing at about 60
to each other; anterior reniform, a little smaller, with a short broad claw,

78 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70

sometimes with a blunt triangular apex obscurely toothed margin; all bright
blue. Three posterior stamens modified to staminodes; filaments slender, about
2/3 as long as those of longer stamens, blue; heads with 4 rounded yellow
lobes with thick dark brownish-red attachments, sometimes 2 smaller Jobes
also present. Two lateral stamens with long curved mauve filaments and
small dark purple anthers; median stamen with a shorter filament and a
larger anther the cells of which are curved and diverge below. Ovary finely
tubercled, greenish; style sigmoidly curved so that the stigma stands out in
front of the stamens, as long as the longer stamens, blue.

The dark red or brownish attachments of the lobes of the staminodes
appear to be characteristic.

Sequence of Flowering.

The flowers on the inner cyme usually have only a vestigial ovary with no
style and fall off after flowering, but occasionally the pistil is fully developed
and a capsule may be found. On the outer cyme the first flowers to open
have fully developed pistils but subsequent ones have ovaries with variously
reduced styles and the last often has~ only a vestigial ovary with little or
no style. Sixteen spathes of plants growing on the Billigirirangan Hills at
5,000 ft. in May were marked. On the first day of flowering g had a per-
fect flower on the outer cyme branch and a male flower on the inner branch,
6 had a perfect flower on the outer branch only, and 1 had a male on the
inner branch only. Throughout their flowering 3. spathes matured no flower on
the inner branch, 8 produced only 1, 4 produced 2 and 1 had 3. All these
flowers were male (vestigial ovary). There was always an_ interval of . at
least one day without a flower between the opening of successive flowers on
the inner branch, sometimes the interval was 2 or 3 days. On the outer
cyme branch the first flower was always perfect. After an interval of one
day a second perfect flower opened. Some spathes produced four perfect
flowers with intervals of one or two days between successive flowers. More
usually after two complete flowers had been produced subsequent flowers had
pistils with short styles, or mere vestigial pistils. In a few cases there were
intervals of three or four days between successive flowers. Up to three cap-
sules may mature on the outer branch. From flowering to shedding of seed
varied between 22 and 28 days.

Some observations were made on plants growing at Kalhatti, Nilgiris
(6,500 ft.) and flowering in June. In each case there was first a perfect
flower on the outer cyme branch. On the same day, the next day or after
an interval of one day, there was a flower on the inner branch. In a
number of cases this was perfect, but more often it had an undeveloped
pistil. Several successive perfect flowers were then opened on the outer branch,
the average interval between successive flowers being 3 days. A capsule was
matured on the inner cyme branch in several cases. It is seen that at higher
elevations the interval between successive flowers is a little greater. This is
probably a temperature effect.

| Self-fertilisation.

In this species the filaments of all three stamens and the style coil. The
filaments of the staminodes bend and they become involved with the coiling
together of the stamens and style, but they do not usually coil. -The petals
in shrivelling close over the contorted stamens and style. The coiling usually
begins about midday.

Capsule and Seed.

_ Capsule oblong, tip cuspidate, glabrous, straw-coloured, 2-celled, 2-valved,
one valve deciduous, both cells 2-seeded. Seeds ovoid-oblong, slightly com-
pressed, about 3 mm. long, dull brownish-black, reticulately pitted and with
finer reticulations in the pits, with a ridge along one flattened face (hilum) ;
and a round pit with a central point on the edge (micropyle)

Occurrence and habit.
F.M.P. gives for this species ‘In all districts; sea-level to 7,000 ft. Flowers

lilac.’ The writer ‘has found it to be the common commelina of the hills at
4-7,000 {t.—Kotagiri, Ootacamund Downs, Kalhatti (Nilgiris), Atikan, Dupa-

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS 49

barri (Biligirirangan Hills), Palaar, Karankulam (Travancore High She-
varoys). ~Plants collected in Coorg and the Bababudans also appear to be this
species. It has not been found on the plains of the East Coast Districts. It
is similar to C. nudiflora which is common on the plains, and without mature
capsules the two plants may easily be mistaken for one another. The flowers
of all specimens seen were definitely blue.

Plants from different localities and situations vary in leaf shape from
linear-lanceolate to narrowly ovate and there is also a considerable variation
in hairiness, in length of peduncle and pedicel, in breadth of spathe, in
number of flowers on the outer cyme and in the development of the ovary
of the flowers of the inner cyme, but there do not appear to be very distinct
forms.

In an abnormal plant growing at Kalhatti the spathe was large and
leaflike and there was « second spathe below the flowers of the inner cyme
branch. This suggests that the peduncle and the inner cyme branch are in
origin parts of a scape, the spathe being a bract. This may indicate that
the genus Commelina evolved from Aneilema or some other genus in which
there is a cymose inflorescence with foliaceous bracts.

The roots in this species are very slenderly tuberous, clothed with a felt
of old root hairs, and the bases of the stems are thickened as in C. kurzii, but
much less so. No starch was present when the root was examined.

Commelina tricolor E. Barnes sp. nov.

C. persicariaefoliae (Wight) -affinis sed foliis minoribus angustatis sessilibus
utrinque coriaceis, spathe acuminata, petalis magnis differt.

- A tufted or straggling herb, probably perennial. Roots slenderly tuberous ;
tubers up to 5 cms. long, tapering at both ends, about .65 cm. diameter
at the middle, white and pubescent when young, dark chocolate-brown when
mature. Stems freely branching, up to 50 cms. long, rather slender, 2.5-3.0
mm. dia., cylindrical, slightly flattened on one side, pubescent on the flattened
side, otherwise glabrous, darkish red, finely striated with green lines or spots,
thickened at the base and forming a clump. Leaves narrowly oblong-lanceo-
late, up to 1.3 cms. wide and 7.5 cms. long, tapering to a rather blunt
tip, base semi-amplexicaul, margin white or red and very finely toothed,
upper surface glabrous and with very minute scattered hairs, under surface
paler, glabrous, midrib depressed above, raised below, 2 or 3 pairs of more
prominent nerves, often 2 on one side and 3 on the other; sheath up to
1.2 cms. long, darkish red, striated or mottled green, glabrous except for
a line of pubescence down the side opposite the blade, mouth ciliate, eventu-
‘ally splitting along the line of pubescence. Peduncles solitary, leaf-opposed,
rather stout, red or green, glabrous except for a line of pubescence often
present along the inner side, up to 5 cms, long. Spathe cordate, tapering
to an <ccute tip, up to 3.8 cms. long and 2.5 cms. wide (opened out), the
two halves folded together, sometimes slightly joined at the base, inner
surface glabrous, outer glabrous or with extremely short hairs, margins red
or white and finely ciliate, watery mucilage present during flowering. Inner
cyme branch up to 2 cms. long. usually 1-sometimes 2-flowered, outer cyme
branch up to 1 cm. long, 5- or 6-flowered. Posterior sepal boat-shaped with
one stronger and 2 weaker nerves; anterior sepals large, broadly ovate, con-
cave, fused together for 1/3 to 2/3 of their length, whitish with 3 pale
green nerves. Posterior petals orbicular-reniform, unequal-sided at base, mar-
gin often irregular, about 1 cm. dia., claws rather broad, bright blue; ante-
rior petal reniform or deltoid, about .6 cm. dia., margin irregularly toothed,
tip bluntly triangular, claw short, pale blue, contained by the anterior sepals.
Lateral stamens with long curved white or mauve filaments and small brown-
ish anthers; median stamen with a straight filament about half as long as
those of the lateral stamens, anther large and broad, yellow, brownish on
the back, the cells curved. Staminodes 3, filaments about as long as the
median stamen, heads large, sulphur-yellow, with 4 pouch-like lobes arranged
in pairs and usually with a smaller lobe between the pairs. Ovary green,
papilose; style straight below but standing at an angle so that the curved
upper end and the stigma are in front of the stamens. Capsule ovoid-oblong,
somewhat compressed, apex rounded or slightly retuse, about 1 cm. long, glab-
rous, 2-celled, 2-valves, 4-seeded, both valves remaining attached to the peduncle
On dehiscence. Seeds ovoid-oblong, slightly compressed, truncate at one end,

80 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46.

3-5 X 2.2 mm., surface smooth, pale brown, often with a white deposit,
a longitudinal brown scar on one face (hilum), and a round pit with a
central point on one edge (micropyle). tt

On Karadimalai and a mati Sountiars spur, Gudalur Ghat, Nilgiris 4,500-
4,700 ft. between rocks and amongst coarse grass. Flowers in July and August
and probably during the rest of year as this area receives both-the S.W. and
the N.E. monsoon rains. Sheets Nos. 2265, 2310, 2311 in the writer’s herba-
rium.

Sequence of Flowering.

Several plants were grown under observation at about 6,500 ft. on the
Nilgiris. The flowers on the inner cyme branch are almost always male, having
only a vestigial ovary with no style.. A flower on the inner branch is usually
the first to open and this is followed by a perfect flower on the outer branch.
With 9 spathes, the perfect flower opened on the same day as the male
on the inner branch in 2 cases, on the next day in 2 cases, after an interval
of one day in 4 cases, and after 2 days’ interval in 1 case. Subse-
quent flowers on the outer branch had variously reduced pistils or were
perfect, depending on whether a capsule or capsules had been set or not.
The intervals between consecutive flowers on the outer cyme branch were :—
in 1 case 2 days, in 4 cases 3 days, in 8 cases 4 days, in 3 cases 5 days and
in 2 cases 6 days. Sometimes two capsules are formed in a spathe, but usually
there is only one and often none.

Spathes are usually at the end nodes of branches but other spathes may
form later at the next lower nodes. A few specimens are found which have
stiff white hairs on the outer surface of the spathe, on the upper side of the
leat and on the sheath and peduncle.

The rather large whitish anterior sepals and the large bright yellow
staminode heads are characteristic. These with the bright blue petals and the
red stems make this a striking plant.

Commelina attenuata Koen.
Spathe and Flower.

Spathes ovate-lanceolate 2.5 cms. long, the two halves folded together,
base produced into two rounded auricles, tip bluntly. acuminate, outer surface
and margin glabrous, inner surface with small. stiff white hairs except near
the centre, central area pale and translucent, mucilage absent. Peduncle
slender, about 2 cms. long, bent at the upper end, with fine white hairs
along the inner side.

Posterior sepal broadly boat-shaped, base truncate; anterior sepals ovate,
concave, joined for about 2/3 of their length, white, translucent with obscure
green veins. Posterior petals orbicular-reniform, 6-7 mm. across, base shal-
lowly cordate, claws straight, rather narrow, about 1/3 the length of the
lobe, at about right angles to one another; anterior petal standing within
the concave anterior sepals, broadly ovate, margin irregular, tip bluntly
triangular, base cordate or slightly auricled, claw short and broad; all” pale
to deep blue. Lateral stamens with mauve filaments curved at the upper
end, anthers yellow, broad, cells separated at base for about 1/3 of their
length; median stamen with a slightly shortened filament, anther about twice
as large as in lateral stamens, cells slightly curved and diverging at base.
Pollen grains ovoid, slightly flattend on one side, .05 x .08 mm., surface
spinulose. Three staminodes with filaments slender, straight, blue, a_ little
more than half as long as the lateral stamens; heads with 2 larger, 2 smaller
and usually 2 obscure round yellow lobes. Ovary green, papilose; style straight,
inclined forwards.

Sequence of Flowering.

There are two cyme branches in the spathe. The inner is _ usually
1-flowered, sometimes 2-flowered; the outer may have 4 flowers. The inner
cyme branch and the pedicels it bears are long so that the flowers stand
far, out of the spathe. On the first day of flowering there is usually a
male flower on the inner cyme and a perfect flower on the outer cyme, or
there may be a male flower on the inner cyme followed by a_ perfect flower

”

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS 8i

on the outer cyme the next day. After an interval of 2, 3 or less frequently
4 days, another flower opens; this is usually a second perfect flower on
the outer cyme, but it may be a flower with a short style; in a few cases
it is a-second male on the inner cyme. After a second interval of 2 or
3 days there may be a third flower on the outer cyme which is sometimes
perfect but more often has an aborted pistil.

As the removal of the earlier flowers from the outer cyme is found to
cause the later flowers on that cyme to become perfect, it was thought
that possibly the complete removal of the outer cyme might cause the flowers
of the inner cyme to become perfect. In eight developing spathes the outer
cyme branch was carefully cut out while it was in small bud (3-5 days
before the first. flower was due to open). In each case when the flower of
the inner cyme branch opened it was found to be male, the vestigial ovary
showing no-sign of development.

Self-fertilisation.

The filaments of the lateral stamens and the style coil together. The
filament of the “median stamen arches at the upper end. The staminodes
do not coil. The lateral stamens of the male flowers coil. Self-fertilisation
is usually successful.

Capsule and Seed.

Capsule ovoid-oblong, apex truncate, surface smooth, 2-celled, 2-valved, 4-
seeded. Both valves remain attached to the pedicel after dehiscence, ‘ and
the dry spathe remains attached to the plant. There is usually one capsule
each spathe, sometimes two.

Seed barrel-shaped, 4 m.m. long. ashy or pale brown speckled with black,
a roundish cap at each end which is more or less gelatinous when the seed
is first shed but on drying becomes white and honey-combed with round
holes. Hilum a longitudinal brown line; micropyle a pale oval patch.

Occurrence.

This plant is common in grassy places on the plains of the East Coast
districts and up to about 4,coo ft. on the drier slopes of the hills (Billigiri-
rangans) and in S. Travancore (Udayagiri). It appears to be able to tolerate
saline conditions as it is found on the seashore sands and round the salt pans
at Covelong. The stems, are prostrate and rooting occurs at each node if
conditions are favourable. The roots are long and fibrous, and the plant
appears to be an annual. It flowers during the moister months and dries
off about March.

Commelina benghalensis Linn.
Sputhe and Flower.

Spathe rather narrowly funnel-shaped, compressed, inner angle obtuse, outer
acute, very shortly peduncled, outer surface with long jointed tapering hairs
and numerous shorter jointed hairs with hooked tips, inner surface glabrous,
mucilage present, solitary, usually leaf-opposed at the end node of a stem
or branchlet. There are often a number of slender branchlets bearing several
spathes one at each node opposite a small leaf.

Posterior sepal broadly boat-shaped, concave, tip green, inturned; anterior
sepals obovate-orbicular, concave, joined for a short distance above the base,
whitish with a median green vein. Posterior petals reniform-deltoid, unequal
sided at base, 6.5 mm. across, claw rather broad about as long as as the lobe;
anterior petal ovate, tip triangular, turned in, claw short and broad; all
dark blue. Lateral stamens 2; filaments blue, slightly curved at upper end;
anthers small, dark blue, attached near the base; median stamen with slightly
shorter filament; anther larger, yellow, cells curved and diverging. Pollen
of the lateral stamens white, of the median stamen yellow, grains ovoid, ends
buntly pointed, .035-.04. x .015 mm., with a longitudinal groove, surface
glossy, apparently with minute pits. Staminodes 3; filaments very slender,
colourless, 3-2 as long as the stamens; heads pale yellow with 4 larger and
2 smaller lobes. Ovary 3-lobed, pale green, style a little longer than _ the
Jateral. stamens, upper end purple. :

82 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Sequence of Flowering.

There may be two cyme ‘branches in the spathe but the inner is some-
times suppressed. In most cases there is a male flower on the inner branch
and a perfect flower on the outer branch on the first day of flowering. Then
on the next day or the day after there is a second perfect flower on the
outer cyme, and there may be a third on the following day. Of 33
spathes that first opened a male flower on the inner and a perfect flower
on the outer branch, 20 opened a second perfect flower on the outer branch
next day, and 11 on the day after. .

Self-fertilisation.

The, filaments of the style and lateral and median stamens ‘coil strongly
at their upper ends. The style stands between the stamens, and the stigma
is often in contact with the anthers of the lateral stamens before coiling has
set in. The filaments of the staminodes do not coil. Self-fertilisation appears
to take place very frequently, and to be successful. Of 18 spathes examined,
10 had 3 capsules, 5 had 2 and 3 had 1. In 24 capsules examined 22 had
5 seeds and 2 had 4 seeds. ;

Capsule and Seeds.

Capsules broadly ovoid-oblong, gibbous on the back and obscurely keeled,
surface sub-glossy, very finely longitudinally furrowed, tip truncate, 2-valved,
3-celled, 2 cells 2-seeded, posticous cell indehiscent and 1-seeded. From flower-
ing till the dehiscence of the capsule varied from 15 to 18 days (January
and February), average about 17 days. When the capsule is about to dehisce
the spathe turns yellowish and becomes detached from the plant. By means
of the small hooked hairs on its outer surface the spathe will cling to a
hairy surface and is no doubt often carried about by animals on their fur.
The mouth of the spathe remains closed at first and the smaller seeds of
the anticous cells are retained for some time owing to their rough surface.
The posticous valve containing the indehiscent 1-seeded cell easily becomes
detached from its pedicel, but owing to the wing-like portions of the anticous
cells attached to it on each side, it is usually held in the spathe. The anti-
cous valve remains attached to the pedicel.

Seeds of the anticous cells ovoid, one end truncate, the other rounded,
2.mm. long, flattened on one side, dull grey, minutely speckled with white,
with irregular transverse ridges, a round depression with a central point on
one edge (micropyle), an obscure longitudinal line on the flattened face (hilum).
The minute white speckles are seen under the microscope to be more or less
spherical excrescences.

Seed of the posticous cell ovoid, 3-3.5 mm. long, one side flattened, both
ends rounded, a brown ridge on the flattened side (hilum), a roundish pit
on one edge with a central point (micropyle), convex side about 7 ridges
radiating from the micropyle.

The smaller seeds of the anticous cells germinate much more slowly than
the larger ones of the posticous cell. Twelve seeds of each kind from the
same capsules were placed on wet sand (February—early March); the larger
seeds took 18, 19 and 21 days to germinate, and after 21 days no more seeds
germinated; the smaller seeds germinated after 27, 32, 44, 49, 51, 64 days.

Cleistogamous Flowers.

This species produces cleistogamous flowers. In these the spathe is pear-
shaped, one edge of the margin being folded over the other (right over left
or left over right. on the same plant). The outer angle is thus made into
a point which may be useful in penetrating the soil. It is cream-coloured
‘and covered with small hooked hairs on the outside; no mucilage is present.
There is a single flower on a short jointed stalk. The petals are small and
blue and do not expand, but remain enclosed by the sepals. There are
three staminodes whose filaments are not coiled..The 2 lateral and _ the
median stamen’ have their filaments coiled at the upper end and all yield
pollen. The style is also coiled, and purple. The white underground run-
ners bearing the cleistogamous spathes may be up to 20 cms, long. may have

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS 83

6 nodes and may bear 3 or 4 spathes (one at a node). Three underground
runners, a branch and 2 roots may originate at the same node of the stem.
There is every stage between normal spathes and cleistogamous ones—
spathe green, 1-5 cms. long, opposite a large leaf, second spathe, above this,
on a short shoot with a small green sheath opposite to a smaller spathe—
shorter green slender branches bearing 2 or 3 smaller and narrower spathes
each at a node and with a green-veined prophyllum opposite the spathe and
a scarious prophyllum between the spathe and the axis. The prophyllums are
like sheaths without the green blade but with a rounded end with a blunt
apiculus, striated green with whitish transparent spaces between—slender down-
ward pointing green branches with still smaller spathes and tips of petals
separate—runners partly under the soil, the upper part only green.

Distribution and Habit.

This species is said to occur in all districts except the wettest (F.M.P.),
but it has been collected by the writer on the Nilambur Ghat, which has
a very heavy rainfall (about 150 inches). It occurs also on the Billigirirangan
Hills at 4,000 ft., on the Elagiri Hills and in the Ouchterlony Valley (Nilgiris)
about 4,500 ft.)

The leaves vary to some extent in different localities; normal leaves, es-
pecially on their under-surface, have curved and some hooked hairs, and
will cling to a woolly surface. The stems also have fine hooked hairs.

Commelina jacobii C. E. C. Fischer.
Spathe and Flower.

Spathes broadly ovate to almost orbicular (opened out), up to 2 cms. long

and broad, base shallowly cordate, apex blunt or sub-acute, two halves folded
together, each half strongly convex, margins closely approximated and_ fused
together for a short distance above the base, four pairs of prominent nerves
arching from base to apex, inner surface glabrous, outer covered with short
hooked hairs; mucilage present during flowering; peduncle up to 1.5 cms. long
solitary, leaf-opposed. When the spathe is at the end of a branch it is usually
Opposite to a small orbicular leaf about 1 cm. long.
Posterior sepal broadiy boat-shaped, apex incurved; two anterior sepals
broadly ovate, concave, not joined together, transparent. Two posterior petals
with semi-circular lobes 7-8 mm. dia., outer sides cordate at base, inner trun-
cate, claws long and narrow; anterior petal broadly ovate, tip bluntly triangular,
margin with 2 blunt teeth on each side, bright blue, Two lateral stamens
with long slender filaments and small yellow anthers notched at base; median
stamen with shorter straight filament and larger yellow anther with curved
cells; pollen yellow, grains ovoid, slightly curved, one side flattened, .08
x .64 mm., surface finely and densely spinulose. Staminodes 3, sometimes
only 2, filaments 3} to 2/3 as long as the longer stamens; heads bright yellow
with 2 larger .broad and 2 smaller narrow lobes arranged like the wings
of a butterfly, 2 very small lobes often present between them. Ovary green,
immersed in mucilage; style purple, as long as the longer stamens, curved
so that the stigma stands in front of the stamens.

Sequence of Flowering.

In this species only the outer branch of the cyme is fertile; the inner
branch is slender, only a few mm. long and with a gelatinous tip. Twenty-
nine spathes of plants from the Gingee Hills grown at Tambaram were marked
(August). Each first produced a perfect flower. Ileven spathes had no second
flower. Ten had a second perfect flower on the following day, and 4 after
an interval of 1 day. The second flower in four spathes had an imperfect
pistil (style short and coiled), two on the next day and two after an interval
of one day. One spathe had three complete flowers on successive days. It
was noticed that as a plant grew older its spathes more frequently had only
one flower.

A plant of this species found on the Elagiri Hills at about 2,000 ft. was
grown at Tambaram and flowered in March. Of twelve marked spathes, ten
first produced a perfect flower, and two had perfect flowers -on the outer cyme
branch open together. This is very rarely’ observed. Of these twelve spathes

8, jOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

-8 had no subsequent flower; 3 had a second complete. flower on the next
day, and one had an imperfect flower after an interval of a day.

From the opening of the flower to the dehiscence of the capsule is about
three weeks.

Self-fertilisation,

The filaments of the two lateral stamens and the style coil together. The
median stamen and the staminodes do not coil, but they may become involved
wn the coiling of the style and lateral stamens. Self-fertilisation appears to
be effective.

Capsule and Seed,

In the small form from the Elagiris grown under observation at Tambaram,
only’ one capsule was formed in a spathe. Spathes of the large form found
at Kallar (Nilgiris) had up to three capsules .85 cm. long. Capsule oblong,
3-celled,, 2-valved, 5-seeded when fully developed. The posticous valve deci-
duous, containing the 1-seeded indehiscent cell; the other two cells each con-

taining two seeds which fall out when dehiscence occurs. After dehiscence

the sutures of the valves are seen to be strongly wavy. The outer surface
of the deciduous valve is yellowish-brown and completely covered with fine
longitudinal wavy ridges; it has also an obscure longitudinal keel. Seed of
dehiscent cells ovoid oblong, slightly flattened and curved, 4-4.5 mm. long,
2.5 mm. broad, pale pinkish-brown with’ black markings, one face with a
curved black slit (hilum), the other with a pit containing a small ‘conical
projection (micropyle), the convex edge with 3 transverse tubercled ridges;
seed of the indehiscent eell with about 5 radiating ridges which can be seen
as undulations on the surface of the cell. The spathe becomes- detached soon
after the capsule opens, but its margins remain pressed together. It clings
to hairy surfaces by the hooked hairs with which it is covered and is probably
carried about by animals. The seeds because of their tubercled ridges, and
the one-seeded valve because of its wings and rough outer’ surface are held
in the spathe and are thus dispersed.

Occurrence.

This plant was found at Coimbatore and in the Salem District by Mr K. C.
Jacob. It has been found by the writer along a stream on the slopes of
the Elagiri Hills, North Arcot District, at about 2,o00 ft. flowering in December,
on the Gingee Hills, South Arcot District, and at MKallar, Nilgiri District,
at 1,700 ft. (mature capsules July). The Kallar plant was a large form with
stout stems and leaves up to. 10 cms. long and 4 cms. broad, the apex
acuminate. The spathe with its two convex halves having their margins press-
ed together, and the very characteristic capsule and seed enable this species
to be identified with ease. The roots are slender and yellowish. Rooting occurs
at the lower nodes. The plant is able to carry on from year to year if condi-
tions are favourable.

Commelina forskalaei Vahl.
Spathe and Flower.

Spathe irregularly funnel-shaped, compressed, outer angle acute, inner round-
ed, up to about 1.4 cms. long, with 3 prominent pairs of nerves, inner
surface glossy, outer covered with very short hairs and the basal half with
numerous long stiff tapering colourless hairs, margin often red; peduncle
shorter than the spathe. Mucilage is present during flowering. Cyme_ branches
pubescent.

Posterior sepal broadly boat-shaped, 2 anterior sepals ovate, concave, tinged
blue. Posterior petal orbicular-cordate, unequal-sided, 8 mm, dia., claws nar-
row and at about right angles; anterior petal lanceolate, concave, shorter than
the sepals between which it stands; all petals deep blue, veins darker. Stami-
nodes about 1+ the length. of the lateral stamens, filaments slender, heads
usually with four narrow yellow lobes, arranged like a cross but one or
more lobes often lacking. Lateral stamens with long thick deep blue curved
filaments, the upper halves of which are flattened and broadened; anthers
narrow, greenish-blue. Median stamen with a shorter filament not dilated

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS 85

above; anther large, greenish-blue, the cells curled above, diverging below
and with yellow auricles at the lower ends. Ovary glabrous, style blue,
curved forward. Vestigial ovary present in male flowers. The broad flattened
upper parts of the anthers of the lateral stamens are distinctive.

Sequence of Flowering.

In this species the inner cyme branch is usually one-flowered, occasionally
barren; the outer branch has 3 to 5 flower buds. On the first day of
flowering there is usually a perfect flower on the outer branch and a male
flower on the inner. Much less frequently there is a complete flower on
the outer branch followed next day by a male on the inner. In spathes that
first opened two flowers simultaneously there was in 7 out of 10 cases an
interval of two days before another flower opened, and in 3 an interval of
one day. If the first complete flower on the outer branch has set a capsule,
the second flower has a small ovary with a short coiled style; if a capsule
has not been set the second flower is perfect. Usually only one capsule is
formed in each spathe. The single male flower on the inner cyme_ branch
drops after flowering.

Selj-fertilisation.

The two latera) stamens coil outwards. The median stamen bends but
does not coil. The style coils and the stigma is generally brought into
contact with the anther of the median stamen. The staminodes do not coil.
The lateral stamens coil in male flowers. Self-fertilisation appears to be
successful.

Capsule and Seed.

Capsule sub-cubic, buff-coloured, 3-celled, 2-valved. The posticous valve is
deciduous and contains the one-seeded indehiscent cell. The other two cells
are 2-seeded. The outer surface of the-.indehiscent cell is finely longitudinally
furrowed and has a number of narrow wings at the sides. Seeds spherical,
compressed, about 3 mm. dia., yellowish-brown mottled lighter, surface smooth,
with a blackish groove on one face (hilum).

This plant is very common in grassy places near Coimbatore. It either
runs along the ground rooting at the nodes, or it becomes erect and 20-25
ems. high. It produces underground cleistogarnous flowers freely.

Commelina undulata R. Br. . :
Spathe and Flower.

Spathes irregularly funnel-shaped, compressed, outer angle acute inner round-
ed, up to 2 cms. long, outer surface covered with short hairs hooked at
the tip, and with some long bulbous-based jointed white hairs, inner surface
glabrous, musilage present; peduncle up to .5 cm. long, colitary, leaf-opposed,
near the ends of branches.

Two anterior sepals broadly ovate, concave, fused together for half their
length or less, white with transparent margins; posterior sepal broadly boat-
shaped, smaller. Two petals with semi-circular lobes, about 1-1.2 cm. across
unequal-sided, standing opposite one another so that the straight sides are
parallel, claws rather broad, about 1/3 the length of the lobe; third petal
small, narrowly ovate or lanceolate, shorter than the two larger sepals between
which it stands; all bright blue. Staminodes three, similar, with slender
filaments about half as long as that of the median stamen and with yellow
six-lobed heads, 2 lobes roundish, 2 elongated and diverging and 2 very small.
Two lateral stamens with long blue flattened filaments bent like calipers,
-anthers small, dark blue, the cells separated below the attachment; median
stamen with a shorter tapering anther much larger, yellow margined bluish-
green, the two cells 1nuch curved above and_ strongly diverging below, each
with a yellow upturned auricle at the base. Pollen almost white; grains
ovoid-oblong, .07 x .045-.05 mm., the surface densely and finely spinulose.
Ovary green, style blue, sigmoidly. curved so that the stigma stands in front
of the anthers.

The two semi-circular blue lobes of the posterior petals standing with
their straight sides parallel, and the yellow auricles at the bases of the

86 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

cells of the anther of the median stamen are characteristic features of the
flower. Pa a

Sequence of Flowering.

In this species only the outer branch of the cyme is developed, the inner
being aborted to a flowerless axis about 1 mm. long. The outer cyme
branch rarely bears more than four flowers. Thirty-five spathes of plants
growing at Tambaram were marked. (Dec.-April). In each case the first
flower to open was perfect. In 25 cases the second flower was also perfect
and in ten the pistil was incompletely developed. ‘Twenty of these second
flowers opened after an interval of 1 day, 12 after 2 days, and 3 after 3 days.
A third flower opened in 23 spathes, and of these only 3 were perfect, the
rest having infertile pistils. One of these opened on the next day to the
second flower, 15 after an interval of 1 day, 6 after 2 days and 1 after
3 days. Only 9 spathes produced a fourth flower, and all of these were
male; 6 after an interval of 1 day, 3 after 2 days and 1 after 3 days. It was.
found that almost invariably an imperfect flower indicated the presence of
a capsule in the spathe from a previous flower. Imperfect flowers have
longer pedicels and so stand further out of the spathe than perfect ones.
Male or imperfect flowers have all three stamens fertile but the pistil reduced
to a small ovary with a short usually coiled style, or the ovary may be
almost completely absent.

Self-fertilisation.

In perfect flowers the filaments of the lateral stamens coil and the style
coils; the filament of the median stamen arches at its upper end so _ that
its anther is bent down and may become involved in the coiling of the style;
the filaments of the staminodes do not coil. The lateral stamens coil in
male flowers. Self-fertilisation is successful.

Capsule and Seed.

Usually one capsule matures in each spathe but sometimes there are two.
Capsule broader than long, 3-lobed, apex truncate, surface smooth, buff, 3-cell-
ed and 3-valved, there being one seed in each cell when fully developed,
the 3 valves remaining attached to the pedicel. Seeds almost spherical, dark
grey or black with lighter mottling, surface slightly roughened, a narrow
brown groove (hilum) on a slightly flattened face and a raised blistery band
almost encircling the seed; a pit with a point between the ends of the band
(micropyle). From opening of flower to dehiscence of capsule varies from
17 to 24 days. The spathe becomes detached from the plant when the capsule
dehisces. The small hairs on the outer surface of the spathe enable it to
cling to hairy or woolly surfaces and it is probable that animals thus help
toa distribute the seeds. .

Occurrence and Habit.

There are at least two forms of this species. The commonest is prostrate
and occurs in open grassy places on the plains in the eastern districts (Chingle-
put, Nellore) and in cracks in rocks on dry hillsides up to 4,o00 ft. (Billigiri-
rangan Hills).

This form is tufted and the stems are usually short and rest on the ground.
The bases of the stems are swollen and united into a clump. At first the
condensed lowest internode of each stem is top-shaped, but later the second
internode also thickens and an oblong corm-like body about 1.3 ems. long
and up to 1 cm. across is formed. These bodies persist after the upper
parts of the stems have dried off. Fresh stems originate from buds at the
bases of these bodies, and eventually a large clump is formed. The material
of these stem bases is firm and white and consists largely of starch. These
bodies no doubt function as corms and enable the plant to survive through
the dry season. From the under side of these corm-like bodies there are
long slender tuberous roots. These roots are cylindrical, about .35 cm. across
near the top, and taper gradually downwards. The flesh is succulent and in
the older roots the core contains starch. The surface of these roots is covered.
with a dark brown felty covering. At first it was thought that this felty

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS 87

layer might indicate the formation of a mycorrhiza but microscopic examination
shows it to consist of numerous dried root-hairs.

Rooting does not occur at most nodes but in favourable conditions some
of the nodes near the ends of the stems may root, especially if there are
side branches from these nodes. After rooting the bases of the side branches
thicken and a tuft is formed, which may then develop into an independent
plant.

This plant is perennial and will stand hot dry conditions better than
any other South Indian commelina. It may be found flowering freely in
exposed places till late in April, some weeks after the grasses and other
herbaceous plants. have dried off. The flowers open at sunrise, earlier than
other species. It has rather thick narrow leaves, the two halves partly folded
together.

A second form occurs in the same districts but is found in the shade
of thickets. It is first erect and when the stems get long they straggle
over shrubs and may become 6 ft. in length. It has thinner, rather broader
and flatter leaves. It does not flower freely. A similar plant was found at
about 3,000 ft. at the foot of the Sigur Ghat, Nilgiris. The tall form also
has enlarged stem _ bases.

Commelina kurzii Clarke.
Spaths and Flower.

Spathes clustered at the ends of the branches where there may appear to be
up to about seven spathes at a node. Examination shows that there are two
or more nodes very close together, each with one spathe opposite a leaf, and
often the end of the branch is shortly bifurcated, each part having several con-
densed nodes. There are also short scarious triangular cataphylls at these
nodes. Spathe irregularly funnel-shaped, the two sides folded together, outer angle
acute and acuminate, inner rounded, 2-2°5 cms. long, outer surface with long
scattered hairs and many short hairs hooked at their tips; peduncle up to about
°& Gia, WMoyn¥ess

Posterior sepal small, broadly boat-shaped; two anterior sepals broadly ovate,
concave, fused together for 3} to 2/3 of their length; all colourless. Two pos-
terior petals with approximately circular lobes unequal-sided at the base, up
to 1 cm. in dia., claws narrow, straight, standing at a little less than right
angles to one another, mauve; anterior petal lanceolate, only about as long
as the claws of the others; tip acuminate and curled in, colorless. Two lateral
stamens with long arching filaments and small anthers; median stamen
with shorter ,and stouter filament, anther large, yellow, with curved cells
diverging below, each cell having a flat yellow auricle above its base. Pollen
cream-coloured, grains ovoid-oblong, ‘o8--09 x :04 mm., surface finely spinulose.
Staminodes 3, filaments slender about 1/3 as long as lateral stamens, heads yellow
with four larger pouch-shaped lobes and two smaller ones. Style about . as
long as the lateral stamens, curved forward so that the stigma stands in front
of the samens; ovary green, smooth, immersed in mucilage.

Sequence of Flowering.

The spathes on the same branch form successively. Normally only the outer
branch of the cyme develops, or inner being represented by a bud at the base of
the spathe; very rarely the bud develops to a long pedicelled male flower which
opens with the first flower of the outer cyme. The spathe of the Vandalur form
contains mucilage during the flowernig period, but this. is not so with the
Sigur Ghat form. During December and January, 21 spathes of the Vandalur
form of this species were marked. The first flower produced by each spathe
was perfect. In two spathes the second flower opened after an. interval. of
1 day, in 2 after 2 days, in 13 after 3 days, in 3 after 4 days and in 1 after
5 days. Three of the second flowers were perfect, and 18 had the pistil
incompletely developed but the stamens normal. Only 3 spathes produced a
third flower, and all of these had imperfect pistils.. These flowers opened
after intervals of 3, 4 and 5 days. It. was thought that the incomplete develop-
ment of the pistil in the second or third flower of a cyme might be conditioned
by. the presence of a developing capsule from an earlier flower. Experiment
showed this to be the case. Eleven spathes, each with a perfect flower, the
first on its cyme, were marked, and each of these open flowers was cut off

88 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

without damaging the rest of the cyme. In each case the second flower
was perfect. The interval between flowering was reduced by the removal
of the open flower. One of these spathes opened its second. flower the
next day, 7 after an interval of one day, 1 after 2 days, 1 after 3 days and 1
after 4 days. Four of these spathes subsequently produced a third flower, each
of which was imperfect. It was also found that if the first and second flowers
were cut-off when they opened, the third flower became perfect. Further,
four spathes in which the first flower had formed a capsule and the second
flower was imperfect, had the capsule and imperfect flower cut off. After
an interval of two days three of these spathes produced a perfect flower, and
the fourth did so on the following day. Imperfect flowers have longer pedicels
than perfect ones and stand further out of the spathe.

The flowering of narrow-leafed form of C. kurzil brought from the
Billigirirangan Hills and grown at Tambaram was a little different from that
of the Vandalur form. In October it began to flower and 16 spathes were
marked. Each first produced a_ perfect flower. Five produced a second flower
after an interval of 1 day, 9 after 2 days, and 2 after 3 days. Seven second
flowers were perfect, and 9g had the pistil undeveloped to various degrees. Thir-
teen spathes had a third flower, 2 of which were perfect, and 4 had foumrlla
flowers, all of which were incomplete.

The form of this species with larger leaves and thicker stems occurring
on the Gingee Hills flowered in August. Three first flowers were perfect ; two
second had undeveloped pistils and opened after an interval of one day, and
one second had undeveloped pistils and opened after an interval of one day,
and one second was perfect and opened the next day and was followed by:
an incomplete flower.

The Sigur Ghat form was grown at Kalhatti (about 1,500 ft. above its
habitat). First, second and third flowers were all perfect. ‘The intervals be-
tween successive flowers varied from 2 to 5 days, averaging about 3 days.

Self-fertilisation.

In this species the filaments of the two lateral stamens and the style coil
before the flowering is over. The filament of the median stamen bends at
its upper end but does not coil. First the filaments of the lateral stamens
arch inwards so that the pollen-bearing surfaces of the anthers face inwards
and approach the large anther of the median stamen. The style then curves
and the stigma is usually’ brought into contact either with the anther of the
median stamen or with one of the lateral ones. Often the style subsequently
coils round the large anther of the median stamen, whose shape appears to
be specially adapted to receive the coiling style. Subsequent coiling of the
lateral stamens may again bring their anthers in contact with the . stigma.
The time of coiling is of course affected by temperature, exposure and other
external factors. At Tambaram in April, it was found that by 10 a.m. the
style had made one complete coil and had often encircled the large anther.
The filaments of the lateral stamens had at this time become strongly arched.
By 11 a.m. the lateral stamens had completed one coil, and by noon _ they
had completed two or three coils, and the style, if not obstructed, had formed
three coils. Eventually the style and the lateral stamens are usually coiled
together round the anther of the median stamen. The filaments of the lateral
stamens coil even in flowers with undeveloped pistils, and the coiling occurs
rather earlier. When the filaments of perfect flowers had made one coil, those
of imperfect flowers were found to have made two.- The filaments of the
staminodes do not coil. In the Sigur Ghat form grown at Kalhatti (6.600 ft.)
the coiling did not begin till after midday, and was not complete till after
3 p.m. The mechanism for self-fertilisation is very effective.

Capsule and Seed.

The capsule in 3-seeded and 3-celled and 2-valved. When it opens the pos-
ticous valve falls off. This valve contains the indehiscent cell which contains
one of the seeds. The convex outer side of this valve is roughened by longi-
tudinal ridges. The other valve remains attached to its pedicel in the spathe
but the two seeds fall’ out. The spathe becomes detached and gapes when the
capsule becomes mature. The two free seeds usually fall out of the spathe, but
the third, owing to the wings and the rough’ surface of the valve that contains
it, is often held in the spathe, The hooked hairs on the outer surface of the

—

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH INDIAN COMMELINAS 89

spathe make it liable to be carried by. animals and thus the contained seed
is dispersed. Usually only one capsule matures in each spathe. Of 28 fruiting
spathes 23 contained only one capsule, and of the other five that contained
two capsules, only two had both capsules with all three seeds.

The interval between the opening of the flower and the dehiscence of the
capsule appears to depend on temperature; in November and December it varied
between 29 and 34 days, and in March it was from 22 to 25 days.

The seeds are broadly ovoid with 2 somewhat flattened adjacent sides, sur-
face dull dark grey covered with minute white grains. There is a brownish
scar along the edge between the flattened sides (hilum). A brownish or grey
blistery ring almost encircles the seed, and between the two ends of this ring
there is a small crater-like depression with a central point (micropyle).

Forms and Occurrence.

This plant grows between rocks from aé little above sea-level to about
5,000 ft., under ‘the shade of shrubs or trees in the hotter areas, in open places
at higher elevations.. There are a number of local forms differing chiefly in
habit and leaf shape, but all have similar flowers, spathes and capsules. All
forms seen by the writer have mauve petals and not blue as stated in Clarke’s
Monograph, F.B.I., and -F.M.P.

The form found at Vandalur (Chingleput District, 1oo-200 ft.) has slender
trailing stems and broad leaves (up to 10.5 x 2.8 cms. but usually
smaller). The Gingee form is similar but more robust and has the outer sur-
face of the deciduous valve of the capsule tubercled and the spathe almost
glabrous. A similar plant but with hairy spathes occurs on the Sigur Ghat
(Nilgiris) at 4,500 ft. One form found in the Billigirirangan Hills has long
narrow leaves (11 x 1.6 cms.) and a trailing habit. A second is like the Gingee
form but still more robust (leaves 15 x 4.3 cms. spathes 2.3 cms. across).
A third form found on these hills is more or less erect and has broad but acu-
minate leaves and spathe with acuminate outer angle. A similar plant occurs
on the Gudalur Ghat, Nilgiris, and at 5,000 ft. on the Shevaroys. The narrow-
leafed form from the Billigirirangan Hills and the broad-leafed Vandalur form
when grown under identical conditions at Tambaram for 2 years remained dis-
tinct, showing that the differences are not due simply to environment.

This plant roots readily at the nodes if they are in contact with moist
earth. Root buds are present at other nodes but they do not develop. ‘The
lowest internodes of the stems thicken to small top-shaped bodies which together
form a clump. These bodies contain much starch and function as corms
enabling the plant to survive the dry season. From these stem-bases numerous
slender fleshy roots emerge. They are about 3 mm. across and up to 5 cms.
‘long and contain a good deal of starch in a layer round the centre. The outer
surface is covered with a dark brown felt consisting of numerous dried root
hairs.

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR.

BY
lim-Con. Bal. Pitnies.

(With 8 plates)

Soon after gaining a little confidence in my newly invented gad-
gets for ‘distant release’ bird photography, and pleased at ‘ean Grae
they were instrumental in producing unposed and natural results
of bird life, I decided to go further afield and spend my two
months’ leave in Kashmir.’ IT was Jucky having June and July at
my disposal, though an earlier date might have been more favour-
able for the purpose. Within a day or so of my arrival in Sri-
nagar [ was lucky to find a bird shikari who had been recommend-

go JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

ed to me as good; with all his shortcomings, a grand old red-beard,
Habiba of Shalibug—an expert at birds in and around the lakes
and marshes, and a willing henchman to boot.

In spite of the good recommendations received, the usual cere-
mony of at least anetamding to wade through the wad of ‘chits’
(testimonials), handed you with pride in true ‘die-hard’ ‘Dastur
Hat’ (customary) fashion, had to be respected. Habiba was taken
on for the period of my stay.

With a very hazy knowledge of the birds that inight) be met
with, and with visions of fresh fields to conquer, -it yas pleasing
to find at cne’s disposal a tested guide. The first outing was
arranged—a run out to the River Sind at a point only 20 miles
from Srinagar. The objective was a photograph of a Common
Sandpiper which had a nest with a freshly completed clutch of
eges. A start by car was made early next morning. The drive
for the first five miles along the Ganderbal Road, through the
crowded city and a network of congested villages, is a corrective
to ideas culled of novels, telling ai the romance of the Kast.
From this point onwards Nature asserts itself. The country opens
out with a panorama showing to the west, Anchar Lake, a broad
sheet of water alongside the road, overshadowed in the distance
by the snowy Pir Panjal Range; to the east, a broad valley of
arable and pasture land gradually rising to a lofty ridge of moun-
tains.

Those ubiquitous townsfolk, the crows, the kites, mynas, and
sparrows, though still to be seen, do not intrude with such unfail.
ing familiarity now that the open country is reached, yet there is
no diminution in bird life. The avian world appears to be just.
as busy and affords great variety both in species and vivid colour-
ings. The beloved English Swallow is present and will be seen
flving with speed and grace in these open spaces, twittering as it
hawks insects over the paddy fields or rests on the teleoraphi wires
by the road.

From a neighbouring post a vision in Oxford and Cambridge
blue ‘swoops down to the ground to pick up a cricket or grass-
hopper and return to its post, or flashing in the sun, it launches
itself with harsh, grating screams in Reamteaehie gyrations to display
its beauty to the mate of his choice. This is the Kashmir Roller.

Many others .will attract attention but as my main object was
to try and get series of photographs of the Sandpiper, still sorne
fifteen miles distant, I tried to keep to the task in hand, but failed.
No sooner was the car in motion than T heard: fantastic crieg of a
‘Did-he-do-it’ uttered repeatedly, and looking across the fields in
that direction saw a bird apparently fiercely attacking a ryot who
was crossing some fallow land.

The Red-watted Lapwing Lobivanellus indicus.

This Lapwing, a bird common round Cantonment areas in the
Plains. was known to me. and therefore this persistent hehaviour
aroused my suspicions. The car was once again brought to a
standstill to enable me to watch more closelv through binoculars
The birds in view alighted apart, making it difficult to watch both

JouRN. BomMBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 1

CBDKeRF

The Red-watiled Lapwing.

SF ss
SRR ARS

The Kashmir Skylark.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II |

The White-breasted Kingfisher. |

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR gl

of them. Soon it became obvious that one was feeding owing to
its bearing,—upright stance, and occasional, typical short spurts
to capture stray insects.

My attention was quickly centred on the other bird. It was
carefully moving across the field in a crouching attitude and with
gliding gait; it must have covered twenty yards or so in this man-
ner before settling down. Five minutes passed, the bird was still
sitting. Had a nest been found? Do not let excitement at dis-
covery set oue into wild rush for the site. Much caution is ne-
cessary. The quarry is wide awake and though the size of a par-
tridge and strikingly coloured, the pattern of the plumage har-
monizes well with the surroundings. Slipping away trom the nest,
while one is still in the distance, it detracts attention from the
all-important focal point—the nest, there is nothing to see but a
jumble of ploughed land, or an equally confusing stretch of grass.
The nest itself does not help one in the search, it is a mere scrape in
the ground encircled with small stones or pellets of clay to guit
the surroundings, and the eggs, blotched and streaked in black
also closely match the site and nesting materials chosen. The
eround colour of the eggs may vary with the colours of the soil;
it is a stone colour in boulder-strewn areas, a creamy buff in clay
and, I have read, even a reddish buff on red lime-stone.

The nest was found and it contained four pear-shaped eggs
large for the size of the bird. This caused the first interruption.
The camera and apparatus had to be set up.

The birds did not appear to mind the camouflaged “set up’, in
fact, I was scarcely given time to reach the switch before the bird
would settle down, in spite of the pandemonium created during
their feigned attacks on me at each visit to the camera. An ob-
stacle commonly met with in all cases where birds build on flat
featureless ground is the difficulty of visualising the pre-focused
area. Many good action pictures are thus ruined as the subject
is found to be out of focus. Before leaving for home that evening
it looked as though further interruptions in the original plan for
the day’s outing were in the offing. A Skviark, having completed
its exuberant song in the heavens, dropped down into the pasture
and not far from the sitting Lapwing, and a band of gaudy
European Bee-eaters seemed to be attached to a certain reach of
a fairly deep-sided nullah, also in view.

_ The Kashmir Skylark. Alauda gulgula guttata.

An early arrival in the area next morning brought back plea-
sant memories of pastures green and the Enelish South Downs.
There were several skylarks hovering in the heavens giving vent
to their spirited and joyful song. Now one, now another would
drop like a stone with closed wings earthwards, falling lower and
lower until it finally settled. Being a bird: with inconspicuous
striated plumage, no larger than a sparrow it is very difficult to
see when on the ground owine to its crouching gait. After two
or three attempts at flushing the female bird in the areas indicated
by recently grounded males. I was about to resort to the school-
boy trick of trailing over the surface of the field a. eord, some

g2 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

twenty yards in length, held at the extremities by my. shikari and
myself, when a lark sprang up from under my feet and fluttered
away. A careful search revealed the nest; a little cup on the
ground, lined with fine grass, well screened from view, under a.
low spreading creeper-like growth. It contained four eggs, their
white ground almost entirely concealed by fine brown spots.

The camera was set up and, after much searching, a vantage
point gained from which to view the approaches to the nest, but
had it not been for a red poppy placed to mark the site, its exact
position would have been hard to pick up. Quite a half hour pass-
ed without any sign of the bird in this matted area, so an
attempt was made to improve the look of the camoutlaged camera.
To my surprise the sitting bird flew away from the nest! Similarty,
on two separate occasions the bird was flushed off the nest
without having given any indication of its approach. It would
seem that its ‘obliterative’ plumage, its crouching walk, its squatt-
ing was too much for my watchfulness, and so, after a vain three
hours of failure, I flattened down a 9-inch wide drive around. the
nesting site. This ruse succeeded. I was able to snap the bird
often on its approaches to the nest, its markings standing out
well against the sandy background.

In my ignorance I thought, I had pictures of the Crested Lark,
as occasionally an untidy moppish crest became visible. The
Crested Lark is easily distinguished by the_erect tuft of pointed
feathers on the crown. It does not breed in the Vale but takes
up its summer quarters on the higher mountain ranges of Ladakh
and Central Asia.

The European Bee-eater. Merops apiaster.

The tell-tale burrows in the banks of the nearby sandy nullah
gave sufficient grounds to place the HOO TEN Ay of this bird next
on the list.

May and June are two nice sunny months in the Vale and thus,
day in and day out, no qualms as regards brilliant morning light-
ing need be anticipated, but a banking up of heavy thunder clouds
may however mar an afternoon session. It was a delight next
morning to see this most colourful and ornamental bird in brilliant
sunshine at close quarters.

Being gregarious by nature and nesting in colonies, a flock was
concentrated in this area. The birds showing preference for being
more on the wing than perched, provided an excellent view of
their graceful, easy and undulating flight—a few rapid wing beats
alternating with a sail through the air; a pleasant whistling trill
is uttered at intervals.

The bird is slenderly built and larger than a bulbul. Tts bril-
liant yellow throat, oraded blue-green under plumage, .chestnut
crown and mantle show off to advantage as it manoeuvres with
elegant, wide wheeling sweeps. There are several nesting colonies
dotted ethan the Vale in suitable localities, where the soil is firm
but sandy. Some choose banks of nullahs, others colonise hilloeks
and yet others prefer to excavate their tunnels. even on level ground.

During two suecessive summers a pair chose a bunker on the

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 93

busy Srinagar Golf Course, and undeterred by the bellowing
sounds of annoyance from golfers, successfully brought up their
families. Apart from such disturbance it was thought advisable
to divert caddy activity by having all caddies told to warn users of
this well placed bunker that a big snake had been seen entering
the hole.

The nesting tunnels, about three inches in diameter, are dri-
ven deep into’ the earth. For interest I had one dug out after
the young had flown, and found a network of other tunnels, criss-
crossing the ine before the nesting chamber was reached.

The whole area appeared to form an underworld, judging by
the miscellaneous collection of frogs, lizards, and beetles. I have’
seen the spherical white eggs and am told six from the usual
full clutch in Kashmir.

My subjects for the day were building and so busy tunnelling
that they afforded little chance of getting good pictures with the
camera focused on the nesting hole. ‘They scarcely paused at
the entrance on arrival; though, some would settle on a bare twig
sticking out of a low bust on the bank before making for the
tunnel. The camera site was chosen, but the setting up of the
apparatus about 12 ft. away made the birds choose other con-
venient twigs further off. I found, times out of number, that
patience and a little thought will overcome most bird problems.
Allowing time enough for the birds to get used to the camera, a
elod of earth was placed to block up each of four separate new
burrows. The idea worked like magic. ‘The birds presumably
dismayed by this manoeuvre had their attention diverted from
the camera. Seven of them sat together on my chosen twig. Had
the electric release worked I might have got a picture of them
all; however there were many snapshots taken of single birds, and
on three occasions a pair on the same twig. Needless’ to say the
clods were removed on the completion of the photography and
the birds were busy at their work before I quitted the scene. It -
may be mentioned that a dapper little male Indian Bush Chat,
in his neat black and white suiting, and a rich chestnut vest,
also used this perch during the day and allowed himself to be
successfully photographed on three occasions. A careful search
revealed its nest, which contained four eggs, including a cuckoo
ege, which was duly destroyed.

The tale from here onwards continues to produce many attrac-
tions, to upset my original plan, but as the Sandpiper’s eggs were
fresh, a few days’ postponement appeared permissible. Though
the small area just worked had beer prolific in subjects for the
camera, yet it proved to be only a taste of what was to come in
this bird paradise. It was not a mile beyond this spot that the
road passed over a narrow tortuous nullah, about 25 ft. wide at
ground level but shelving steeply to a tiny stream, another 25 ft.
lower down. The sharp twittering cries from a disturbed Pied -
Kingfisher, and the exit of a Kashmir Roller from the depths of
the nullah, called for further investigation.

The precipitous side of the nullah was found to be honeycomb-
ed with Pied Kingfisher burrows, old and new. Those in use
were zealously ouarded by the seven pairs in residence to prevent

64 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

rude gate-crashings by pompous and pugnacious Mynas. Ubi-
quitous House Sparrows, always so ready to usurp anything it
permitted to do so, and finally by timid Starlings.

two pairs of Washmir Rollers with burrows in the same banks,
also swooped down from their vantage points on a tree or telegraph
wire, to keep order in this circumscribed aviary. ‘ihe few willow
trees thriving in the cutting gave asylum for the nests of a pair
of White-cheeked bulbul, and the Rutous-backed Shrikes. |

There were even two pairs of the Central Asian Mingfishers that
had driven their tunnels into the bank, not more than a foot or
two above the stream. I inally trom this very road bridge, a pair
of Hoopoes could be seen busy feeding their young, sheltered
under the roots of a lofty Chenar.

To give some idea of the congestion in this area, from the ‘hide’
J had set up half way down the bank, I was able to take close-up
pictures of seven different species by sunply having to swing round
the camera on its stand. Three days sutficed to complete these
series, the first being employed in accustoming the birds to get
used to the ‘hide’.

I now propose to describe the birds using the nullah, omitting
descriptions of garden and house birds, as these will be described
in a subsequent chapter.

The Pied Kingfisher, Ceryle rudis leucomelanura.

This pied bird is a little larger than a myna with sexes alike
in the main, the only striking difference to be noticed in the field
shows when the birds are viewed frontally. The male has the
two black gorgets across the breast, the broader one above; the
female sports only one which ig incomplete being interrupted by
quite an inch of white breast feathering.

These birds are numerous and resident in the Vale, and I am
of opinion that their numbers remain constant throughout the
year. ‘There are many nesting colonies in the -vicinity of the
Lakes each used by not more than about a dozen couples. Most
of these localities appear to have been used by these birds over
a period of years. ‘lhe bank faces are riddled by their tunnellings,
and it is evident that the burrows are used as shelters during the
winter months, as, nearing sunset many birds congregate in the
area and have been seen entering the holes. One unusual colony
is situated at a distance of over two miles from the nearest water.
The eggs, glossy white and spherical in shape, are said to number
six to a full clutch.

They are noisy birds when courting, and being ‘hale fellow
well met’, are delighted when a passing friend drops into the
community. Pandenionium then reigns, while with short black
crests raised, wings quivering, tails jerking up and down, everyone
ereets the newcomer with excited chirrupings.

When passing along one of the many waterways, the wayfarer’s
attention must be attracted either by their pleasant cries, or by
their hoverings high over the surface, awaiting the propitious
moment to drop like a bolt into the water and seize a silvery fish.
Should there be a chance of failure, the bird wiil pull itself out
of a nose dive in mid-air and continue its flight on an even keel

PLATE III

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ly
Yi

The Common Central Asian Kingfisher.

PLATE IV

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

d Kingfisher

ian P

The Ind

The Kashmir Roller.

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 5

until another shoal is sighted. It will then rise steeply and on
hovering wings remain stationary, body upright, bill pointing to
the water, until a lightning dive succeeds and is followed up by
a picture of the bird tlying off, a sprat in its bill, ‘chirruk chirruk-
ing.’ |

On reaching a suitable perch the fish is battered about and
finally swallowed head first, with a deft jerk into the air. The
whole manoeuvre 1s most spectacular and quite unique.

Though shy of human beings, my distant release apparatus
did not attect the birds in the least; in fact, on their first return
to the nullah after the camera ‘set-up’ disturbance wag over, one
of the birds actually sat on the camouflaged basket covering the
camera, While the other took to the perch that I had driven into
the ground by the nesting hole.

After each exposure the necessary approach to the camera in
order to re-set the shutter and turn on the film, disturbed the
birds, but not more than ten minutes sufficed for their return
with the possibility of a pair taking a seat on the focused perch.

The Kashmir Roller. Coracias garrula semenowtr.

With the coming of Spring, the arrival of this gorgeous bird
brightens up the landscape.

The Roller is solidly built and has a heavy bill. When seated
it appears as an ordinary light blue bird, about the size of a
pigeon. It is not until it swoops from its perch that brilliant broad
bands of Oxford and Cambridge blue on its wings show up in
a delightful transformation. The bird is fairly common in the
Vale, and I have seen a stray pair or two on the edge of the pine
forests up to 8,000 ft.

From some elevated perch it watches for shrew, frog or anything
that moves on the ground. Its swoop down to capture the morsel,
the return flight to the post to devour it, are all colourful
manoeuvres. The abandon of the nuptial display so frequent at
this time of year, during which the bird rolls and tumbles about
the air uttering its harsh and raucous cries, attracts constant
attention.

Even at a later period of the season when the love display has
passed and one of the pair is brooding eggs, the other remains
alert and always on guard. Intolerant of trespass near the nesting
hole it will swoop down with harsh grating screams at the intruder.
These colourful performances can be seen throughout the bird’s
stay in Kashmir.

As | will never dig out a nest, it is difficult to say how deep
their burrows extend into the earth, but judging by the many
nesting cavities laid open to view in these banks every Spring,
by eyosion, I fancy the birds do not tunnel for more - than
roughly 6 to 9 inches before evacuating the roomy nesting cham-
bers. The eggs are glossy white and spherical and number four
to six to a clutch.

These birds do not readily take to a perch near the nesting hole.
It is not a question of fear but a preference to fly direct to the
nest implying an inadequate exposure to the jens. As most of

96 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the nests tackled by me have been at an average height of 20 ft.
above the nullah bed, a frontal ‘set-up’ for a ‘close: -up’ picture is
difficult.

ftiowever, very often a suitable perch, used by the birds before
their final. plunge into the nesting hole, can be found in the area,
and by the exercise of a little patience, the camera will catch a
number of good poses.

The Central Asian Kingfisher. <Alcedo atthis pallasi.

This little bird, a gem among birds, is the northern version of
the Common Jingfisher. With its solid build, long bill and
brilliant green blue and chestnut plumage it needs little descrip-
tion as it is the most familar bird on the Lakes and waterways
of Kashmir during the summer months. It literally foists itself
on one from its pénchant for perching in the open, a little above
the surface of the water. The wires and posts used for anchoring

houseboats are freely used. Here it will sit fearless of man and

every, how and again plunge obliquely into the water and re-
turn to the perch with a silvery fish in its bill. J£ unsuccessful
in. its attempt, it will fly swift and low over the water with a
distinct, sharp roll of its little body, and utter a trilling note as
it streaks away in search of a further suitable vantage-point.

The normally accommodating gullet, stretched to its utmost
by the outsize in fish presented, calls for a supreme efiort on the
part of the bird. A great struggle takes place, for with eyes closed,
a frequent up and down movement of the head and its fanned
tail flicking, the bird struggles to swallow its capture; but is little
disturbed by the experience, for almost immediately the next min-
now within reach pays for its carelessness.

Over open water it may be frequently seen hovering with body
erect, bill pointing downwards, preparatory to plunging in enna
its prey.

‘I'he breeding season is very extended, the main months are
April to June, but young fledglings have been seen as late as Sep-
tember.

The nesting tunnel excavated by the birds runs level for about
three feet before the actual egg chamber is reached, where the
six white eggs almost spherical in shape le. A Kashmir village
is a rose garden when compared with the stench and squalor con-
nected with the abode and upbringing of such beautiful jewels
of nature. A great number of these nests must be swamped out
annually, either by heavy rain storms, or snows melting which
cause a rise about a foot or so above the normal level gauged as
sufficient by the birds when digging out their nests.

Having no fear of man and with a succession of favoured

fishing posts for perches photography is easy. The first snapshot

may portr ay a look of enquiry towards the camera, quickly followed
by another showing the bird wi th till lowered following in rapt

attention movement: in the water below and ready for a plunge

into it, and then yet a third to complete the sequence, showing
the return to the perch with a small fish held firmly in its bill.
This sequence was actually taken by me from one of the living
roooms in my houseboat.

Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc,

PLATE Vi

The European Bee-Eater.

Journ. BomsBay Nat. HIsT. Soc. PLATE V1

PRN es
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The Common Sandpiper.

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 97

The Rufous-backed Shrike. Lanius schach erythronotus.

This Shrike is 10 inches in length, its grey head, the broad
broad black band running backwards across the forehead through
the eyes, the long graduated tail and severely notched bill are
features common to several members of this well marked family.
In this species the rich rufous lower back and rump, and the
rufous-tinged abdomen are distinctive.

This Shrike is one of the most common visitors to Raghu in
summer, arriving in early April and remaining till late in Septem-
ber. Its abundance may be gauged by the numbers inhabiting
the popular avenues bordering most highways in the Vale and by
the surplus living in the willow groves and frequenting gardens.
The habit of sitting bolt upright on some bare twig with long
tail swaying gently up and down, the constant lookout kept to
help pacify an insatiable appetite, the sudden dash down to the
eround to stab at its imsect prey, the laboured flight return to
the original perch, make these birds conspicuous.

I have never actually found the larder of this arue ae species, .
but they are bold robbers and to them eggs are a great delicacy.
A friend of mine had the aggravating experience of seeing a Shrike
pounce at, and destroy the eggs in the nest.of a Paradise Flycatcher
while he who busy setting up a ‘hide’ in preparation to photograph
the owner.

The flight, though laboured at the start, is swift and straight
propelled by extra rapid beats from wings that appear inadequate
to carry the slender body and long tail. The call notes are a harsh
and loud chattering but during the early spring and the incuba-
tion periods, the cock bird has a soft and musical song, well sus-
tained, and with a variety of notes, but so subdued as to amount
to mere mumblings. An irregular flirting of the wings always ac-
companies these efforts at song.

The nest is a massive, deep, untidy cup of assorted materials
usually comfortably lined. The eggs, commonly five to a clutch,
are a white or creamy ground colour sparsely spotted and blotched
with shades of brown except for the distinct wreath formed round
the broad end.

One nest found contained eight eggs, and from observations,
these were brooded by the one pair of birds. There is every indi-
cation that at least two broods are raised during the breeding
season. The bird is victimised by the Cuckoo. The nest, usually
tucked away snugly at the junction of two stout branches, the
bird’s rapid succession of hops to it, immediately after alighting
on the tree, and its quick disappearance into the deep nest cavity
are the chief obstacles to, successful snapshots.

The Spotted Forktail. Enicurus maculatus.

It was while motoring between Chenari and Hri on the Jhelum
Valley Road, along the wide stretch of it which is carved out
of the mass of frowning, damp, moss-covered rock deeply fissued
at intervals by miniature waterfalls, that I met my first Forktails.

The loud uncanny screams from ‘the surprised bird as it plunged
across the road just ahead of the bonnet of the car were quite

i) JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 40

startling in effect in such a wild spot. W seated ravines holding
fast mountain streams form their normal habitat.

At first sight this pied bird may be mistaken for a wagtail
being roughly of that size, but on closer view, the deeply-forked
fong tail, -gently swaying up and down, and the entire lack of
hurried jerkiness in its gait emphasises the difference.

Its plumage blends well with its surroundings. the dappled
pattern of white spots and lines become very obliterative in its
mountain torrent home, where the shaded rocks and glittering
spray tend to form a similar pattern. ‘Lhe large white patch on
the torehead, and broad, white Y-.on the lower back are distinctive.

Lhe nest is a compact and heavy cup composed mainly of green
moss and clay and tucked away in a variety of places but atways
near rushing water. ‘lhe eggs are greenish with brown spots
evenly distributed over its surlace.

‘he day aiter my successes in the Nullah Aviary, previously
described, 1 wag motoring to the Sind Valley and when passing the
1Zth milestone 1 was surprised to see of a torktail feeding by the
roadside in this open country miles from any ravine. ‘This being
my first real close-up of the bird, I followed its movements along
the muddy dram where it was pecking its insect food, and being
of a contiding disposition I was able to keep it in view along the
undulating ground.

Excitement ran high, when it was foined by a second Forktail
which without ado began to collect a bilful of. moss, with which it
flew away towards the car.

My ‘even time’ chase soon brought me to a viewpoint over-
looking the whole area, but too late to pin down the spot from
which the bird had emerged. Its scream from further up the road-
way indicated that it was returning to its original beat via the
drain. A hurried search round revealed a surging mill-race,
tumbling down over a fall in ground level about 10 ft. in depth.
This appeared to me to be the only likely spot for a nest. I was
about to rush back to a viewpoint which would enable me to watch
both the birds and the fall, when both flew on to a fallen tree .
trunk, bills laden with moss. From here, each in turn, without
delay flew through the cascade. On their exit the camera was
hurriedly set up and I was able to get six exposures by hand from
a distance of 15 ft. of the birds, as they alighted in the focused
area preparatory to dashing through the water.

A bulky half built nest was found placed behind the curtain
of foam on a small ledge of rock out of reach of the raging waters
but made quite sodden by the misty spray.

The following year another Forktail’s nest was found in similar
open country. ‘Tt was placed about a ‘foot above a swift flowing |
canal, and as this’ site was not more than 8 miles away from the
nest described above, it seemed indicative that the same pair had
made this open country their abnormal haunt.

Some days are indeed red-lettered and this was one of them.
The entirely unexpected meeting with the Forkail was to form
but part of the day’s gift. On reaching the rendezvous at mile-
stone 14, the shikari was spotted sitting by the roadside opposite
a quarry. He had spotted a brillant blue. Kingfisher fly into the

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER'S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR gy

burrow. This proved to be the nesting hole of the White-breasted
Kingfisher, a bird scarce at this height im Kashmir. It was to form
the main item for the morrow’s photography, as all likely perching
places were at this time lost to sunlight.

The White-breasted Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis.

It was considered a great piece cf luck to have found a nest
of this briluant Kingfisher at this elevation in the Vale, as I had
always thought that the single birds seen at odd times must be
wanderers otf their usual beat. ‘Vheir sporadic appearance at
all seasons of the year indicate that members of a new strain are
preparing to become naturalized Kashmir Highlanders.

Yhe bird is a little larger than the Myna, though its heavy
pointed dull red bill exaggerates its size. The white breastplate
set in a chocolate brown under plumage is pleasing but quiet in
tone compared with the dazzling turquoise-blue of the upper plu-
~ mage spreading from under the brown head and neck,

it is a noisy bird whose presence in any area can be detected.
at a distance. The harsh ‘Kenk-kenk-kenk’, a succession of three
rapidly repeated notes, screamed whenever the bird takes to wing,
carries and is unmistakable, as is also what is presumed to be
the song, which takes the form of a long-drawn-out roll of smooth
notes, ascending in scale and very plaintive in tone. This song
is uttered by the bird, with bill pointing up to.the heavens, from
its perch on some bare branch in a tree.

The entrance shaft of the many nesting tunnels of this King-
fisher shows a tendency to being dug not horizontally but on
an upwardly inchned plane for the first foot or so of its length.
It was this distinctive tilt that, in those far off egg-collecting days,
gave me sufficient grounds to cut out any qualms about snakes
and to thrust my hand without hesitation into the hole to get at
the egg chamber. The golden rule followed in those days was that
a hole running horizontally or downwards was not to be handled
owing to the danger of its harbouring snakes, but visual evi-
dence (fortunately) has since proved the folly of rash youthful
wisdom. The fairly spacious egg chamber hag never been found
to contain evil smelling debris as is the case with its miniature
relative. This apparent cleanliness may be the outcome of the
difference in diet, as, during this session, the picturing of a pair
of birds busy feeding well-grown fledgings, revealed that not on
a single occasion did a parent bird bring fish to the feast but always
frogs or the battered remains of lizards. The eges are typical of
the family being glossy white and almost spherical.

Two vivid memories of this bird in the Plains will always re-
main. On the first occasion, I was fortunate at finding myself
witness at the start of nest-digging operations. The birds were
seen following each other in quick succession, jabbing at a spot
in the sandy bank. Then a circular indentation about three inches
in diameter became visible affording the birds a bare purchase
to enable them to continue digging. In clinging to that minute
ledge, the little crimson legs had to be aided by pressure on the
bank from outstretched wings. This was a picture that cannot

to JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

be erased from my mind. The brilliant turquoise-blue against

the sandy background was enhanced by the bright rays of a sun,
low on the horizon. It gave a dazzling effect to an already delight-
ful picture.

‘Lhe second indelible instance savoured more of a timely warn-
ing. I had taken an egg collecting friend to a nest with the
intention of giving him the clutch of eggs. On arrival at the site,
a very agitated Kingfisher wag seen thrusting at the nesting hole
with much ‘Kenk-kenk-kenking’. Shortly afterwards to our very
great surprise, a snake made a quick exit from the hole, fiercely
attacked by the brave bird. The snake was not less than five
feet in length and may have been a ‘Dharman’—a harmless rat
snake, but both of us could not be sure that it was not a deadly
Cobra. My present pursuit—photography and the entire lack of
temptation to harm a feather—undoubtedly brings sundry awards
in its train.

At long last, after an exciting week of “slhotioaner yy be the
wayside, the beautiful Sind Valley’ was reached at a point where
it broadens out into the Vale. Its confined waters still swirling
over the boulder-strewn bed at Woyil Bridge soon continue in
_a more placid strain to their Junction with the River Jhelum in
the neighbourhood of Shadipur. In the immediate vicinity of the
Bridge are seen the many sandy, boulder-strewn islands made by
the subsidiary overflows from the main stream which cut through
the low lying ground bordering its northern banks. Much could be
written about the wild grandeur of the upper reaches where steep
cliffs and menacing gorges are lapped by its angry waters; but it
must suffice here to give but an introduction to these boulder-
strewn islands. They are the summer home of the Common Sand-
piper, Jedron’s Little Ring Plover and Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail,
the only water birds among others to be described here, as June
provides the peak for their breeding activities. ‘Two others, the
Brown Dipper and the Ibisbill, have been described elsewhere as
they are early breeders. The Dipper launches its speckled young
when the Ibisbill is about to brood a fresh clutch of eges during the
first week in April.

All the birds mentioned in this chapter can be seen and watched,
year in and year out, from the main road, or at most within a
half mile of it. There are three notable omissions, Pallas’s Fishing
Eagle, with its gigantic platform nest perched on the top of a
Chenar, with its trunk severed at a height of about: ninety feet,
and the Grey and Night Herons who still colonise the same heronry
in the lofty heights of a grove of Chenars which have been used
for generations by them.

Time and again have I fought against the wise promptings
that. danger to life and limb weighed far too much in the scales
against an attempt to photograph these birds at such dizzy heights,
and so far these councils have prevailed, and no pictures have
materialised. These promptings’ have nevertheless produced en-
vious thoughts at the remarkable efforts of that intrepid bird photo-
erapher, H.H.N.L., who with his combination of brain and brawn
knows no ceiling and thus successfully portrays subjects at in-
credible heights above ground level.

Soc.

Nat. HIstT

JOURN. BOMBAY

The Western Spotted Forktail.

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PiLaTeE VIII ©

Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail.

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 101

The Common Sandpiper. Actitis hypoleucos.

Being a summer visitor and breeding in Kashmir, this quietly
dressed attractive bird, not larger than a Bulbul, is constantly
seen and heard on most of the mountain streams. The plumage
is olive browm above and on the breast, and white underneath.

It is a very active bird seen tripping along the margins of
streams pecking up its minute food, or in quick flight low over
the water uttering its shrill pipings. The fiight is curious, as the
upper part of the wings are held in line with the body apparently
motionless, the powerful propelling force coming from the rapid
downward beats from below the elbow.

The call mainly heard during the bird’s visits to Kashmir has
been so ably sounded by Whistler ‘Kitty-needie, Kitty-needie,
Kitty-needie’—this appears to be an emotional love song, and is
more in evidence than the normal shrill piping notes used when
on the wing.

Many ‘eternal triangle’ scenes are witnessed at this season,
and how universal is the guile practised by the fair sex. One, be-
trothed, will show keen interest in a newly alighted beau, who
with wings raised vertically above the head will proclaim his
presence with a pretty Kitty-needie, Kitty-needie, Kitty-needie,
and look his best doing so. This play, however, is of short duration
for the new intrigue is snapped in the bud, by the hasty arrival
of the rightful owner who hustles away his erring spouse.

The nest-is usually placed on the ground under a low tamerisk
bush, or some other vegetation growing on these islands. Some
are sketchy affairs with little grass, others more solidly built.
The eggs are four in number, pear-shaped, and lie in the usual
‘Wader’ fashion, sharp ends pointing to the centre of the nest.
They have a buff ground spotted and clouded with shades of red-
dish-brown. It is of interest to note that a nest of this species
was found with full clutch up in Gulmarg 9,000 ft., which was
successfully hatched out in July.

_ The bird is a very difficult subject to photograph, except when

seated on the nest, owing to its rapid movements, even when ‘
standing, its continual sharp nodding of the head and flirting of
the tail. Further, even if a high viewpoint overcomes the faulty
guesses concerning its entry into the focused area, its aggravating
habit of tripping along, at breakneck speed, while crossing the
last yard or two to the nest, is too much for even a 1/500 second
exposure.

Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover. Charadrius dubius.

This tiny plover, no bigger than a sparrow, is a summer mig:
rant and delightful to watch. The plumage is sandy-brown
above and white beneath, with black bands across the forehead
snd round the neck. An additional broad black gorget spans the
breast.

The plaintive whistle will probably first attract attention. Then
the bird’s swift wheeling flight—a rapid beat of sharply pointed
wings. On the ground it dashes along the sand with legs twink-

102 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

ling so fast as to become invisible, its rapid. spurts are punctuated
by. short pauses to seize its prey with a curious hinged to knee-
joint tilt of the body. Further spurts and pauses follow. In spite
of its untiring activity, the bird is difficult to keep in sight, as its
whole make-up tends to obliterate the contours oi its body.

There are two distinct types of nesting sites in the Vale, the
small scrape is made either on sandy pebbled ground, or in clay
in the middle of bog. The curious haphazard laying of two or three
blades of grass across the scrape appears to be common to most
nests. The nests being placed in the open, suffer much from
the hoofs of wandering cattle.

The four eggs, in common with those of most waders, are
very large in size and pear-shaped. The buff or grenish ground
spotted with brown produces a very protective design.

Thanks to the habit of constantly pausing between runs, the

bird is a very easy subject to photograph in most of its character-
istic attitudes.

Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail. Motacilla lugubris alboides.

This is a very common and friendly bird found in numbers in
summer on the Kashmir streams where it breeds profusely. Tt
is of slight build and elegant, the male looking dainty in his black
and white, and only differing from the female in the colouring on
the back, which is grey in the latter.

These slender birds are pleasing to watch, for they are seldom
seen at rest but always with the tail wagging non-stop, much to
the detriment of photography. It chases its insect prey at great |
speed along the ground and seldom grants reprieve to an insect
endeavouring to get away on wine—for the bird sallies after it in
the air and having completed its mission returns to land, em-
phasising the success by much more tail-wagging.

The flight is also very noticeable for it is accompanied by a
cheerful ‘chezzit’ uttered usually duving the downward swoops 1n
its series of regular undulations in the air. Durine the breeding
season the male bird has a powerful call and is also often heard
soliloquising in a medley of soft notes, pleasing in rhythm.

The normal nesting site is among rocks, but in Srinagar a pair
once commenced to build on my houseboat and continued to do
so throughout its twenty-mile move upstream. The birds appeared
to be quite undisturbed, fixing off to the shore and returning to the
moving boat with further material for the nest. The comparative
few that inhabit Gulmareg, almost without excention, desert the
banks of the streams and prefer to complete nidification under a
friendly and accommodating roof. The nest is of grass or other
similar material with the cup-shaped interior neatly lined with
hair or wool. Five appears to be the normal number of eggs
found. They are of a light grey shade profusely covered by tiny
spots. of brown.

A great deal of keen interest is aroused for the bird watcher in
the Vale of Kashmir in hig efforts to prove or disprove opinion of

ON PESCHETIUS GUIGNOT (COL., DYTISCIDAE) 103

authorities regarding the breeding of two closely allied species of
White Wagtail.

Although the general consensus of opinion is, that Hodgson’s is
the only species breeding within Indian Empire limits, yet one
authority claims that the Masked Wagtail also breeds commonly
in Kashmir. The striking similarity shewn by the males of four
species of this family and their presence in numbers all over India
during the winter months. urges one to centre interest on each
bird in the legions of pied Wagtails seen here during the breeding
season. Up-to-date I have never found a nest of the: Masked
Wagtail, in spite of hopes often raised by the appearance of a
wagtail, which may prove to be the Masked Wagtail, in an area
where another female wagtai! was brooding her eggs. This keys
up one’s hopes to the possibility that the newly alighted grey- '
backed bird might be its male owner «and thus give sufficient
proof that the nest was indeed that ot the Masked Wagtail.
Time and again these hopes have been dashed to the ground by
the casual arrival at the nest of the male Hodgson’s, proving
that newcomer was not the rightful owner of the nest, but possibly
another stray Hodgson’s female. The close resemblance between
tre male Masked Wagtail and Hodgson’s female makes such sup-
postion possible.

ON PESCHETIUS GUIGNOT (COL., DYTISCIDAE) WITH A
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA.

BY
J. BALFOUR-BROWNE, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R.E.S.,

Department of Entomology, British Museum (N.H.), London
| 62 WAN 77

(' a

Peschetins Guignot (1935).

Guignot, 1935, Rev. franc. Ent., 2, 131.

This genus was erected to include the Indian species, Hydroporus quadri-
costatus Aubé, and the two African species, Hydroporus carinipennis Rég m-
bart and nodieri Rég'mbart. Unfortunately Guignot omitted to cité a genotype
and by so doing techn‘cally invalidated his creation of the genus according to
Article 25 as amended at the International Zoological Congress in Budapest,
1927. The genus is certainly to be accepted as distinct and I hereby cite
Hydroporus quadricostatus Aubé as genotype in order to give it valid'ty.

The generic characters adduced, in the first place by Peschet (Voy. Guy
Babault en Afr. or. angl., 1921, 14-15), are:—Coxal lines cariniform, limiting
between them a deep depression, wide in the middle; first ventrite with-—large
deep foveoles to the number of two or three in carinipennis Rég. and nodieri
Rég. and from six to seven in quadricostatus Aubé; second and third ventrites

104 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

fused, the suture separating them only barely visible laterally ; second ventrite
on either side of the middle line with a deep semicircular impression serving

as cavity for the trochanter and base of femur of hind legs; third ventrite

sub-tectiform, strongly ‘elevated at the apex; three terminal ventrites seen later-
ally not on the same plane as the three anterior.’ To these aré added by
Guignot :—‘First antennal segment much longer than the second, the epipleurs
reaching the apex of the elytra.’

The force of the characters listed above is by no means uniform and the
two characters suggested by Guignot, the second being strongly stressed by
him, do not appear to me to advance the principal character mentioned by
Peschet—the unusual -coxal lines—since certain species of Deronectes s. str.—
bicostatus Schaum—have the basal segment of the antennae distinctly longer
than the second and the epipleurs cannot be said to attain the apex (sommet)
of the elytra to a greater extent than some Deronectes.

Two further characters not mentioned by either author appear to me to be

of primary importance, viz.:—the ridge on the inner face of the elytra termi- .

nates in a distinct waved or double ligula and at the base also develops a
distinct lobe; the hind coxae are much more developed than in Deronectes, the
metasternal wing-being distinctly arched and of an almost uniform thickness
nearly up to the apex. Neither of these characters is to be found in any group
of Deronectes and to them may be added the total absence of a true pronotal
margin, a state almost reached by some species of the compared genus although
in all of them a distinct trace: remains near the anterior angles. A further

feature is seen in the unusual course of the true elytral margin near the shoulder.
where it dips down very sharply so that the epipleur appears to be very nearly,
parallel-sided to the level of the first ventrite, a structure entirely peculiar to

the genus among the Hydroporinae. It also deserves comment that the ert-
pleurs: are throughout coarsely punctured; the hind femora impunctuate ; the
hind tibiae have two longitudinal rows of piliferous punctures on the #!€ro-
external face, the rest of the surface being reticulate, impunctuate ; aid that
the spurs of the hind tibiae are unequal.

Guignot suggests that the genus should be placed near Antiporus and Macro-
porus, chiefly on the character of the epipleurs. Although, as ? have shewn,
the force of the character of the epipleurs is not very great it 4oes appear that
the genus is best placed between Antiporus and Necterosema, with each of
which- it has many affinities. The following new species is to be added to the
three already included :—

Peschetius andrewesi sp. 0.

(Deronectes andrewesi Régimbart in coll.)

(Deronectes belli Régimbart in coll.)

Elongate-oval, subdepressed, rufo-ferrugineous ; head. broadly black from the
posterior margin of the eyes almost to the anterior margin of the fronto-
clypeus, the vertex rufo-ferrugineous ; frons moderately densely and_ shallowly,
coarsely punctured, the interstices of the punctation about equal to the diameter
of the punctures,’ more or less obsoletely microreticulate, the punctures gradually
decreasing in size and somewhat sparser towards the anterior margin; on either
side with a large shallow fronto-clypeal depression; vertex: strongly, almost
shagrinate microreticulate, the meshes absolutely regular, impunctate. Antennae.
long, the basal segment at least as long as the two following taken together,
the fifth, sixth and seventh segments also rather elongate, sub-equal, rufo-
flavous. Pronotum transverse, the sides widely rounded, quite unmargined,
with a shallow longitudinal impression on each side, well separated from the
edge and a sub-basal transverse, impression connecting on either side with the
longitudinal impressions, posterior angles slightly obtuse; closely, regularly and
uniformly punctured, the punctures separated by about their diameters, the
interstices dull microreticulate; rufo-ferrugineous, a small black basal mark on
either side of the middle line; scutellar lobe very slightly developed, the hind
margin being only slightly rounded in the scutellar region; prosternal process
large, strongly laterally compressed, strongly rounded, not carinate tectiform
(c.f. quadricostatus Aubé), the apex bluntly rounded, lateral margins obsolete ;
intercoxal piece of the prosternum without a transverse step or rugae. Elytra
elongate-oval, sides very slightly rounded and widened to the middle, widely

NPs

ON PESCHETIUS GUIGNOT, (COL., DYTISCIDAE) 105

}

rounded. posteriorly, weakly acuminate at the apex; as wide basally as the base
of the pronotum but the angle of junction of margin with the edge of the
pronotum very pronounced owing to the abrupt upward curve of the epipleural
margin » two longitudinal costae, the inner straight and commencing directly
behind the base of the elytra and attaining to four-fifths of their length, the
outer one beginning some distance behind the shoulder and running almost
parallel to the inner one for three-quarters of its length and Uien widely rounded
convergent to join the inner costa of ite «pex; margin abruptly curved upwards
at the shoulder; epipler~ and dorsum punctured and sculptured as on the pro-
notum; rufo-ferrvs*1eous with the black pattern common to all the species of
the genus.” enter rufo-ferrugineous, the edge of the hind coxae and abdominal
vent=c5 infuscate ; metasternum and hind coxz sculptured as on the dorsum,
cae impression between the coxal lines almost impunctate, shining ; basal abdo-
minal ventrite with seven to eight shallow oval, sharply impressed foveae on
either side of the middle line, their cavities microreticulate; second and third
ventrites fused, the second with five similar foveae and numerous large punc-
tures on either side of the middle line, the middle Jine rather pinched, almost
carinate at the base; sixth ventrite dull, microreticulate, the edge strongly, the
disc very finely punctate (c.f. quadricostatus Aubé). Legs moderately long,

-the tarsi of the male slightly more dilated than in the female on the antericr

and intermediate legs, fourth segment small but distinct, fifth quite elongate,
as long as the second and third segments taken together; claws simp/e in both
Sexes.

Type.—India: Nilgiri Hills (H. L. Andrews coll.). (Deroxectes andrewesi.
Reg. n. sp. typ., Regimbart det.). Paratypes.——3 specimens, Same particulars
as type. 2 specimens, S. India: B.M. 61-20—Coimbator, Koondah Hills or
Nilgiri Hills (M. J. Walhouse coll.). 2 specimens, India ~ (without further parti-
culars), (B.M. 67-56, ex coll. Hamlet Clark.). 6 specimens, India: Khandesh
(T. R. Bell coll., ex coll. H. L. Andrews), (peenectes bellu Reg. n. sp.
typ., Regimbart det.). 1 specimen, India: Igatp‘!, 2,000 Hits (x Goll, 16l, 1b,
Andrewes).

Size.—2.9-3.35 mm. long, 1.5-1.6 mm. le

(All specimens are in the British Mus”:

This new species is very similar t¢ <Me three already described. It may
easily be distinguished from quadrirst!Us (Aubé) by the black fronto-clypeus
and the dull, microreticulate, muck ™OT finely punctured sixth ventrite. From
the two African species it may be °° parated by the greater number of foveae on
ihe first ventrite, and from ys eg.) it is further separated by the black
fronto-clypeus whilst ca eepenmes ég.) lacks the post-humeral extension of the
sub-nasal black baud to the Margin, possessing instead a longitudinal band along
the outer odge of the inn¢ carina which joins the discal black band. s

The lateral lobes (par Meres) of the aedeagus are of a form unusual in the
Hydroporinae, in which hey are frequently hooked at the apex. In Peschetius
they are terminated by@ weakly inflated elongate rounded lobe provided with
numerous long hairs 2/8 the inner face, a type normally found in the Colym-
hetinae. The signific!©e of this character in a group otherwise indubitably
Hydroporine is not * Yet apparent.

I am unable to 24 any distinctions between andrewesi and belli (RG, a 5)
Perriiccection hashewn the aedeagus to be identical and accordingly I nee
adopted the form ame for the species.

MICRODYTES GEN. NOV. DYTIS |
SEN. . DYTISCIDAR
(HYPHYDRINI). | ee

. BALFOouUR-BRO 3 :
J VGN aes Oey «PARIS.

Department of Entomology, British Museum (Vee jae
ILOPEOW, So Wo We aS)

Microdytes gen. nov.

Head transverse, eyes quite s A ae
a trace of a ra‘sed = aes pee ie Une vitesse Clipe) wikihow
visibly exserted, emarginate in the middle. Pinot ate HOt Moule, Lelomum
margined ; base at middle dist.nctly, but not largel m transverse, sides narrowly-
num extremely Saal fra Geom Oe aN ea ane Biae roumnelly produced ; proster-
lanceoiate-lobate, the apex rounded, not pate Ss e 5 paosionnel process small,
the sides margined at base. Elytra dele iby transversely weakly convex,
expanded into a prom‘nent ligula at ne, mous ed, the inner face with lamina
‘bordered Bie ee ee Nee ee is ance epipleurs at shoulder with a
minutenput discin’\aaauearaine ie eee ae separated ; mesosternal fork very
CEU lowly ren dlycaeeen tech era CORE process of the metasternum which
ly arched, the noire ae oe Bowie iee: the anterior margin strong-
Veniritenemetacoxall procesee ce ae margin of the first abdominal
posed, the articular cavities distinctl Ba a al the trochanter completely ex-
articular angle, not turned evande Me Aaa) coxal lines terminating at the
narrow and strongly arched; sutures of prolonged; metasternal wings very
obsolete. Legs: hind tibiae on the jnfe second and third ventrite completely
series of spiculiferous punctures, he Se face pau EYyO longitudinal
obliquely ; segments, particularly th. oles BOTS OOo iae distinct groove
distinct longitudinal dorsal ridge, fem aeee ales simple, without a weak but
equal but the shorter one quite distinct Bak atl solete; hind tarsal claws un-
longer one. g about two-thirds the length of the
Genotype.—Microdytes belli (Rég. len Sk °
This new genus is a member of the trive Hypeye.: 5 :
Desmopachria, from which it is-not easy to separ de pre ene ISIC, close to
a distinct genus on the slight but constant differences e.g Re is undoubtedly
ined anterior edge of the fronto-clypeus with a mot visip] cate and unmar-
slightly different course of the coxal lines, shorter tro seer exserted’ labrum,
linear series of sp cul ferous punctures on the infero-e Sais see or Ewe
tibiae, the upper. series not set in an oblique groove, theghsen Feet ine hind
longitudinal ridge of the dorsal surface on, at least, t cre cf the median
hind tarsi, and the longer outer (lower) claw of the hind\¢, ec emma the
It is possible that Hydrovatus maculatus Motschulsky ae E
42), re-described by Régimbart (Ann. Soc. ent. France, \ pie 8, 1859,
transferred to Desmopachria by Gischwendtner (Rec. Ins. M, : 99) 231) and
may belong to this genus, but no description I have seen deat? 2/7 1935: ?)
of the coxal lines, the punctures of the h’nd tibiae or the ee the course
tarsi and tarsal claws. Until an authentic specimen of that > of the hind
examined for these characters its position must remain doubttuk > °° be

Microdytes belli (Reg. i. 1.) n. sp.

Head: rufo-ferrugineous, very finely but quite copiously puncturaip

e times the diameter of the punctures, quite shin:ng .4 ae
except along the anterior edge of the fro. Rao
where an extremely fine and lightly incised meshwork can just be su teus
rather short and slender, the anterior edge very slightly SEltia ens
in length and width, the second as je the
the fourth very short, as wide as .2
anterior, posterior and Jateral marg
the posterior ang)

stices four to fiv
a trace of reticulation

tennae :
first and second segments subequal

the third and fourth taken together,

Thorax: pronotum fusco-castaneous, the
narrowly paler; the sides. finely but distinctly margined,

MICRODYTES GEN. NOV. DYTISCIDARUM (AYPHYDRINI)~ 107

almost acute but not at all produced ; the scutellar lobe very shortly roundly
produced; the surface strongly shining, regularly, more strongly than on the
+head and rather more copiously punctured, the punctures three times the size
of those on the head and the interstices two to three times the diameter of ee
punctures ; prosternum exceptionally narrow in front of the pro-coxae, the
prosternal process small, lanceolate-lobate, terminally rounded, Weakly convex,
the sides distinctly.margined at the base; anterior tarsi four segmented, laterally
compressed, the claws simple and equal. Metasternum and metacoxae with the
sutures almost obsolete, highly polished, rather coarsely, regularly and evenly
punctured on the coxae, the sternum antero-laterally coarsely, posteriorly finely
punctured, fusco-castaneous, the coxal processes rufescent ; hind femora not at
all inflated; hind tibiae not much narrower at base than at apex; calearia stout,
unequal, simple, the longer as long as the basal segment of the hind tarsi;
the hind trochanters shorter than the posterior edge of. their femora from the
apex of the trochanter to the ‘knee’. FKlytra: regularly cvate, the sides dilated
just behind the shoulder, the apex strongly rounded, not at all acuminate
giving the insect an almost rhomboidal outline ; fusco- or nigro-castaneous with
a broad transverse basal fascia dilated at the shoulder and continuing moderately
wdely along the margin to just before the apex with a confluent spot or
enlargement laterally behind the middle and a_ second anteapically, a small
round post-median ‘spot near the suture, flavous, the surface heghly polished
and shining, punctured as on the pronotum but laterally more sparingly with
the ‘systematic’ serial punctures almost or quite obsolete. Abdominal ventrites
very highly polished and shining, the basal segment laterally with a few obso-
lete large punctures and some also on the second segment, the rest of the
surface, even of the sixth ventrite, quite impunctate.

Size.—1.83-1.86 mm. long., 1.29-1.32 mm. lat.

Type.—India: Bombay Pres., Khandesh (T. R. Bell coll.;. ex coll. H. L.
Andrewes).

Paratype.—1 specimen, same particulars.

(Both specimens are in the British Museum.)

Both specimens appear to be female, by comparison with Microdytes cham-

piont n. sp., described below, assuming the sexual characters to be the same
for both species.

- Microdytes championi n. sp.

Head: flavo-testaceous to rufo-flavous, finely, slightly, irregularly but fairly
copiously punctured, anteriorly finely microreticulate but shining, the vertex
strongly shining and without a trace of reticulation, the punctures here slightly
larger. Antennae: as in belli n. sp. Thorax: pronotum flavo-testaceous to
rufo-castaneous, the anterior edge narrowly infuscate, the posterior edge more
widely obscurely infuscate in the middle, the ‘sides finely margined, the margi1,
black, the posterior angles almost acute but not at all produced ; fairly copiously
punctured, the punctures irregular, those on the disc finer, along the posterior

edge coarser and a transverse band of almost equidistant |

arger punctures along
the anterior margin,

laterally the discal punctures become obsolete and_ the
larger punctures reduced in size ; prosternum as in belli sp. n. Metasternum and
meta-coxae as in belli but the punctures much sparser and less regular; legs as
in belli. Elytra: regularly oval, widest almost at middle, the sides evenly
rounded, the apex more roundly attenuate than in belli but not
behind, the form more elongate-rhomboidal than belli ; flavo-testaceous, the an-
terior and sutral margins black or blackish and a fusco-rufous or dark casta-
neous broad, transverse, anteriorly waved band on the disc which does not
attain the declivous portion of the side of the elytra, posteriorly the band is
sinuous with a linear posterior extens'on’on the -disc terminating ante-apically
in a rounded spot, the surface finely and fairly copiously punctured near the
Suture, progressively slightly more sparsely tawards. the sides, the ‘systematic’
series of punctures distinct, particulatly the inner one, almost to the apex,
the interstices of the punctation highly polished and shining. Abdominal ventrites
highly polished and shining, the basal and fused second and third ventrites with
a moderately copious fine punctation towards the sides, the sixth ventrite ex-

cessively finely and rather sparsely punctate, the surface highly polished and
shining.

at all acuminate

108 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Size.—1.86-2.07 mm. long., 1I.29-1.42 mm. lat.

Type.—India: United Provinces; Kumaon, Haldwani Dist., ¢ (H. G.
Champion coll.).

Paratypes.—same particulars, 54 specimens.

(The type and 32 paratypes in the British Museum, the remainder in coll.
(Champion).

This. species is readily distinguished from belli by the colour, the greater
extent of the reticulation on the head, the distinct systematic series of the elytra,
the sparser metacoxal. and more plentiful, finer punctures of the basal abdominal
ventrites. The only apparent secondary sexual character is seen on the lobes
of the labial mentum where the male has a dense tuft of long golden hairs, the
female having this part glabrous. This is a very unusual secondary sexual
character of the Dytiscidae and no similar case is known to me,

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM.

BY
H.G.H.M.

leveye LAV,

Along the base of the Bhutan Hills is an extensive Game
Sanctuary from which tigers find their way to other dense jungles
which are a natural sanctuary and in which they cannot be attack-
ed until they roam further afield into the more open grass jungles
bordering on cultivated areas. Then they become cattle lifters and

so expose themselves to sportsmen; but it is only with the aid of

elephants that they can be successfully dealt with.

On a cold weather morning in early March, on alighting from
the train on the Eastern Bengal Railway at the wayside station
of Sarupeta in Assam, it was a fine sight to see some fifty elephants
lined up to meet the guests of the always hospitable Rajah of
G. Soon we were all sorted out and seated in our howdahs.
The programme was to beat through the jungle towards camp
about seven miles away, and there was hope of tiger being seen

as there had recently been ‘kills’ in that area; but we had no

SUCCESS.

The next day we started out fairly early, and though there
was no ‘khubber’ of a kill, the beating line, after a deal of hard
work, put up a tigress with small cubs and of course, as usually
happens in such cases, she charged the line not only once, but
twice, and the Raj Kumar, who was with the beating elephants
stopped her by firing shots though she could not be seen. Even-
tually she left the cubs and was with considerable difficulty driven
to the Maharajah of M.° Several of the other guns could have
shot her but the order was that she should be killed by the Maha-
rajah; and so she was, with ‘one well aimed shot. Returning” to
where the cubs were last seen, after much searching, in which \the
elephant’s aid was invaluable, we found two of the snarling little
creatures, the size of foxterriers. Secured by the mahouts who
threw blankets over them they were deposited, in cane cages which

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 109

were always taken out on these big shoots on one of the pad ele-
phants.

Although so recently caught, it was not long after they had:
been in camp that they permitted friendly patting of the head.
In many parts of India it is not considered proper to shoot tigress-
es with small cubs, but in those enormous jungles teeming with
wild animals of every description that was not the custom. All
this caused much delay, so there was no more shikar, the
Rajah having rightly insisted that as the mother had been killed
her cubs should be found.

On the following day the Maharajah of M. was obliged to
leave the camp and we had no success until after lunch when we
found ourselves near the place where, the previous year we had
killed six tigers in less than an hour. I had intended to take
photographs but was told a tiger must be shot by me so I was
posted where the tigers, if any in this promising cover, would be
most likely to break. The Rajah made his usual very careful
arrangements, posting each howdah elephant himself, and walk-
ing his elephant up and down behind the line, which was _ placed
at right angles to the beating line, so that it would be safe to
fire straight ahead. My position was away to the right front of the
line at a spot where the tigers, having been driven from heavy
jungle through light jungle, would naturally take again to the
heavy cover in front of them. Orders to the line of howdah guns
were that no shot was to be fired unless the tigers attempted to
break through them to gain the heavy cover behind. I realized
that it was quite likely the tigers, finding me in their way of re-
treat, would charge my elephant and was prepared for this.

Now the beating line was set in motion, and before long it
was signalled that there were three tigers in front of it. These
turned out to be a tigress with two. three-quarter grown cubs.
The tigress moved as expected, while the other two came along
nearer the line of howdah elephants and were clearly seen as
they made their. way through the light jungle. When nearing me
the tigress suddenly discovered the presence of my elephant,
grunted and charged. I waited until she was close, and as the bead
marked a point between her shoulders, I pulled the trigger and mis-’
sed! Doubtless it was the common error of seeing the foresight
and not the backsight also, so the bullet went high. She ‘stopped,
immediately jumped back, and ran into the jungle she had come
from and was seen and missed by some of the other guns. Barely
had the mother gone, when the two cubs were almost into my
elephant’s legs. Quickly they turned back and I feared to fire
towards the now approaching line of beaters. One of the cubs,
followed up “by a member of the party, presented an easy shot
and was killed. It was getting late so a beat for the tigress and
other cub had to be quickly arranged. A narrow strip of jun-
gle was broken down by the many elephants available—there were
not far short of a hundred, as the Maharaja of M. had left his
beasts although he himself had been obliged to go to Calcutta.
The beat was now turned right about to force the hunted animals
across the narrow cleared strip to the waiting guns on the further
side. These were—from right to left, M. Junior, the Second

110 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 40

Kumar, quite a youth, myself and the Kumar: four guns. Behind
us was the thick jungle and before us the imposing line of beating
elephants. Away to our right were the surplus elephants which
had trodden down the clear space, with the Rajah of G. and other -
guests. j |

First arrived the cub which received one bullet from the Raj
Kkumar’s .500 rifle loaded with Low Pressure cordite cartridge
having a 440 grain soft nose bullet; such a combination is very ~
good for close shots afforded in -howdah shooting. The Raj
Kumar had only just reloaded when the tigress, now in very sav-
age mood, sprang at his elephant’s head but the spring was avoid-
ed- by a rapid twist and the Raj Kumar, missing her in the air,
gave her a second shot as she landed on the ground. ‘This she
answered with a grunt and sprang growling savagely into the
grass. The younger Kumar was now ordered out of the jungle
as it was not safe for him to take part in the approaching scrim-
mage. He was using a .400 black powder rifle taking a 230
grain bullet and 80 grains powder. This weapon is not good
enough for a fighting tigress but I have seen the boy kill more than
a dozen tigers with it, one shot apiece. One of them, shot in the
~chest, measured ten feet, a very heavy male.

The Raj Kumar and I closed our elephants on the tigress.
She charged again and was received with two hits, this time again
retreating. Three beater elephants were moved up to push the
tigress out and she charged one of them, getting astride the tusks —
of a big elephant named Urthumpersad. He went round anc
round like a top in the grass in attempting to throw her off, the
two other elephants close by doing the same. During this it was
not possible to shoot, and when at last the tigress was dislodged
she charged the Raj Kumar who settled her with two shots. A
fine beast she was, measuring nine feet.

It was this Urthumpersad which had been ordered by the Assam
Government to be shot, but which had been bought by the Rajah
of G. He was then exceedingly timid, but tigers have now been —
shot from his back and he will likely turn out an excellent howdah
elephant, the result of expert training and management. Mrs. S,
who knew all the Forest Department elephants at Kochug‘aon will
be interested to know this, should she come across these reminis-
cences. We padded the three tigers and returned to camp. Even
this day’s sport showed that tiger shooting from elephants is not
always a tame affair.

The following day only one tiger was shot and this fell to the
Second. Kumar and his light rifle. The bullet mushroomed per-
fectly. The day after that, the 11th March, five tigers were bagged.
On ‘this day it was again wished by our host that I should kill a
tiger«, The beat had just started and I was arguing with G’s
Doctor, who was in the back seat of the howdah, as to the possi-
bility, of a charge. He was saying that tigers, on hearing the
advance of the beating elephants move to the edge of the cover,
and if they do not detect the waiting howdah elephant move off
to the next jungle in a very silent manner; also he was insisting
that they often break back before the shikaris think they do, and
that the tiger may be even now at the expected exit place—when

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM {11

out the beast jumped with a grunt! I was taken by surprise and
missed, the result of want of proper attention to the matter in
hand. Never must one’s mind be diverted for an instant or such
chances will be lost. The tiger for some unaccountable reason ran
into the open and was twice fired at by other guns, but went on
as if untouched. Then the Rajah fired and it dropped to the shot
and rolled into the cover on the edge of which it was at the mo-
ment. The Raj Kumar, who was further ahead, saw some
movement in the high grass and a couple of elephants were sent
to push through the cover: shortly a tiger showed in the nala
close to where the wounded one had disappeared. G. fired and it
jumped into the grass and died. All movement having ceased an
elephant was sent in to investigate and to the surprise of everyone,
the mahout announced ‘two dead tigers’. When the bullets were
recovered from the bodies it was found that besides the .465 used
by the Rajah there was a 12 gauge Paradox conical bullet from
the weapon used by M. Junior. ‘1nis had been fired at a range of
about 75 yards and had had no .effect, though well placed. The
beast had not even acknowledged the hit. Fifty years ago the
Paradox, and other imitations of the idea, had a great vogue, but
_ experienced sportsmen placed not much reliance on them except for
close shots. _I have seen a tiger, hit in the chest with one ot these
heavy conical bullets at close range, roll over but get up and move
on as if unwounded. It was killed by another gun who does not
know to this day that he shot a previously wounded animal. The
good sportsman who used the Paradox did not claim the beast
as the other man had never shot a tiger. After this we moved on
and came to a place where four tigers were found. ‘The tigress
and her three nearly full grown cubs were at one time bolting all
over the place in the light cover, and nearly everyone had a shot
at them, but all without.success. Another beat was arranged and
in this I knocked over the tigress with my .280, rather an over-
long shot. She got up and charged the beating line but was killed
by one of the howdah guns. One of the large cubs, they were
about eight feet long, was shot by M. Senior as it charged past
his elephant, and another was killed by the Rajah with a charge
of No. 4 shot from his gun. He leaned over the side of his how-
dah and it fell dead, the skull smashed to a pulp. The cub which
had escaped killed a cow that night and was shot next day. On
the 14th the elephants were given a rest, and then there was news
of a man-eating tiger, and several others, in a certain locality.
An early start was made as the distance was considerable.

Death of a man-eater.

The hut from which the man: had been taken was situated very
close to heavy jungle. It was still occupied, in spite of this having
been about the twelfth or fourteenth man taken from the neigh-
bouring village. The people are fatalists and say that when a
man is taken by a tiger—it is his fate, and do nothing to save them-
selves.from-a similar doom. This tiger had killed a cow that very
morning and dragged it into cover near a stream. The ground
on both sides of the stream, as well as the stream itself, was very

112 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

boggy. Two of the elephants got badly bogged and had to be
assisted out by others. Had there not been plenty of help avai-
lable it is quite likely these two animals would have perished.
Eventually all the elephants crossed the place, but four or five had
to be left behind as they were quite exhausted. Here is another
reason why this form of shikar is dangerous at times.

It is not often that elephants fall, they are so careful and
cautious, but once my wife and I were in gre&t* danger our ele-
phant put her right fore foot into a deep hole in the ground. We
were all thrown off. The mahout and I fell clear, but my wife
when hurt her spine and even now, years later, feels the effect of
that fall. She lay very close to the elephant, which was strug-
gling to rise, and had I not pulled her away in time, she would.
have been crushed for, just as she got clear the elephant fell again,
this time on its right side. A narrow escape indeed. Such
accidents are fortunately rare for the sagacious beasts well know
the danger of a fall. It was .only after several attempts that
our elephant was able to gain its footing on firm ground.

Being certain that one of the tigers in this beat would be the
man-eater the mahouts asked that there should be two or three
howdah elephants with the beating line; so I and the two M’s
said we would go across the stream. I made my way over with
much difficulty, but M. Junior’s elephant got firmly bogged. When
M. Senior saw this he called out in his humorous way, ‘I have
seen’ what your elephant had to do to get across, and what I am
seeing’, pointing to his brother’s elephant, ‘persuades me not to
attempt it, for one elephant’, pointing to himself, ‘on top of another
elephant would certainly become permanently bogged; so good luck
to you!’ and off he went to join the line of howdah elephants which
were being led to a crossing further down.

Following in single file along the bank of the stream, to a point
beyond where the slain cow had been taken across into the long
grass, the beating line turned left with myself on the left. It was
very soon apparent that a tiger was before the line for several ele-
phants were giving the usual signs. The tiger was not worried
and carried on, as could be seen by the ‘hullee’, but after a while
he began to move back and across and to grunt and growl to show
his displeasure at being forced to move. The sounds he made
did not indicate any intention to attack, but were merely warnings
to the elephants not to tread on his tail!.. Whenever the tiger
came near me the mahout urged me to shoot, and even the head
shikari, Phata, said I must kill the tiger or he would presently
charge and get away after doing some damage. Such was the
fear put into all these experienced men through the knowledge
that a man-eater tiger was before them. As a matter of fact there
was no more danger than from any other tiger with less evil re-
putation. The mahouts were very nervous and their fears were
being communicated to their mounts, so it was apparent that 1 |
ought to take an opportunity, if one presented, and not adhere to
the rather strict convention that no tiger may be shot from the
beating line.

SOME REMINISCENCES: OF SPORT IN ASSAM 113 t

The elephants were closing on me in quarter moon formation, ;
and after a time there was no movement to be seen as we were
now in taller and more dense grass. Suddenly the tiger rushed
from almost beneath my elephant but a little to the right. I could
not see him but the mahout from his position on the elephant’s
neck was able to do so. Reaching back he placed his hand on
mine clasping the howdah rail and directed attention to a place
where the huge back of the royal beast was visible through the
grass stems. The target was one I could not miss, and firing
with the .280 the great beast pitched forward without a sound
and rolled over on his right side. A number of mahouts called
out to shoot again, and again, but I knew there was no need as
when a tiger falls in his tracks without an answer to the shot it
is certain he is dead. However, I fired two shots to satisfy them.
The line continued to advance but there were no more tigers,
though two in an adjacent cover had not been too much disturbed
and were later driven out and shot. One of them charged the
Raj Kumar, who was favoured on this shoot with all the charges!
He charged repeatedly and fought to the end, being at last killed
by one of the other guns as he was pursuing the Raj Kumar’s:
retreating elephant. Had he caught up with it he would possibly:
have mounted behind and tried to get at the occupants of the
howdah.

The Maharajah of M. had returned to the shoot and I was dis-
appointed at having had to kill the tiger which should properly
have been driven to him. The Rajah of G. ruled that I had been
quite right, and congratulated me on getting this fine beast which
measured ten feet over the curves in spite of having a very short
tail. He was a very heavy, powerful beast and in his prime,
having no apparent excuse for his evil taste for human flesh. That
he was the man-eater is certain, for when we visited the place
the following year it was found that all killings had ceased from.
the day he was shot. When the howdah and other elephants;
assembled round the dead tiger both sportsmen and beater mahouts_
cheered me, the demonstration being started by the Rajah, which,
was nice of him. The spontaneous and genuine gratification at.
my success was so sincere that I shall ever remember it. After)
ten days we left the camp; fourteen tigers had been shot. Twice
in previous years the total killed amounted to no less than thirty-
two. The total for this year was-18 tigers, three bears, two but-
faloes. DICE

Mention has been made of six tigers killed in one hour. That
is not very remarkable in heavy grass jungle when a number: of
elephants are used; but a well-known official named D., a very |
fine rifle shot, on one occasion killed five tigers in less than one
hour all by himself off a single pad elephant, and she untrained!
This was not far from the town of Goalpara, and when he met
us at Dhubri and told us about it, he said that there were perhaps
another ten tigers collected there and he had desisted from at-
tempting to kill more of the animals as the elephant was showing
signs of fright, and no wonder! It is probable that this unusual
assemblage was on account of a fove-making affair and D was

114 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

fortunate not to have been attacked as in such circumstances male
tigers are most aggressive.

I have seen the wild Mithun in Assam, also the semi-tame
mithun. The latter are met with in the Lushai Hills. - There is
a difference between the semi-tame and the wild Mithun in Assam.
Neither of them are wild cattle like the Banting, or Tsine, of
Burma. They are large, heavy animals. One day in the rainy
season two of these beasts arrived at Dhubri and one was shot
by Indians with 12 bore spherical bullets: the other got away.
The mithun that was shot had two horns growing from one side
ef its head and one on the other side. None of the three horns were
rudimentary ones, but well developed horns as is clearly seen in a
photograph that was taken. I bought this head and gave it to
the Rajah of G who had it set up, and no doubt it is on a wall
in his palace to this day.

Other strange animals used to come into Dhubri. Perhaps
they were carried down by the floods of the Brahmapootra and
unable to land before getting to Dhubri, from which the jungles
are far away. <A clouded leopard was killed one year by Mr. K.
the Pilot Superintendent of the river, with a shot gun. It was
inside a drain, and much pleased was K when he found. he had
bagged such a rare and beautiful creature.

Bears.

' I have been told by sportsmen, and have read the statement
in many books, that a bear stands up to attack a man. I am _
talking about the sloth bear of India. One has to keep in mind
that the same species may behave differently in various. parts.
What they do in Assam may be quite different to what they do
in the Central Provinces and other parts of India.

In the Hill Districts of Assam, Naga Hills, Lushai Hills, Garo
Hills, Mishmi Hills, Sadya Frontier Tracts, etc., I have spoken to
many men who have been attacked by the sloth bear, and with-
out exception all say that the bear does not stand up to attack,
but rushes in, and after knocking the person down may attack
the head and damage the scalp, but is just as likely to damage
the thighs or whatever he can get hold of.

I have met about twenty cases, and they all told the same
story of which the following is a typical example. An old Lushai
man with some others shot at and wounded a bear with spherical
bullets from a shot gun. Next morning they followed up, and the
gun missing fire, the bear rushed into Luma and knocked him
down. Then, as Luma attempted to get up, the bear bit him in
the back, as well as the buttocks and also got hold of his right
hand and bit off the thumb. Other Lushais then killed the beast
with a spear.

I had once to give medical aid to a Survey Officer mauled by
a sloth bear. He had been carried for about three days in an
improvised bamboo litter by coolies and arrived about ten in the
morning. He was in a dreadful state and the smell was so great
that one could scarcely remain near the stretcher. We were at the
Damra Inspection Bungalow so my wife at once prepared a bed;

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 115

and as I had practically nothing with me to treat such a case
all I could do was to put permanganate poultices on the wounds
to clean them up. After washing his person and dressing the
wounds he was more comfortable and slept till the evening.

It was learnt from him that he had a black cocker spaniel,
and when he saw a black object coming towards him in the grass
was not prepared to meet the rush of a bear which took place
before he could do anything with his gun. He was knocked over
and the bear proceeded to bite his right thigh above the knee
joint. He lost consciousness and on coming round shouted for the
coolies who had all run away. The shouts brought the bear back
and he was again attacked and put up his right arm to save his.
face. His arm was then badly mauled, also the left arm was bit-
ten. He must have then again fainted, and on coming to his
senses decided to make for a tree. As he got to the tree the bear
again attacked, but passed along down the path and left him.
He ran in the opposite direction and collapsed, the next recollec-
tion being that he was in the stretcher: and so he journeyed for
three days, being kept alive on milk obtained from the .villages.
He remembered-that while on the ground another bear stood by
without attacking: this of course was a cub.

The wounds were neglected and serious. An injection of strep-
tococcic serum was indicated but I had none with me. I drove
the injured man 7o miles to Gauhati and from there sent him
without delay to the Mission Hospital in Shillong. Later on I
heard from him that his leg and right arm, which had received
the most serious wounds, were healed and as well as ever; but
the left arm, which was slightly mauled, was paralyzed.

Undoubtedly sloth bears are very dangerous animals and fre-
quently attack without provocation, most of such cases being fe-
males with cubs at foot. They are particularly tough brutes, and
soft nose bullet from a powerful rifle should be used against them.

Miscellaneous :

In regard to wild animals in Assam almost anything is possible,
so when I met a young Mahomedan Assistant Surgeon at Fulbari,
with a tale of a rogue elephant and a man-eating tiger, I quite be-
lieved his story, though I afterwards verified it through a report
to the Deputy Commissioner. He had been ordered to make a
Kala-azar survey of the villages within reach of the road between
Tura and Fulbari. On reaching the first Inspection Bungalow of
the two which are on that length of road, he was told by the
chowkidar that a rogue elephant had on the previous night demo-
lished the Subordinate’s hut, so he decided to push on to the next
Inspection Bungalow. Arriving there at about three in the after-
-noon he was informed by the chowkidar’s wife that her husband
had been caught the previous night near his hut by a tiger which
had killed and eaten him! Some Garos of the neighbouring vil-
lage had found the remains that very morning, so she was ready
packed up to go to her home. The young Sub-Assistant Surgeon
therefore went on to Fulbari, where I met him. He returned to

416 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Tura, arriving there before I did, developed blackwater fever and
died before my arrival. The treatment of blackwater with the
leaves of Vitex penduncularis was not then known. It was. ori-
ginally discovered by Santhals. At first a liquid extract was issued:
by Government but proved useless. Then the method which prov-
ed successful, and may be deemed to be a specific, was adopted.
This was to make from the dried leaves a strong ‘tea’, which
may be taken with milk and sugar, of which a total of about a
quart a day—usually three times a day—is given, but the total
of the quart not exceeded. (Vitex penduncularis is a tree of. the
Botanical Order Verbenaceae and of the genus vitex; about four-
teen species of which occur in India. In Assam the vernacular
name is Osai, and in Santhal it is Mara kata, also Bhadut.)

The Kala-azar Survey was eventually completed and a hospital
built-near Tura. <A village at a time was attended to, and in this
way a large number of cures were effected with Dr. Brahmachari’s
treatment, which is certainly a cure. It was at one time thought
that the common bug was the carrier of the disease, but it could
not be proved that it was so. It has now been definitely proved
that the true carrier of the disease is the sand fly Phlebotomus
argentipes.

Doings at Dhubri:

Here is a true tale of a tiger and the Police at Dhubri. A
tiger mauled a Police constable and was next day found in the
compound of the Forest Officer, who was out of the Station. Mr. .
A. the Police Superintendent, ordered buckshot ammunition to be
issued to the men. The tiger was seen in some bushes which
ran along one side of the house and the Police opened fire. Mean-
time Mr. C. of my Service got on the roof of the bungalow and
from the top verandah killed the tiger with one shot in the head.
When the tiger was examined it was found that not one single
buckshot had struck the animal! The only wound was Mr. C.’s
bullet in the head. Mr. C. let the Police have the skin and it is
perhaps ‘still to be seen at the Dhubri Police Station. Mr. D.,
the Inspector-General of Police, was often ragged about this affair
and asked how he was going to account for some seventy rounds
of buckshot!

Here is another story concerning the Police. It also is a
Dhubri tale—the tale of a Missionary’s claim for a tiger skin.
All officials were out of the Station on tour when some men re-
ported to old A.M., Local Superintendent of Police, that a tiger
was lying in the doorway of a cow-shed so that the cattle could
not get out nor could the herdsmen approach. ‘The old Officer
took no interest in shooting but possessed a .405 Winchester rifle
and a shot gun; and as there was no one else to destroy the
tiger he considered it his duty to do so. Taking with him his
weapons and a Police orderly he started off, passing the house of
a Missionary on his way. The' Missionary, learning what was
afoot, also took a rifle and they went together to the village.
Men pointed out the shed some seventy yards away and Padre B.
said he could see the tiger so got on the roof of a hut. Old

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM liz
Mahomed said it was too far and he would go closer to investi-
gate, as all good Police officers do, and got within nine feet of
the tiger which he could see the other side of a grass and mud
wall of a broken down hut. He returned to the Padre and told
him to come closer to the place where the animal was _ plainly
visible. ‘No’ said the reluctant Parson, ‘this is a better place’.
So the old man returned to the nine foot! stance to find his order-
ly with the shot gun had disappeared. Just as Mahomed was con-
sidering how best to poke his rifle barrel through the flimsy wali
the Padre fired a shot which whizzed over his head! The tiger
now began to take notice so, as the old man afterwards related,
he thought it time to act. Pushing his rifle barrel through he got
a sight on the tiger’s back and pulled the trigger. ‘Then’, said
Mahomed, ‘there was an earthquake, and the wounded brute flew
round and round scattering bits of wall and shed in all directions.
I found the tiger looking daggers at me so pointed the rifle at.
his head and this time he fell dead.’ A bullock cart was pro-
cured and the tiger was being taken to Dhubri when the valiant
Padre claimed the tiger as his property! Just then the Deputy
Commissioner returned from tour, and after hearing all the story
and examining the tiger asked M. why he was giving up clainy
to the skin as, though the Padre said he could not have missed at
seventy yards, it was impossible for the bullet fired from the top:
of the shed to have entered near the tail and traversed to the
chest, and no other bullet hit the animal except those fired by M,
‘Tell him the skin is yours.” The Padre was very angry and in-
sisted he had hit the tiger and the skin should be his. At a tea
party a few days later the Padre challenged old M to a shooting
match saying that whichever of them made the best score should
have it. ‘Yes’, said the brave old officer, ‘we will shoot for it, and
the range shall be nine feet and not seventy yards’! No doubt this.
answer had been suggested to him. Every one was very indignant
that the Padre fired a shot from so far when M. was so close to:
the tiger, as it was a dreadful thing to have done and might have
cost old M his life.

S., who was with me when we shot a big buffalo, met with a
sad end. He was then Forest Officer of the Goalpara District and.
in camp at Kochugaon. We knew him very well, and he had.
toured with us in the Garo Hills on many occasions. The tele-
gram asked for urgent help so de C. and [ set out in the Tin Lizzie
to drive the fifty miles over bad roads and through forest. When
I reached S. I was shocked to find he could not move, and after
hearing what had happened soon MSO VEEL he had no sensation
from the feet upwards to a point 14 inches above the nipple line.
This meant a high-up fracture, or dislocation, or both, of the
spine; and also meant death. He was taken to ane General Hospital,
Calcutta, accompanied by his wife who left behind her Ayah and
two babies. The younger of the children, then about six months
old, is now an Officer in the Royal Navy.

S. had built several narrow gauge timber extraction line brid-
ges over ravines, and returning over one of these the trolley wheels.
struck the obstrucion caused by one rail overlapping another by
a quarter of an inch, the result being that the trolley overturned

a1iB. =©60 « JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

into the ravine. Mr. J., also on the trolley, fell first and S. on top
of him and the trolley on S. So it would seem that the spine
--was fractured by the trolley as it descended. This would account
for the double injury—the fracture and the dislocation.

A Panther Story:

On the Tura-Fulbari road there was an Inspection Bungalow,
I have forgotten the name of it, the chokidar of which was killed
and taken away by a tiger. For long after this occurrence it was
said by the Garos living in those parts that a black tiger was kill-
ing people within a radius of twenty miles. It was probably a
black panther. I have read in several books that black tigers exist
in India, but never has the authentic death of one been recorded;
so the question remains, ‘Is there any such thing as a_ black
tiger?’ Whatever the correct answer, the Garo Hills ‘Black. tiger’
was never bagged. I have not come across any explanation as
to why there should not be black tigers as well as black panthers
which are quite common where there are dense and damp jungles
inhabited also by tigers.

Well, I went to this bungalow in connexion with Kala-azar.
We arrived about tea time, and after tea I. was talking to the
Inspector of Vaccination outside the bungalow near some fairly
heavy jungle, for the place is in the midst of forests. Suddenly
a squirrel started to make a noise. We looked at one another
for there is always a cause for bird and animal noises in the
forest, and both of us knew that this meant the vicinity of either
a tiger or a panther. I had just said we had better be getting
inside when there was a rush towards us, and the animal came
right to the edge of the cover. I caught hold of the Inspector to
prevent his running, and we backed until we reached the bungalow
steps—then we ran! I seized my .475 rifle and fired a shot in
direction of the rush. As there was a large hole in the wall near
to head of my bed it would have been foolish to sleep there, so
I explored the Subordinates’ Quarters and found a safe room to
contain myself and all my staff and servants. It was rather a
crush but had to be endured. Next morning it was found by the
tracks that a panther had jumped a small stream and then made
his rush. It was before he jumped the stream the squirrel had
chattered at him.

When I related all this, later on to G. he ruled that it was
only to get us out of the way that the panther had made his de-
monstration, his real objective being my pony tethered to a stake
in the clearing to right of the bungalow. However that may be
I still claim that it was a man-eating panther which contemplated
making a meal of me!

(To be continued)

FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE ANAMALAI
HILLS (COCHIN).

BY
(Cia IRS (SRONOR,

The observations upon which this paper is based were made in
the evergreen and deciduous forests of the north area of the Ana-
malai Hills, where these hills merge into the Nelliampathy Range,
- at an altitude of 1,500 to 2,000 ft., and between February 12th and
March 11th, 1944.

That these notes are but fragmentary I am only too well aware;
however, the very fact that it was possible within the space of a
month to make observations hitherto unrecorded or at least unem-
phasised on the distribution, ecology, and natural history in gen-
eral of a number of the wonderful jungle birds of South India,
is in itself evidence of the vast and almost untouched field still
lying fallow for the naturalist in this country. Certain features
struck me as particularly noteworthy, and as crying out for scien-
tific investigation; of these I give a few concrete examples :—

I was especially struck during my tour by the extraordinary
social habits of so many of the Timalidae—the Babblers and Laugh-
ing Thrushes—birds which seem to have abandoned all individua-
lity, and to have evolved a ‘social system’ wherein each and every
member of a flock exists only as a minor unit within the group,
to an extent far surpassing any other family of the Passerine birds.
| Again, the discontinuous and ‘patchy’ distribution within a

small area of forest shown by so many bulbuls is an ecological
problem which would richly repay study, but which remains up
to date quite unexplained.

To come down to a particular species; to know however slightly
the Great Hornbill (Dichoceros) is to give it a unique niche in the
community of jungle birds—yet we can pretend. to no more than
the most sketchy knowledge of any part of its ordinary everyday
life.

Turning lastly to Courtship, Display, and the whole cycle of
breeding activities, the strange trios which are such a feature of
the Drongos are unexplained, the courtships of the Hoopoe, the
Grey Hornbill, the Fairy Blue Bird, the Stork-billed Kingfisher,
the whole family of the Pittas, the Barbets, and the Bee-eaters,
remain totally unknown.

We know.today the main details of the geographical distri-
bution of the majority of Indian birds; we know the colour and
number of their eggs, and the structure of their nest; but as for
their Ecology, Breeding Biology, and Field Natural History in
general, not only does plenty remain to be done, but not even the
cream has been skimmed off.

All references to Salim Ali refer to the ‘Ornithology of Travan-
core and Cochin’ by that author, published in the Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society, Vols. vii-ix (1935-7).

120 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

I am also indebted to Mr. Salim Ali who has found time in
the course of his tireless and relentless wresting of ecological in-
formation from Indian birds to edit these notes.

Finally, { am glad to record that the havoc said to be wrought
by the aboriginal Kadar tribe on the avifauna of the hills, is cer-
tainly not true of the northern area, where their supine indolence
is such that not even substantial remuneration could persuade them
to help me look for nests.

LIST OF BIRDS

(NOMENCLATURE ACCORDING TO ‘THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND
COCHIN’).

PASSERES

Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus. The Southern Jungle Crow.

One at Parambikolam; the local forester was surprised when I pointed
it out to him, and informed me that Crows are particularly unknown in this

aréa.

Dendrocitta leucogastra. Southern Tree-Pie.

Very common in evergreen forest; but I never saw it in deciduous. The
birds were always in pairs and rather tame—presumably breeding had not
begun. They were extremely silent and although I watched many pairs, I
never heard the call-note. They habitually came down to feed on Lantana
erries. This pestilential plant is definitely become an important factor in the
distribution of all fruit-eating birds.

Garrulax delesserti, The Wynaad Laughing Thrush.

I saw several parties, of from ten to thirty birds sneaking through, the
undergrowth in typical Babbler style. One party was in purely deciduous
forest. They kept up a continuous low muttering, but even when I pur-
posely alarmed them, did not break into the squeaks and gabbling customary
in this family. I heard one call-note similar to the throaty ‘chirp’ of a

fledgling of the true Thrushes.

Turdoldes somervillei malabaricus. Malabar Jungle Babbler.

Very common in deciduous and mixed jungle only. I was watching a flock
feeding one’ morning, when for no apparent reason one member fluffed out its
piumage and shrieked and jabbered at the top of its raucous voice. In an in-
stant every other member of the flock had stopped. feeding and dashed to the
spot, muttering and squawking. The originator of the disturbance quieted down,
and the whole party moved off in another direction as if nothing had happened,

Pomatorhious horsfieldi travancor iensis. Southern Scimitar Babbler.
Only once seen; a single bird in evergreen forest: apparently not very com-
mon in the area.

Agithina tiphia multicolor. Ceylon Iora.

On March 7th, I saw the beautiful aerial display so well described by
Hugh Whistler (Popular Handbook of Indian Birds, 3rd edition, p. 61); during
the spiral descent with fluffed-out plumage, only the black and white colours
seem to be used, and the yellow underparts are not at all obvious. It does not
seem quite definite as to whether the display is aggressive or designed for the
female. At the time when I saw it, there was a female nearby, ‘but there was
also another.male in the same tree.

Chloropsis aurifrons insularis. Golden-fronted Chloropsis.
Fairly common, especially in mixed forest, and usually in pairs.

FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE ANAMALAI HILLS tay

Molpastes cafer cafer, Red-vented Bulbul.

I found it only in one very restricted area at Parambikolam where I loca-
ted a nest with three eggs on March 5th. Salim Ali also recorded it as
curiously uncommon in the hills. It was entirely absent at Kuriakutty in
identical country only eight miles away.

I found bulbuls in general to be extremely patchy in their distribution ;
a species would be very plentiful in one area and apparently absent a few
miles away; the ecology of this would be a very interesting study.

Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata. Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Very common throughout the area—the only bulbul with continuous distri-
bution.

lole icterica. Yellow-browed Bulbul.

Common to abundance in a strictly limited area of evergreen and mixed
forest at Kuriakutty. Mainly in pairs (up to Feb. 29th.) and breeding had
apparently not begun.

Pycnonotus gularis, Ruby-throated Bulbul.

This very beautiful bulbul was abundant at Kuvallé, especially in the
Lantana bushes, but was scarce elsewhere; it seemed rather to replace Jole and
vice-versa. The white eye stands out very clearly in the field.

Copsychus saularis ceylonensis. Magpie-Robin.

The Magpie-Robin was fairly common in most places. I found it one of
the shyest of birds, diving into undergrowth on the slightest alarm—a com-
plete contrast to its behaviour in populated areas on the plains.

Geokichila citrina cyanutus. White-throated Ground Thrush.

Sparsely distributed throughout the area. Always solitary, and with a fond-
ness for the recesses of the bamboo clumps.

Myophonus horsfieldi, Malabar Whistling Thrush.

Its school-boy whistle was all-pervading. Not only was it first up in the
morning, but I often saw it feeding on the edge of clearings when almost
dark in the evening. Always solitary.

Ochromela nigrorufa. Black-and-Orange Flycatcher.
Like Sdlim Ali I failed to find it, although I looked for it particularly.

Tchitrea paradisea paradisii. Paradise Flycatcher.

Common everywhere, and nearly always alone. Even allowing for the
greater conspicuousness of white-plumaged birds, I found adult males very much
commoner than brown-plumaged birds. One of the few brown birds I saw
was in a curious phase of plumage; entirely brown with the tail streamers
fully developed and pure white. I saw one adult male taking insects off the
surface of a pool-dancing over the water, and splashing his tail-streamers
every time he swooped to take his prey.

Pericrocotus flammeus. Orange Minivet. J
Common everywhere; and mainly in pairs or small parties up to March
roth.

Lalage sykesi. Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike..

Only met with ai Parambikolam, in deciduous forest, where it was in
small, silent. parties. I did) not meet with Graucalus (a bird I. know well in

Assam).

‘

123 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Dicrurus longicuadatus longicaudatus. Grey Drongo.

I have only one or, two doubtful identifications. I mention this since Salim
Ali describes it as ‘replacing’ the Black Drongo in hills and wooded areas.

Chaptia aenea malayensis. Southern Bronzed Drongo.

Very abundant everywhere and in all types of forest. I saw a bird on
a nest on February 29th, and another chasing its much larger Racket-tailed
relative. =o ;

Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus. Malabar Large Racket-tailed Drongo.

This bird, always a joy to see, was abundant throughout evergreen forest
and mot unknown in deciduous. They were largely in small parties up to
about the end of February, but by March toth were mainly broken up into
pairs. The curious trios which one so often sees among drongos of ail spe-
cies were a feature of the Racket-tail; it would be interesting to know some-
thing of their significance.

One evening I watched a mixed party of this and the Bronzed Drongo
hawking winged termites. The Bronzed species circled round in horizontal
flights while the Racket-tailed preferred a more vertical swooping and div-
ing. I was quite unsuccessful in efforts to see how the tail rackets are
used in display; but since the species is easy to observe, it is to be hoped that
someone will take up the subject.

Irena pueila puella. Fairy Blue-bird.

Among the commonest birds; they came down every afternoon from the
high trees in noisy twittering parties, swarming through the Lantana bushes,
the berries of which they have a great fondness for. During February they
were in flocks, but by March were breaking up into.pairs. While they were
in parties, the males were much more in evidence than the females—not
only from their brighter colouring—so that it is possible the two sexes may
have slightly different habitats outside the breeding season. Also not uncom-
mon in mixed forest and just extending into the edges of the deciduous

zone.
A male Fairy Blue-bird feeding among the brilliant scarlet blossoms of

an Erythrina tree is of all bird scenes in the jungle ‘the loveliest and the
best.’

Orioius oriolus kundoo. Indian Oriole. “

Abundant throughout the area and in all types of forest; always single
or in pairs.

Gracula religiosa indica, Southern Grackle.

Perhaps the commonest bird in the area; they. were in. flocks up to. the
early days of March, when they were definitely breaking up into pairs.

Motacilla maderaspatensis, Large Pied Wagtail.
Only at Parambikolam and Kuriakutty. A bird carrying nesting material
on March 7th.

Pitta brachyura. Indian Pitta. 7
Very scarce; I found the long dead remains of one bird at Kuvallé, and
saw one at Parambikolam, thirty miles away on March st.

CORACIIFORMES

Macropicus javensis hodgsonii. Malabar Great Black Woodpecker.

Sdlim Ali describes this species as confined to evergreen forest; but I also
saw it in deciduous at Parambikolam. The call was a loud musical ‘Clawk’—a
call not typical of the woodpeckers.

FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE ANAMALAI HILLS x:

ts
o>)

Xantholaema rubricapilla malabarica. © Crimson-throated Barbet.

A barbet of this genus was very common in evergreen forest ; I was only able
to get near one or two, and identified them as this species. I had been studying
the Coppersmith (X. “*haemocephala) only a few. days before coming up to
the hills, and the call of the forest birds at once struck me as quite distinct
in that it was more hurried, as if the producer was anxious to get it finished,
and also had less of the metallic ‘clang’ of the Coppersmith. I am strongly
of the opinion that most if not all the Xantholaema barbets of the area belong
to the Crimson-throated species.

Hierococcyx varius. Common Hawk-Cuckoo.

Salim Ali considers it as rather uncommon above 1,000 ft., and I fully
endorse his opinion; I did not meet it at all in evergreen forest, and heard it
occasionally by night in rather open areas near Parambikolam.

Centropus sinensis parroti. Southern Crow-Pheasant.

This peculiar furtive bird was common everywhere. To see it on a ‘pro-
longed’ flight-crossing a short stretch of open water with its big tail spread,
and the little wings only just buoying it up, has a touch of the prehistoric
about it, and gives a very fair idea of the flight of the fossil Archaeopteryx.
It would be interesting to know if it is a weak flyer for anatomical reasons,
or if a case of ‘letting I dare not wait upon I would’.

Psittacula columboides. _Blue-winged Parrot.

Common to abundance, especially in evergreen forest, but also in mixed
and deciduous biotope. I think they were breeding in deciduous forest at
Parambikolam. They habitually came down to feed on the Lantana bushes
in close proximity to the Blossom-head (P. cyanocephala) but the two species”
never mixed, either in the bushes or when put to flight.

Psittacula cyanocephala. Blossom-headed Parrot.

Common in mixed and deciduous forest, especially at Kuriakutty, where
Salim Ali does not seem to have met with it.

Corocias benghalensis indica. South Indian Roller.

I often saw solitary birds, keeping well to the tree-tops in deciduous forest.
They were quite silent, and never displayed. In most parts of South India
breeding is in full swing by-this time; and I am of the opinion that these
were either non-breeding birds, or winter visitors from another part of the
country.

Eurystomus orientalis. Broad-billed Roller.

This interesting Roller was common throughout the area, in all types of
forest with an apparent preference for the mixed zone. and invariably in
pairs. They kept to the edges of clearings, or along the river bed, in high,
open trees, and in my experience never came near the ground.

One evening I watched a pair hawking a swarm of winged ants in com-
pany with a party of Grackles, the Rollers flying round and round in a large
circle, twisting and turning in a Nightjar-like flight, and never moving out
of the same small clearing.

Salim Ali refers to its making sallies after winged insects, and I never
saw it feeding on the ground like Coracias; so that it seems probable it
takes all its food on the wing—for which its broad mouth, apparent even in
flight, is well adapted.

It is interesting, especially in view of its very different appearance from
the Blue Roller, that it has precisely the same series of calls as that species;
the same harsh scream on the wing, and the same ‘chark-chark’ greeting
call. All its calls are, however, on a higher and sharper note. I saw no
display of any kind, although they were so closely paired off. When seen
from below, the Broad-billed Roller has a very characteristic silhouette; its
broad head, and relatively long neck jut out rather sharply in front of the

Wings; the light wing patch, and the orange bill also stand out clearly in
the field.

124 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti. Chestnut-headed Bee-Eater.

The fine Chestnut-headed Bee-Eater was quite common along open tracts
throughout the area; always near water. They were solitary, in pairs, or
small parties, and very silent. I saw no display or evidence of breeding.
The chestnut head is not always obvious, but the creamy buff gorget, and
sea-green of the lower back are good recognition characters.

I saw a bird of this species on March 21st in the centre of the town of
Ernakulam—a _ strange locality for a forest bird. Perhaps on migration?

Alcedo atthis taprobana. Ceylon Common Kingfisher.

SAlim Ali and others describe the Common Kingfisher as uncommon in
the hills. It was however quite plentiful on the streams and riverbed. I
did not meet with the Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle).

Ramphalcyon capensis. Storl-billed Kingfisher.

The massive Stork-bill was present in pleasing abundance along the river-
beds. It has a penchant for flying straight through the fringing bamboos
and small trees by the rivers—which it does with uncommon skill. Solitary
or in widely separated pairs. In addition to its far carrying, and raucous
laughter, I heard a completely different call—a loud, musical and rather mourn-
ful double note. Perhaps a breeding call?

Dichoceros bicornis. Great Indian Hornbill.

I put its density at roughly 1.5 pairs per square mile. The breeding season
seemed to be just beginning, as I saw about equal numbers of pairs and
solitary birds. I do not agree with Salim Ali’s suggestion that they suffer
from the depredations of the Kadar tribe who relish the ‘squabs’—I was
unable to persuade them to help me look for a nest in spite of an offer of
Rs. 10 for each nest located.

A very large male which was unfortunately shot for my benefit, was ex-
tremely fat and had the stomach crammed with small yellow figs. A solitary
bird came three nights running to roost in deciduous forest at Kuriakutty,
and seemed to be unmated.

It is hoped to publish a separate account of the natural history of this
magnificent bird.

Hydrocissa coronata. Malabar Pied Hornbill.

Not very common. I watched a pair on the bare branches of a giant
Bombax tree shortly after dawn on February 17th. The male was caressing
the female, preening her neck, and every now and again hopping over her
back to repeat the operation from the other side. She was passively sub-
missive, and after a few minutes it culminated in pairing, following which
the two flew off. They were both silent.

It is interesting to note that when a pair of the nearly allied African genus
Bycanistes attempted to breed at the London Zoo in 1936, the same caressing
of the female and jumping over her on the part of the male was the only
courtship I saw.

Tockus griseus. Malabar Grey Hornbill.

Very common in all types of forest; sometimes feeding on Lantana berries.
Almost always in pairs up to March roth.

Upupa epops ceylonensis. Ceylon Hoopoe.

In deciduous forest only, where they were common; always solitary.’ From
the general demeanour and since I never saw one carrying food, I dc not
think they were’ breeding, although this is the normal breeding season on
the plains in South India: So possibly these birds’ were winter visitors. I
had been watching the northern race in the Central»Provinces some weeks
previously, and found the richer colouring of ceylonensis very marked. The
sight of a Hoopoe with its crest elevated and glowing ‘orange from the even-
ing sun’ shining though. it’ makes its place in solar mythology abundantly
clear,

FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE ANAMALAI HILLS 125
Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus. Malabar Trogon.

Not uncommon in deciduous forest. Fairly tame, and at once recognisable,
when the colours cannot be seen by its short ‘flits’ from tree to tree. Most
were in female plumage.

Chaetura giganteus indicus. Brown-throated Spinetail.

A small flock of this splendid Swift was always to be seen at Kuriakutty.
The speed and dash of a party ‘balling’ in the late afternoon when they regu-
larly hurtled down almost to ground level, was literally frightening.

Hemiprocne coronata. Indian Crested Swift.

Only once seen; a small, noisy party in deciduous forest.

In spite of its
much emphasised resemblance to a Swallow, the long sickle curve of the
wings at once proclaims its affinities in flight.

Lyncornis macrotis bourdilloni, Bourdillon’s Great Eared Nightjar.
A very large Nightjar, both actually, and relative to others on the wing

at the same time, regularly hawked over open ground at Kuriakutty.
flight was the same as of the small species.

Its

ACCIPITRES

Ictinaétus malayensis permiger. Indian Black Eagle.

Common, and often flying through the lower branches of the trees in pairs;
possibly a courtship flight.

Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus. Grey-headed Fishing Eagle
A single bird soaring over the forest on February 26th.

STEGANAPODES.

Anhinga melanagoster. Indian Darter.

Fairly common on the river in all areas.

HERIDIONES

Leptoptilos lavanicus. Lesser Adjutant.

A single bird on February 13th in a statuesque attitude on top of a very
high dead tree in the foothills immediately East of Chalakudy.

Cupetor flavicollis. Black Bittern.

On March 3rd I came across a Black Bittern crouched by the side of a
small open, stream at Parambikolam.

It remained flat on the ground until
I was almost on top of it, when it darted away to cover.
Dutorides striatus javanicus. Indian Little Green Bittern.

A small heron, almost certainly this species was uncommon on the larger
streams. They were always solitary, and usually flew up into a tree when
disturbed.

THE FRESH WATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF
AHMEDABAD.

S. B. SETNA, M.SC., F.R.M.S., PH.D., (Cantab),

Director of Fisheries, Bombay,
AND

C. V. KULKARNI, B.A. (Hons.), M.SC., PH.D.

Superintendent of Fisheries (Inland).
(With a map)

The richness of the fresh water fisheries of Ahmedabad district
is not generally known, and was brought to light only recently
after a survey of some of the sheets of fresh water there. Of all
the districts in the Province of Bombay, Ahmedabad seems to be
singularly fortunate in the availability of fresh water fish practically
throughout the year. Its ponds and reservoirs are said to cover
an area of more than 13,946 acres. The rivers and tanks in this
area do not dry up to the same extent as in other parts of the pro-
vince owing to the dams and canals in the upper reaches which
regulate the supply of water. This probably accounts for the fairly
even distribution of fish. ;

One reason that may explain the conservation of fresh water
fish in the Ahmedabad district is the existence of restrictions pro-
hibiting the catching of fish in several tanks. These restrictions
are due in no small measure to the religious tenets of the Jains,
which prohibit them from taking life. Their influence is also res-—
ponsible for restriction on fishing even in such sheets of water as
are not controlled by them. Besides the existence of tanks and
ponds, another source of fish is the river Sabarmati on which is
situated the city of Ahmedabad. The Sabarmati flows almost
throughout the year, though in the hot weather it is little more than
a stream. / eal

Sources of Supply.—

Besides the Sabarmati, other sources for the supply of fish are
the Rodh river across the Ahmedabad—Dhanduka road, and the
Khari, Vatrak and Meshwa rivers on the eastern side. The cat-
ches in the rivers are, however, not large, and even if to these were
to be added the catches in the Sabarmati, the total quantity would
hardly be sufficient to meet the entire demand in Ahmedabad.
Measures to increase the existing supplies will gradually become
more. imperative in view of the steadily growing population of the
city, consequent on its industrial expansion, specially the increase

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in the number of textile mills. The present difficulties in regard
to supplies are at present no doubt eased to some extent by imports
from . Prantij, Mehmedabad, Dholka, Sanand and Varaval, at all
‘of which places fairly satisfactory catches are made. Prantij, 4I
miles from Ahmedabad, is the site of the well known Bokh reser-
voir, which is considered-to be a rich area for fishing, the catches
being usually despatched by rail. Mehmedabad is situated along
the river Vatrak, a tribuatary of thé Sabarmati which it joins below
‘Ahmedabad. Good fish is also available in pools in the Vatrak
formed near the villages of Barapada, Atarsumbha, Ghodasar etc.

Veraval has long been noted for the richness of its marine fishes.
The fishing season here is briskest in October and November, and
small quantities are usually despatched to Ahmedabad, where there
is always a ready market for fish. Import of fish from Veraval
has considerably declined, however, of late owing to the curtail-
ment of train services. Marine fish from Bombay and Bassein,
therefore, find their way to this market only during the season.
Ahmedabad is also occasionally served by supplies from Cambay
which is situated on the sea.

Quantity and Variety of Fish.—

No regular statistics are available of the quantity of fish sold
in Ahmedabad. This defect could easily be overcome as Ahmeda-
bad has only one market for the sale of fish and the entire quantity
obtained from various sources is sold there, apart from insignifi-
cant amounts peddled by hawkers. Inquiries in the market show
that the present sales of fish average only about to and 50 maunds
(daily during the slack and brisk seasons respectively). The sales
might have been larger but for the comparatively high price at
which fish is sold in Ahmedabad.

The variety of fish found in the Ahmedabad district is large,
specially when one bears in mind that the rivers are not deep or
long. Observations show that the medium sized fresh water fishes
Cirrhina mrigala (Nagari) and Barbus (Tor) Mussullah (Bhasera)
appeared to be most common. Next in order of abundance was
Labeo fimbriatus (Bhilaji). Then followed Labeo rohita (Rohu),
Wallagonia attu (Pahadi), Ophicephalus (Marrel), Mystus ‘seen-
ghala and: Catla catla (Bavoos). There are, besides, other small
fishes which are in equally good demand. ‘A welcome variety
from these fishes is provided by a large range of fresh water prawns
(Palaemon sp.). These are available almost throughout the year
and in specially fair abundance during the cold season. They grow
to a large size.

A list of the fishes found in Ahmedabad, was published by
Mr. H. G. Acharya in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Jour-
nal, Vol. 40, p. 765. His list recorded 25 species, but the number
falls far below the number contained in a list prepared by us. We
have identified 46 different species.* These were collected at diffe-

* Labeo potail (Sykes), Cirrhina cirrhosa (Bloch.), and Barbus arulius
(Jerdon) Harehudiee in Acharya’s list have, however, not been met with by us.

128 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

rent times of the year, and the list might not yet be fully complete,
as there may be other small fishes which we might not have come
across. The list of the fishes found by us is given below with
both scientific and local vernacular names.—

List oF FisHES OF AHMEDABAD.
Scientific name. Local name.

Order :—ISOSPONDYLI.
Family :—NOTOPTERIDAE.
1. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). 600 Poe aue we ackas

Order :—OSTARIOPHYSI.

Sub-order :—sILUROIDEA.

Family :—-HETEROPNEUSTIDAE.

2. Heteropneusteus fossilis (Bloch.). Ree ae Saingie
Family :—SILuRIDAE.

3. Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch.). ae ... Lamolana, Go-

ongawaree.

4. Wallagonia attu (Bloch.). 568 ... Pahadi, Padin.
Family :—ScHILBEIDAE.

5. Clupisoma garua (Ham.). aa ... Goongawaree.
Family :—BaGRIDaE.

6. Mystus cavasius (Ham.). ... 608 eee atiyas

7. Mystus seenghala (Sykes). ... a ... Shingala.

Sub-order :—CyprINOIDEA.
Family :—CyprINIDAE.
_ Sub-family :—ABRAMADINAE.

8. Chela clupeoides (Bloch). ... 906 ... Chilli, Chal or
Chaliya.

g. Chela phulo (Ham.). 3 ah nay do

to. Laubuca laubuca (Ham.). 500 .- Munaya.
Sub-family :—RASsBORINAE.

11. Barilius bendelisis (Ham.). ... de .- Murakhi.

12. Danio devario (Ham.). set Si ... Melwa.

13. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). ... 560 ... Munava.
14..Esomus danrica (Ham.). ... ae eeical ina.

Sub-family :—CypRININAE.
15. Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham.).

16. Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. oF ... Bhasira, Kud-
na.

17. Barbus (Tor) Mussullah Sykes. 400 . Bhasera Kuda-
na.

18. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.). ~ ... Fee

18a. Barbus (Puntius) chrysopoma (C + V). Daraii.

ig. Barbus (Puntius) ticto (Ham.). ae ee Dhebari:

20. Barbus (Puntius) sophore (Ham.).... ... Dhebari.

21. Barbus (Puntius) arenatus (Day). ... ... Dhebari.

22. Barbus (Puntius) vittatus (Day). 600 ... Dhebari.

23. Labeo ariza (Ham.). ir eae ‘

24. Labeo rohita (Ham.). ay 666 soo HENCEL MEL

25. Labeo calbasu (Ham.). ue 00 ... Kanshi, Kala-
vat, Kalot.

26. Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch.). ... ase .... Bhilaji.

27. Labeo dussumieri (C + V.). 900 ... Kursa.

28. Labeo boggut (Sykes). aC os

29. Labeo angra (Ham.). BAe sia0 ... Fattarchatu, Go-

lachi or Goheri.

FRESH: WATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF AHMEDABAD 129

Scientific name. Local name.
30. Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.) aoe ... Nagari.
31. Cirrhina reba (Ham.). ane ae ... Murakhi.
32. Cirrhina latia Day. 006 6d ... Bhagana.
33. Rohtee cotio (Ham.). can Sr ... Moyala.
34. Catla catla (Ham.). 506 = ... Bavoos or Baas

Family :—CosiTIpagr.
35. Lepidocephala thermalis (C. V.).
36. Nemachilus botius (Ham.).
Order :—SYNENTOGNATHI.
Sub-order :—ScOMBRESOCOIDEA,
Family :—XENENTODONTIDAE OR BELONIDAE.
37. Xenentodon concila (Ham.) Ae ... Kutharva, Sara-
vati, Kagada.
Order :—MIcrocyprini (Cyprinodontes).
~ Sub-order :—PoEcILiomweA.
Family :—CypRINODONTIDAE,
Sub-family :—FUNDULINAE,
38. Aplochilus blockii Arnold ... Sabo .... Dindiya.
(= Panchax parvus S. Raj 1916).

Order :-—PERCOMORPHI.
Sub-order :—PERCOIDEA.
Family :—AMBASSIDAE.

39. Ambassis nama (Ham.) Bae ... Chandava, Kat-
hayya, Kath-
onja.

40. Ambassis ranga (Ham.).

Sub-order :—GoBIoIDEa.
Family :—GoBIIDAE.
41. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.). S06 ... Modu.

Sub-order :—OPHICEPHALOIDEA.
Family :—OPpHICEPHALIDAE,

42. Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch. Aes ... Daku, Kadwa.
43. Ophicephalus striatus: Bloch. Pe ... Marel, Saval.
44. Ophicephalus marulius Ham. 5 ..- Marel, Saval.

Order :—OPISTHOMI.
Family :—MASTACEMBELIDAE.

45. Mastacembalus armatus + (Lacep.). ah soa Naa
46. Mastacembalus pancalus (Ham.). at ... Ghepali.

Occurrence of Catla:

The presence of Catla in Ahmedabad, as recorded in the list, is
a fact of the greatest significance, as the fish is invaluable for rural
pisciculture. Its occurrence in Ahmedabad, along with Rohu and
Mirgal, ensures a source of supply of fingerlings for fresh water
fisheries elsewhere in the Bombay Province, and obviates the need,
so long felt, of importing fingerlings from Patna, Madras etc.

The generally accepted view so far had been that Catla did
not at all occur in the Bombay Province. Day, no doubt in his
monumental work on the fishes of India, mentions that the fish is
to be found throughout India, but the records and reports
of subsequent investigators never confirmed the occurrence
of the fish in the westerly flowing rivers of the Indian peninsula.

130 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Sir Reginald Spence and S. H. Prater in their ‘Game Fishes of Bom-
bay’ observed that the fish occurred in the Bombay Presidency, but
did not mention the locality where it was available. Acharya (1939),
in his list of fishes, referred to above, does not also mention this
fish. The first reference to the fish is by Dr. S. T. Moses, Direc-
tor of Fisheries, Baroda, who in 1941, included the fish in his
‘Statistical Account of the Fish Supply of. Baroda City.’ His ac-
count contains the significant observation that the fish came from
Mehmedabad. This area was accordingly continuously surveyed
by the present authors, whose investigations have definitely esta-
blished that the fish occurs not only in the Sabarmati but also in
its tributaries Hathmati, Khari, Vatrak, Meshwa, and in the ad-
joining’ reservoirs.

Catla is a fish whose favourite habitat is wide and deep river.
Now, the rivers round about Ahmedabad, cannot be considered
to be deep. They are, in fact, shallow and small, but what has
enabled the fish to overcome the disadvantages of this unfavour-
able habitat, are the dams constructed across the channels of the
rivers. Fairly deep pools are usually to be found at the bases of
such dams and weirs and they provide makeshift abodes for the
fish until the rivers are again in spate. ‘These pools enable the fish
to survive and tide over the days of the fierce summer when the
waters of the rivers otherwise almost dry up. Some of the natural
reservoirs also fulfil the same purpose as the pools at the bases of
the dams and weirs.

Bokh Reservoir.—

One such reservoir, namely the Bokh reservoir, at Prantij,
(vide map attached) has been of inestimable value to the fisheries
of Ahmedabad. Its perennial supply of water. and its connection”
with the reverine system of northern Gujarat render it an impor-
tant source of fish, particularly Catla, so much so that it is uni-
versally described in Gujarat as the home of Catla in that area.
It is really a haven where fish can breed and are assured of plenti-
ful water and adequate protection. The water all along the edge
of the reservoir is comparatively shallow and thickly covered with
Typha (Elephant grass or Bulrush). Moreover, such submerged
plants as Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum and Vallisneria which are largely
distributed over a wide stretch of water serve to impede fishing
and afford good refuge specially to the baby fish. The Bokh has
various remarkable features and its general appearance presents a
fine problem in the -physiography of the district. Here, it would
not be out of place to refer to the description of the reservoir given
in the Gazetteer of Ahmedabad district, which says: ‘the Bokh,
which literally means a fissure or chasm, is a broad and Bee de-
pression which begins near the meeting of the Hathmati and Sabar-
mati, and runs south through Prantij. It is a chain of Novell and
morasses, the largest sheet of water in it, called the large Bokh,
being about 156 acres in, extent and averaging 30-ft. in depth.
The next in size, called the small Bokh, and ‘lying opposite the
town of Prantij covers about 35 acres and is said to average 4 feet
in depth’.

FRESH WATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF AHMEDABAD 131

The reservoir is at present roughly two and a half miles south
of the Hathmati river, which evidently had in times gone by been
a part of the river, coursing due south to join the Khari. Even
now the reservoir is fed from the Hathmati by a canal which starts
at Himatnagar, the water being led to the reservoir by a feeder
channel from the main canal which ultimately joins the Khari.
The overflow from the Bokh during the monsoon is impound-
ed by the dam at Limbla, and this water which would otherwise
have run to waste is during the latter part of the monsoon led into
the Khari by a canal. The Khari itself is dammed at Raipur about
12 miles north east of Ahmedabad, and the impounded water is
used to feed the network of tanks, e.g. Chandola, Kankaria, Gob-
halej, Wasai, Aslali, Jetalpur etc. The Khari along with other
rivers meets the Sabarmati lower down at Vautha. The entire
Ahmedabad district is liable to severe floods during the monsoon
when the rivers are in heavy spate.’ Aquatic life is thus distri-
buted over the widely separated tanks and reservoirs by streams
running from the heavily submerged tracks. Thus the Bokh is
the link connecting the three main rivers of the area, namely,
the Hathmati, Khari and Sabarmati. The Bokh was originally
about 30 feet deep, but yearly has been becoming shallower as
the silt which finds its way into it is not washed away during
the floods. The dam at Limbla may perhaps in some measure
be Zesponsible for the siltage.

ecding Conde a=

The canals feeding the Bokh reservoir from the Hathmati pro-

vide» during: the time it is in floéd an ideal nursery for fish from
the reservoir itself to breed.’ The fish, which consists of such valu-
able carps as Catla, Rohu, Mirgal and Calbasu, has in flood
times the ideal environment for breeding as its natural tendency at
breeding time is to move upstream, the two feeder canals, from
the Hathmati to the Bokh, serve as depositories for reproductory
products of fish of the necervoir: These two stretches of water
must evidently be the breeding grounds for in them have been
noticed fingerlings of the aforesaid varieties of carps.
__ As the flood level in these two stretches of water subsides the
fry and fingerlings are washed back into the reservoir, from which
they later distribute themselves far and wide over the various riv ers
inter- connected as they are by network of canals.

Destruction of fish.—

- Fishing in’ the Bokh is not prohibited, but is generally not
vigorous: during the major part of the year, the configuration of
the reservoir presenting certain natural difficulties to ‘the fisher-
men. The reservoir thus serves as a natural sanctuary for the
fish: -Both the reservoir and the feeder canal are not, however,
equally safe to the fishes during the commencement of the monsoon,
when they expose themselves to easy capture while they agitatedly
move up the comparatively shallow waters of the feeder canals for
breeding. A vivid description of the fate that befalls these fishes

132 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46:

as they move up from the reservoir into the feeder canals and
further upwards into the main canal from the Hathmati is con-
tained in the Ahmedabad Gazetteer which records as follows :—

‘In Prantij when flooded after heavy fall of rain, people
swarm the Bokh wading about and with arrows tied in har-
poon fashion with long string to their bows kill great num-
bers of fish. Fishing by torchfight is common, Kolis,
Wagharies killing the fish by spearing and netting and
Pendharias by beating with thick sticks. Damming, driving
and poisoning with Coculus indicus are also practised’.

Such large-scale destruction of the parent fish before they have
a chance to breed, is not without its effect on the supply of fish
in the adjoining waters. This fact is also borne out by the obser-
vations of the local fishermen who state that the bigger varieties
of carps such as Rohu, Catla, Mirgal, are now tending to diminish
in numbers.

Remedial Measures .—

The only remedy to safeguard these fishes, which form in other
provinces the mainstay of their piscicultural activities, and to con-
serve them for comestible purposes, would be to institute syste-
matic control over the present injudicious and indiscriminate fish-
ing in the Bokh reservoir and its environs at the commencement
of monsoon. ‘The present system of fishing in and around Ahmeda-
bad is an inversion of the natural order. Fishing should be per-
mitted in reservoirs at the dead ends of canals and in tanks into
which fry find their way from the Bokh, for in such sheets of
still water well-known carps like Catla, Rohu, Mirgal and Cal-
basu merely grow and fatten and do not breed. Fishing should,
therefore, be allowed in only these sheets of still water, but actual-
ly it is forbidden there from religious considerations, a large sec-
tion of the population being Jains, who are averse to the taking
of life. The fish-eating public is thus deprived of a valuable item
of food.

The present system of fishing helps neither the fish nor the
public. Indiscriminate fishing is carried on in the Bokh and _ its
feeder canals. This must be rigorously prohibited if an increase
in the supply of fish is desired, for the Bokh and its feeder canals
are in reality the nurseries where these fish rear, thrive and dis-
tribute themselves among the network of waterways—some ending
in dead ends—which dot the district. The best and most effective
protective measure to conserve the valuable carps would be the
promulgation of a close season at the Bokh reservoir and its feed-
er canals for one month from the commencement of the monsoon.
All tanks in the Hathmati and Kharicut canal system should be
thrown open to fishing. These steps will not only enable the
adult fishes to thrive and breed undisturbed in the Bokh and its
feeder canals but also eventually facilitate a wider and more abun-
dant distribution of fry in canals and tanks and thus increase the
fish supply.

aad

SOME NEW INDIAN LITHOBIIDAE. :

BY
CAPT en Cr CAR WOOD MEMsSC.4) EeZ.Sey) ACE. Ca

(With 4 text figures)

While serving in India I have been able to make a small
collection of Myriapoda, first around Dehra Dun, U.P., and then
in Bundelkhand, C.I. It will readily be understood that service
in the Army makes it difficult to investigate the collection adequate-
ly, and up to this time I have been able to consider only the
Lithobudae. The results are, however, of sufficient interest to merit
a short note.

As late as 1892, Pocock stated* that none of this family
had been recorded from India, although in 1890-91 he published
an account® of two new species from Burma. In 1917 Silvestri®
described four species and a variety of Lithobius: from India
~ (Assam, Darjeeling, N. Bengal and N. W. F. Province), and a
new species of Henicopidae from Trichinopoly. His list did not
include Lithobius sculpturatus which had been described® in the
meanwhile by Pocock from ISodaikanal and Madras.

In his paper, Silvestri stated that although the fauna of
India seemed to be poor ‘in Lithobiidae, he considered that collect-
ing in temperate regions would probably yield new forms. The
truth of this is borne out by the following paper, although two
of the present species come from a region which is_ scarcely
temperate. 3t is worth noting, however, that both of these were
taken under stones within 50 feet of the edge of a lake, and that
one, Lamyctes liani, was found there only for a few days during
the monsoon rains, and that the other Archilithobius birmanicus
var. chandellensis could not be rediscovered after the winter rains
had ceased. It would appear that both are very sensitive to
humidity.

I wish to express my gratitude to the following gentlemen:
Mir. J. C. M. Gardiner, Mr. A. E. Foot, Lt-Col. J. Steel Harvey,
I.A., Dr. S. Higginbottom and above all, to Dr. Baini Prashad.

LITHOBIIDAE,

Lithobiinae.

Archilithebius glenniei sp. n. (Fig, 1 a-k)

Colour greenish-brown above, head and posterior segments of a more red-
dish hue, tergites somewhat mottled, legs and underside pale. Surface finely
granulate.

Tergites 1, 3, 5 with postero-lateral corners rounded, posterior margin slight-
ly emarginate; 2, 4, 6 short, posterior margin straight; 7 with subrectangular
corners and posterior margin straight or slightly convex; 8, 10, 12, 14 tapering
towards the rear, angles rounded, emarginate behind; 9, 11, 13 with posterior
margin straight. Terminal segment rather semi-circular in outline, posterior
margin: only feebly emarginate. A distinct marginal furrow visible in tergites
I, 3 and 5 is less clear in succeeding segments.

134 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Head slightly longer than broad; marginal furrow parallel to posterior margin.
Ocelli seven in number arranged as in the figure. (In the Dehra Dun
specimens there appear to be 8 ocelli.)

Fig. 1. Archilithobius glenniei.

(a) Forcipules (out claw undergoing regeneration); (b) head; (c) mandible;
(d) rst maxilla; (e) 2nd maxilla; (f) 2nd maxilla last segment; (g) ocelli, left
side; (h) P, 1. distal part; (j) genital appendages of female; (k) genital Chakrata
specimen.

Antennae: 20-23 segmented, setose, 10th segment 13 times as long as
broad, last segment twice as long as broad.

Mandibles of the usual form. 7

ist Maxilla: outer lobe fringed with about 23 plumose setae arranged in_
a double row; inner lobe surmounted by a dozen smaller plumose setae.

2nd Maxilla: terminal segment about twice as long as broad with some
30 plumose setae on the anterior face and non-plumose setae elsewhere, Claw
with two spines and a small secondary claw.

Forcipules with 2+2 teeth and an additional seta on each side; ° precoxa
narrowed distally, external margin concave.

Spinulation is of doubtful diagnostic value on account of the variation—
which obtains—the opposite sides of the same specimen are occasionally found
to be differently armed. For instance, the coxae of P 14 and P 15 of all speci-
mens, bear a single spine, yet on one side of one specimen, two spines

SOME NEW INDIAN LITHOBIIDAE 13

arise from a common base, The most usual armature, however, is as follows:

P. 1, ~~~ and P —— 3.2 © Only a’ single’ P f
ea => an 5 Hele : nly a single P. 15

OOM onnr Geen egg i) soe I ) 8 5. WES Womb
es. en 03) FO .
and it was armed thus :— one Bon A minute secondary claw was _ present

on all these appendages.

Genital appendages—female: external claw robust with the outer margin
sinuate and a distinct tooth about midway. Internal lobe with two teeth,
the souter about as long as the inner, but both robust. In the speci-
men from Chakrata, the inner tooth is less than half the size of the outer.

Genital appendages—male: rudimentary.

Coxal pores: 2 (or 3); 4; 4; 4 (or 3) small, circular.

Length: 11 mm.

Locality: 1 Q Mussoorie: under stone, shady .23: 11: 42. 7,000 ft.
2Gic Wehra, Dun underistones Sept. 425 2,200: ft.

1 Q Chakrata, from cave named Moila No. 2. Collected by
Brig. E. A. Glennie. May 43.

This species is closest to L.(A). tactus Silv. and L.(A). erraticulus Silv.
from Chitral (N.W.F. Province). From the former, it can be distinguished
by (1) the fewer ocelli, (2) fewer coxal pores, (3) the form of the genital
appendages of the female. The present species differs from L.(A).erraticulus
in the following. characters: (1) more numerous coxal pores; (2) the tarsi of
P, 1-12 are not biarticulate as Silvestri® claims those of his species to be,
although a pale transverse line is sometimes discernible across the mid-line of
the tarsus; (3) the genital appendages of the female are of a different form—
Silvestri makes no mention of the very conspicuous tooth on the. outer margin
of the external claw. ;

I have pleasure in naming this species after Brig. E. A. Glennie, D.s.o.
The specimen taken by him from the Moila cave at Chakrata certainly be-
longs to this species in spite of the small deviation in the form of the female
genital appendage referred to above. The chance migration of such lucifuge
creatures into such an environment is not surprising.

-Archilithobius sp. (Fig. 2 a-b)

Colour dark brown above, lighter beneath, head and last tergite orange;
each tergite with the posterior border and middle line darker.

b. @.

Fig. 2. Archilithobius sp.
(a) Forcipules; (b) Ocelli right side.

Tergites similar in form to A. glenniei.

Head broader than long, furrow parallel to posterior margin.

Ocelli: six, arranged as shown.

| Antennae and mouth parts as for A. glenniei except that the iast segment of
2nd maxilla has fewer plumose setae.

Forcipules: anterior margin convex, 2+2 teeth and seta; claw short.
OO1 21 iO Bi i. cigs

Be AMES E es tay AP P. 15. missing. P. 1. and

P. 14 both have a small secondary claw. Coxae of P. 14 and ‘P.:15 dorsal

spine. : ti

Spinulation: Py 1

136 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Genital appendages—male: rudimentary.

Coxaleporesim2nssiese

Length: 9.0 mm. ,

Locality.—A single specimen (male) of a species of Archilithobius was for-
warded to me by Brig. Glennie. It was taken by Lt.-Col. G. N. Osmaston,
R.E., near the top of Harimukh Mountain, Kashmir, at a height of 16,000 ft.
in July 1943.

This specimen differs from A. glenniei in (1) the form of the head, (2) num-
ber of ocelli, (3) shape of forcipules and (4) number of coxal pores. From
A. erraticulus Silv. it can be distinguished by (1) the fewer ocelli, (2) the form
of the forcipules and (3) the presence in all legs of an undivided tarsus.
Until further material is available it would be unwise to state anything more
definite than that the example does not fit in with any previously described
species.

Archilithobius birmanicus var. chandeilensis nov. (Fig. 3 a-f)

Colours Reddish-brown above, last tergite and underside paler. Surface
FugOSse.

Fig. 3. Archilithobius birmanicus var. -chandellensis.
(a) Forcipules; (b) Forcipules teeth; (c) labrum (foreshortened); (d) man-
dible; (e) mandible, another specimen; (f) ocelli, right side.

Tergites 1, 3, 5 with rounded postero-lateral corners, feebly emarginate ;
2, 4, 6, 7 subrectangular with posterior margin straight; 8, 10, 12, 14 some-
what emarginate, with rounded corners and lateral margins increasingly con-
vergent towards the rear; 9, II, 13 straight, corners rectangular, not sharp.
Head longer than broad; posterior marginal furrow broader in mid-line.
Ocelli not very clear in the specimens examined; apparently 6 in number,
arranged as in figure. .

Antennae.—19-20-segmented, moderately setose, last segment 3 times as
long as broad, 1oth segment 13 times as long as broad.

Mandibles normal, teeth robust, with setose rectangular process on inner
face. This process is, however, much reduced in another example.

ist Maxilla with about 15 plumose setae on the inner margin of the outer
lobe and numerous plumose setae on the inner lobe.

2nd Maxilla.—Last segment with less than 20 plumose setae and furnished
with a single claw with 3 processes.

Forcipules with broad, convex precoxa bearing 5+5 teeth (in one specimen
5+4); claw slender.

Beate p OO BEET p OB we () 0) 3 i ©
SPM lati On —— ale eels ELAR Sees ko
P OO vA it” 4 @} i YQ ©? 5 Gy GB Oo

P. 14. and P. 15. have each a small secondary claw; part of limb distal to.
tibia with abundant small pores.

SOME NEW INDIAN LITHOBIIDAE 107

2
“TI

Genital organs of male rudimentary.

Coxal pores,—2 (or 3); 43 4; 3

Length.—8.0 mm.

Locality. —margin of Dhubelatal, near Nowgong (Bundelkhand), under stones,
moist, with grass around. Jan. 43. 6 specs—all male.

Of the species recorded previously from the Indo-Australian region, only A.
sumatianus Silv. and A. birmanicus Poc. have more than 3-4 teeth on the forci-
pules. The former has 7 and the latter 5-6. The present species is very close
to A. birmanicus,—antennae, ocelli, tergites and coxal pores all agree with Pocock’s
description? which is brief and without figures. The chief points of difference
are the number of teeth on the forcipules and the ventral armature of P, 15.
(given as I, I, I, 0, which I take to be o, 0, 1, 1, 1, in the usual notation).
As I have not seen the Burma specimens, and as there is no female in the
present collection, I consider it more prudent to regard my specimens, for the
time being at least, as belonging to a variety of A. birmanicus. Further col-
lecting will no doubt elucidate the affinities of these species.

HENICOPINAE.

Attems lists 4 species and 1 variety of the genus Lamyctes :
(1) L. africana (Poc.)—S. W. Australia, Caffraria, Capland, Cameroons,

(2) L. albipes (Poc.)—Java.
(3) L. emarginata (Newp.)—New Zealand,
(4) L. fulvicornis Mein.—S. W. Australia, Europe, N. America, E. Africa.
(5) L. fulvicornis var. hawaitiensis Silv.—Hawaii, Kona.
The genus has not previously been recorded from India.

Lamyctes liani sp. n. (Fig. 4 a-j)

Cojour reddish-brown; antennae, anterior part of head and hindmost tergite
orange-brown. Underside pale. Surface finely granulate.

Tergites 1, 3, 5 with rounded postero-lateral corners, very slightly emarg-
inate ; 2, 4, 6, 7 with posterior corners sub-rectangular, posterior margin straight ;
8, 10, 12, 14 With rounded posterior angles, distinctly emarginate, segments
converging posteriorly; 9, 11, 13 with posterior margin straight, All tergites
with a distinct marginal furrow.

Head about as broad as long; marginal furrow parallel to posterior margin.

Ocelli single, large, with purple pigment. [Traces of the same pigment were
to be found scattered throughout the body, which is interesting in view of
the fact that Chamberlin refers to the presence of a similar ‘pigment in L. Doli-
chopus from Salt Lake County, N. America (Chamberlin, R. V. Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus. XXIV No. 1270, p. 798)].

Antennae almost reaching the posterior border of the 5th tergite; 29 seg-
ments, covered with short setae; last segment slender, 3-4 times as long as
broad; 1oth segment considerably broader than long.

Mandibles with conspicuous tooth at inner distal angle.

1st Maxilla of usual type: outer lobe fringed with 20 plumose setae; inner
lobe with about 6 non-plumose setae.

2nd Maxilia—last segment with about 13 plumose setae; single claw with
two lateral spines. [In his conspectus of the genus, (Naturh. Tidsskr. (3), V.
1868. p. 266) Meinert states that the setae are simple. This is not so in this
species].

Forcipules with broad precoxal region; external margin obtuse-angled and
slightly concave; apical margin with 3+3 teeth, the outermost on each side
being considerably smaller than the other two. ‘a

s : 00000 00000 00000

Spinulation.—P. 1. OGLE ae | as sii ORC ORO ) IPS Lis DOOOD

On P. 1. there is a pseudo-spine formed by an extension of the integument
of the dorsal side of the prefemur, Coxae of P. 14. and 15. without spine.

P, 1, P. 14. and P. 15. with small secondary claw. Legs are covered with
numerous setae, but no pores occur. P. 1-12 with undivided tarsus, P. 13-15
with, two-segmented tarsus, but division is not always well-marked.

First leg-bearing segment with spiracle.

138 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46
Genital organs—female; basal segment with 2 elongated teeth, the inner
shorter than the outer; terminal claw narrowed distally, markedly curved and

with a longitudinal incision on the inner side.

Fig. 4. Lamyctes liani sp. n.
(a) entire; (b) head; (c) labrum; (d) mandible; (e) 1st maxilla; (f) 2nd
maxilla, last segment; (g) forcipules; (h) forcipules, teeth; (j) genital appendages

of female.
Coxal pores:

2am) Ol Soe Sh molec
Length—7.0-8.0 mm. ; 3 :
Locality—margin of Dhubelatal, near Nowgong. Under stones, moist gravel

ee
DY AAO) 19)

21st and 24th July 43.
) BIBLIOGRAPHY
Attems, C. G.—Die indo-australischen Myriapoden. Arch, Natg.
I—VII. | :

I. 1914,
"86 1-398, pl.

Berlin, 80, A. Hft. 4, 1914. pp.

LIST OR. CROP PESTS IN THE BOMBAY «PROVINCE 139

2, 1887, Haase, E.—Die Indisch-Australischen Myriapoden. Pt.1. Chilopoden,
Abh. Ber. Zool. Anthropol. Mus. Dresden, 1887 No. 5. pp. 1-118, 6 pl.

3. 1891, Pocock, R. I.—On the Myriapoda of Burma. Pt. 2—Report on the
Chilopoda collected by Sig. L. Fea and Mr. E. W. Oates. Ann. del Mus. Civico
di Storia Naturale di Genova, Serie 2, x. (xxx). 1890-91, pp. 401-432.

4. 1892, Pocock, R. I.—Report upon Two Collections of Myriapoda sent
from Ceylon by Mr. E. E. Green, and from various parts of Southern India
by Mr. Edgar Thurston of the Government Central Museum, Madras. Jour.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., VII. 1892. pp. 131-174, pl. I and II. ~

5. 1901, Pocock, R. I.—Some New Genera and Species of Lithobiomorphous
Chilopoda. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), VIII. 1901. pp. 448-451.

6. 1917, Silvestri, F.—On some Lithobioidea (Chilopoda) from India. Ree.

Ind. Mus. XIII. 1917. pp. 307-314, figs. I-VI.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Vig. 1. Archilithobius glenniei.—(a) Forcipules (one claw undergoing regene-
ration), (b) head, (c) mandible, (d) 1st maxilla, (e) 2nd maxilla, (f) last segment
of 2nd maxilla, (g) ocelli—left side, (h) P. 1, distal region of limb, (j) genitai
appendages of female, (k) the same, specimen from Chakrata.

Pig. 2. Archilithobius sp.—(a) Forcipules, (b) ocelli—right side.

Fig. 3. Archilithobius birmanicus var chandellensis.—(a) Forcipules, (b) teeth
of forcipules, (c) labrum (foreshortened), (d) mandible, (e) mandible of another
specimen, (f) ocelli—right side.

Fig. 4. Lamyctes liam.—(a) entire, (b) head, (c) labrum from Lelow, (d) man-
dible, (e) 1st maxilla, (f) last segment of 2nd maxilla, (g) forcipules, (h) teeth
of forcipules, (j) genital appendages of female.

ANNOTATED LIST OF CROP PESTS IN THE BOMBAY
PROVINCE.

K. N. TREHAN, M.SC. (Punjab), PH.D. (London),
Agricultural Entomologist to Govt., Bombay, Poona,
AND
S. V. PINGLE, B.Sc. HONS. (Agric.),

Lecturer in Entomology, Agricultural College, Poona.
INTRODUCTION.

Economic entomology is very intimately associated with the
crop production, therefore some knowledge of the more important
pests is of the greatest significance. In the province of Bombay
however, much attention could not be devoted to the study of vari-
ous pests since the staff engaged was small and mostly occupied
in teaching. Nevertheless, it has now been realised that the first
essential necessity is to determine the identity and the activities
of the insect foes, responsible for damaging our crops. The present
publication therefore, aims at supplying such information to culti-
vators, garden-owners, district workers, propaganda officers, the
revenue authorities, and also to students.in the Agricultural College

140 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

and schools, regarding the insects, found infesting various crops
in our fields.

Additional data in the form of life histories, seasonal activities,
nature and extent of damage and above all, the control measures,
is highly desirable but must be deferred till first-hand information
under local conditions, is available. Efforts are being made to
remedy these deficiencies and the results of our further investiga-
tions will be published in the second contribution from this Depart-
ment.

At present however, it is considered desirable that data should
be available about the pests, responsible for the damage to various
crops, and as far as possible about their seasonal activities. With
this view an almost complete list of the pests of our province is
arranged under crop heads, and brief notes appended.

Sugarcane.

Saccharum officinarum is planted in January to March and June and _ har-
vested from December to May.

A. ATTACKING SETS AND ROOTS.

1. White ants—Termes sp. (Termitidae). Major pest all over the province.
The workers tunnel into the roots to which the plants succumb.

2. Cockchafer—Anomala varians O. (Rutelidae). Minor pest, the grubs
feed on the roots; active from April to June.

B. LerEAr FEEDING.

I. Biting:

1. Grasshopper—Hieroglyphus banian Fb. var. elongata (Acridiidae). Major
pest specially in Deccan. Nymphs and adults feed on leaves; only one brood
active from June to October.

2. Army worm—Cirphis unipuncta H. (Noctuidae). Major pest all over the
province. Caterpillars move in swarms and feed on leaves; there may be two
to three generations from June to November; hibernates as pupa in the soil.

II. Sucking":

1. White-flies—Aleurolobus barodensis W. and WNeomaskellia bergi S.
Aleyrodidae Minor pest practically all over the province. Nymphs feed on the
sap which might result in withering of the leaves; active from July to Decem-
ber giving rise to formation of conspicuous black mould.

2. Leaf hopper—Pyrilla aberrans Kby. (Fulgoridae). Major pest all over the
province. Nymphs and. adults feed on the sap and cause withering of the
‘Honey dew’ secreted by the insects develops black mould which gives

leaves.
Active from April to May and from August to

sooty appearance to leaves.
February.

3. Mealy bug—Trionymus sacchari Gr. (Coccidae). Minor pest in Deccan.
Nymphs and adults feed at the base of the leaves and consequently the crop
loses vigour.

4. Black bug—Assamia moesta Westw. (Fulgoridae). Minor pest, probably
active from July to December.

C. BORERS.

1. Stem borer—Argyria_ sticticraspis Hamp. (Pyralidae). Major pest all
over the province. The caterpillars bore into the stem and the plants in ear-
lier stages may die; active from April to August during which period, three

to. four generations may occur.

LIST QF CROP PESTS IN THE BOMBAY PROVINCE 14!

2. Top-shoot borer—-Scirpophaga nivella F. (Pyralidae). Minor pest recorded
from Deccan area; caterpillars bore from the top and work downward ;, shoots
may assume bunchy appearance.

3. Pink stem borer—Sesamia inferens W. (Noctuidae). Occasionally may
assume the status of a major pest. Caterpillars bore into the stem; there
may be 4-6 generations in a year; active from July to February.

Jowar.

Andropogon sorghum. Sown in June and September to November, and
harvested from November to December and February-March. Fodder crop in
March-June.

A. ATTACKING ROOTS.

1. White ants—Termites (Termitidae). Major pest. (vide Sugarcane).
2. Cockchafer—Anomala varians O. Minor pest. (vide Sugarcane),

B. (rar FEEDING.

I. Biting :

1, Lucerne caterpillar—Laphygma exigua Hb. (Noctuidae), Minor pest; the
caterpillars feed on leaves especially during the months of January and Feb-
ruary.

2. Katra—Amsacta moorei B. (Arctiadae). Major pest, recorded in North
Gujarat. Caterpillars defoliate all the plants. There is only one generation
during June-July; hibernates as pupa in the soil.

3. Deccan wingless grasshopper—Colemania sphenariodes Bol. (Acridiidae).
Major pest attacking crops only in Karnatalk and Deccan, Both nymphs and
adults feed on leaves, and there is only one generation from June to October.

4. White banded grasshopper—Epacromia dorsalis Thumb. (Acridiidae).
Miajor pest in Deccan only, Both nymphs and adults feed on Jeaves and
defoliate the germinating seedlings.

'5. Surface grasshopper—Chrotogonus lugubris B. (Acridiidae). Major pest,
recorded from all over the province. Nymphs and adults feed on leaves, and
the pest is active almost throughout the year. It also damages various other
crops such as Bajri, maize, etc.

6. Army worm—Cirphis unipuncta H. Minor pest, (vide Sugarcane).

IJ. Sucking:

1. Aphides—Aphis maidis F. (Aphidiidae). Major pest active from August
—February. The insects suck the plant juice and the plants lose vitality,
Various predators and black ants are always associated with the attack.

2. Green bug—Nezara viridula L. (Pentatomidae). Minor pest found on
tender shoots and earheads. ‘The attack is not very serious.

3. Jowar stem bug—Pundaluoya simplicia Dt. (Fulgoridae). Major pest,
invariably found on the tender shoots. Nymphs and adults feed on the sap
which results in withering of the plants; active from August—February.

4. Mites—Paratetranychus indicus H. Major pest which gives reddish or
rusty appearance to the foliage; active from August—February.

5. Leaf hopper—Pyrilla aberrans Kby. Major pes. (vide Sugarcane).

C. Borers.

1. Jowar borer—Chilo zonellus S. (Pyralidae). Major pest, practically all
over the province. The caterpillars bore into the stem and cause the death
of the plant in early stages. There are 4-6 generations from May to Feb-
ruary.

2. Pink borer—Sesamia inferens Wik. Major pest. (vide Sugarcane).

3. Stem fly—Atherigona indica M. (Anthomyiidae). Major pest all over the
province; active from May to February. The maggots bore into the young
seedlings and bring about their death.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST;.SOCIETY, Vol. 46

D. GRAIN FEEDERS. —
I. Biting:
Blister beetles—Lytta tenuicollis P. and species. (Meloidae). Adult beetles

feed on blossom and do not allow them to _ develop into seeds; active from
August to October.

2. Khas disease—Contarinia andropogonis en (Cecidomdae). Minor pest.
The maggots breed inside the tender ears as a result of which they are hol-
lowed out; active during January—February.

Il. Sucking:

1. Capsid bug—Calocoris angustatus LL. (Capsidae). Minor (pest. The
nymphs and adults which are just like mosquitoes, feed on the sap as a re-
sult of -which the grains get shrivelled; active from December—February.

Maize “.
Zea mays. Sown at any time, harvested 3-4 months after sowing.

A. ATTACKING ROOTS.

1. White ants—Termites. Major pest. (vide Sugarcane).

B. LEAF FEEDERS.

I. Biting :

1, Army worm—Cirphis unipuncta H. (Noctuidae). Major pest. (vide Sugar-
cane).
2 Deccan wingless grasshopper—Colemania sphenarioides B. Major pest.
(vide Jowar).

3. Banded grasshopper Epacromia dorsalis Thumb. (Acridifdae Minor pest.
(vide Jowar).

4. Katra—Amsacta. moorei Buti. (Arctiadae). Major pest. (vide Jowar).

5. surface grasshopper —Chrotogonus lugubris B. (Acridiidae). Minor pest.
Sele Jowar),

Ii. Sucking :
1. Stem bug—Pundaluoya simplicia Dt. (Fulgoridae). Major pest. (vide
Jowar).

C. BorRERS.

1. Jowar’ borer—Chilo -zonellus S. (Pyralidue). Major pest. (vide Jowar).
2. Pink borer—Sesamia inferens W. (Noctuidae). Major pest. (vide Jowar).
Wheat

Triticum vulgare. Sown in September to November and harvested frem

February—March.
A. ROOT FEEDERS. '

1., White ants (Termites). Major pest. (vide Sugarcane).

B. LEAF FEEDERS.

1, Aphides. Major pest.- (vide Jowar)

C. Borers.
1. Jowar borer—Chilo zonellus S. (vide Jowar).
2. Pink borer—Sesamia inferens W.+ (vide Jowar).
Baijri.
Pennisetum typhoideum. Sown in June and. harvested from September to
October.

LISD ON IROR PESES, INC THE» BOMBAY PROVINCE 143

A. Roor FEEDERS.—NONE.

B. LEAF FEEDERS.
I. Biting:

1. Deccan wingless grasshopper—Colemania sphenarioides B.
(vide Jowar). 3

2. Katra—Amsacta moorei B. Major pest. (vide Jowar)

3. Army worm—Cirphis unipuncta H. Major pest. (vide Jowar).

4. Hairy caterpillar of Satara—Unidentified. Major pest. only recorded
from this district. It is commonly known, as ‘Lodh’. Caterpillars feed on
leaves and there is only one generation a year during July—August. The pest
hibernates as pupa, in the soil.

5. Grasshoppers—Chrotoganus sp. and Epacromia sp. (vide Jowar).

Major pest.

II.. Sucking: None.

C. BORERS.
. Jowar borer—Chilo zonellus S. (vide Jowar)
. Pink borer—Sesamia inferens W. (vide Jowar).
. Stem fly—Atherigona indica M. (Anthomyiidae) (vide Jowar.)

D. GRAIN FEEDERS.

Blister beetles—Lytta sp., Zonadbris sp. etc. (Meloidae). Major _ pest.
(vide fowar) :
Paddy.
Oryza sativa. Sown in June; transplanted in July—August; harvested

from November to January.

A. ATTACKING Roots.

1. Cockchafer—Anomala varians O. Minor pest. (vide Sugarcane).
2. Cockchafer—Phyllognathus sp. (Dynastidae). Minor pest.

B. ATTACKING SEEDLINGS.

1. Crabs—Paratelphusa sp. (Crustacea). Major pest in Konkan area. . Both
adults and young. ones feed. on the nursery as well as the transplanted
seedlings. Their burrowing in the bunds causes leakage of water; active dur-
ing the rainy season.

C. . LEAF FEEDING:
eu e

1, Swarming caterpillar—Spodoptera mauritia. B. (Noctuidae). Major pest
all over the rice growing tract. The caterpillars feed on rice and other grasses.
Only one generation during June—August. The pest hibernates as pupa in
the ae :

. Army worm—Cirphis Ableton M. (Noctuidae). Major pest in Ratna-
nal ‘district. The caterpillars feed on leaves and the pest hibernates as pupa
in the soil. There are 2-3 generations from July-September.

3. Rice hispa—Hispa armigera QO. (Chrysomelidae). Major pest in Karwar.
and Belgaum districts. The grubs and adults feed on green matter and cause
withering of plants. Both the Kharif and Rabi crops of paddy are attacked
and damaged.

4. Blue beetle of Rice—Leptispa pygmaea B. (Chrysomelidae). Major . pest
in Karwar, Belgaum and Ratnagiri districts. Both grubs and adults feed on
the green matter and the plants succumb to their attack. Both the Kharif as
well as the Rabi crops are attacked and damaged. :

5. Rice grasshopper—Hieroglyphus banian Fb. var. elongata. Minor pest.
(vide Sugarcane).

~6 Rice butterfly—Melanitis ismene C. (Nymphalidae). Minor pest. The
caterpillars are occasionally found feeding on leaves. :

144 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 46

7. Rice skipper—Chapra mathias Fb. (Hesperidae). Occasionally the cater-
pillars are found feeding on leaves.

8. Rice case worm—Nymphula depunctalis G. (Pyralidae). Minor pest.
The caterpillars prepare cases from cut out leaf blades and feed when. concealed
in the rolls. These are semi-acquatic in habit and two generations are passed
from June to August.

II. Sucking:

1. Rice leaf hopper—Nephotettix bipunctatus Fb. (Jassidae). Minor pest,
only recorded from North Gujarat.

2. Rice mealy bug—Ripersia oryzae Gr. (Coccidae). Minor pest occasionally
found in colonies on the stem under leaf sheaths. The attacked plants are
practically devoid of vitality, appear sickly and generally wither out without
developing earheads, ;

D. Borers.

1. Rice stem borer—Schoenobius bipunctifer Wlk. (Pyralidae) Major pest.
The caterpillars bore into the stem as a result of which the central growing
leaf is killed. When the attack is at flowering stage the bearing is very poor
and results in empty earheads. There are 3-4 generations from May 1.0 De-
cember.

2. Pink borer—Sesamia inferens W. Minor pest. (vide Sugarcane).

3. Rice gall-fly—Pachydiplosis oryzae W. (Cecidomyidae). Major pesi,
recorded from Belgaum, Karwar and Ratnagiri districts. The maggots
bore into the stem as a result of which hollow outgrowths known as ‘silvery
shoots’ are developed. Such plants do not bear earheads. The pest is active
from May to December.

E. FEEDING ON EARHEADS.,.

1. Blister beetles—Lytta sp. and Epicauta. Sp. Minor pest. (vide Jowar)

2. Rice bug—Leptocorisa acuta Th. (Coreidae). Minor pest, damaging the
earheads, met with in Belgaum and Karwar districts. Fractically no grains
are formed in the attacked inflorescence. Both the Kharif and Rabi crops are

attacked.
Cotton.

Cossypium sp. Sown early in July-August, picking from December to March,
A. ATTACKING ROOTS.

1. White ants—Termiles. (vide Sugarcane).

B, L&EAF FEEDING.

l. Biting :

1. Lucerne caterpillar—Laphygma exigua H. Minor pest. (vide Jowar)

2. Surface grasshopper—Chrotogonus sp. Minor pest. (vide Jowar)

3. White weevil—Myllocerus 11-pustulatus var. maculosus Fst. (Curculioni-
dae). Minor pest. Occasionally found feeding on the leaves. All the im.
mature stages are found in the soil.

4. Bhindi caterpillar—Acontia sp. (Noctuidae). Minor pest. Occasionally
green semi-loopers are found feeding on cotton leaves, the pest is active from
June to October. The adult moths have bright lemon yellow wings.

5. Cotton semi-looper—Cosmophila indica Gn. (Noctuidae). Minor pest.
The semiloopers are green but the adults have brownish wings. Considerable
damage has been recorded to cotton leaves in Surat district.

6. Cotton semi-looper—Tarache nitidula F. (Noctuidae). Minor pest. Adults
with white wings decorated with dark markings, semilooper dark brown, found
damaging the leaves; commonly met with from June to October.
+. Cotton leaf roller—Sylepta derogata Vb. (Pyralidae). Minor ‘pest oecur-

re
ring all over the province. Caterpillars lead a hidden life in the rolled up

LIST. OF..CROP, PESTS IN THE BOMBAY .PROVINCE. . 145

leaves and feed on the green matter. . There are 34 generations from June
to December. Sie

8. Cotton gates use C ype aor a ioe aie > yanacea:. \S..'-{Acridiidae). » Minor
pest. Both nymphs and. adults: feed.on leaves from June to February.»

9g. Bud caterpillar—Phycita infusella M. (Pyralidae). Minor pest. * ‘The
caterpillars are found feeding on buds and top teaves. This results in the
fading of top shoots. Active from. September to November. a

Il. Sucking:

1. Red Cotton bug—Dysdercus cingulatus Fb. -(Pyrrhocoridae). Major pest,
sucking the sap from the buds and bolls. Their feeding strains the lint. There
are 5-6 generations from August to March. - ;

2. Dusky cotton bug—Oxycarenus loetus K. (Lygaeidae). Major pest.
The nymphs and adults are found feeding inside the bolls where quite a large
tiumber: of these insects is seen at a time. There are 4—5 generations -from
‘October to March. :

3. Cotton aphis—Aphis gossypii G. (Aphidiidae). Major pest. It is found
on the under side of the. leaves. The infested plants show poor growth or in
severe cases they even wither away. The sooty mould develops on the ‘honey
dew’ and interferes with photosynthesis. The pest is active from July to March.

4: Cotton jassid—Empoasca spp. (Jassidae). Major pest, found all over the
province. The nymphs and adults feed on the sap and reduce the vitality of
the plants. Breeding continues throughout the year. Active from July to
March.

5- Mealy wings—Bemisia tabacci Genn. (Aleyrodidae). Minor pest. Both
nymphs and adults feed on the sap and in some severe cases cause the wither-
ing of the plant; The pest is noticed in large numbers during pecuiber. to
March, mainutrition results in shedding of flowers and bolls.

6. Mealy bugs—Pseudococcus sp. (Goccidae), Minor pest. The fleshy. in-
‘sects covered over with cottony mass, feed on the sap. The pest is active from
November to March. . :

7. Woolly, mites—Eviophyes . gossypii. Minor pest These are Piacnd
feeding on the stem and the underside of leaves. Usually these are found
covered over with brown woolly fibers as the name indicates. Active from
August to February.

C. BoRERS.

1. Spotted boll worm—Earias fabia F. and Earias insulana B. (Noctuidae).
Major pest. The caterpillars are black with white irregular patches. They
bore into the top. shoots, buds and bolls. The attacked bolls ‘have punctures
which are prominent because of the excreta; active throughout the season.

2. Pink boll worm—Platyedra gossypiella S. (Gelechiadae). Major pest;
-caterpillars, pink in colour, they bore into the bolls and feed on seed.. Active
from September to March. Eas

3. Stem borer—Sphenoptera gossypii K. Ba esis Minor pest. The
Srubs bore into the stem near the ground level and cause slight swelling. In
serious cases the attacked plants may die. © *

Sann hemp.
Crotalaria juncea. Sown in June. Harvested from October to. November. |

A. Roor FEEDERS—NONE.

-B. LEAF FEEDERS.
a ee
. Sann leaf caligagiillet—Unalpetan ‘pulchella Te (Arctiadae). Major pest.
‘The “hairy caterpillars feed on leaves and. defoliate . the plants. Pupation either

in the leaf HOS or in the soil. There are 3-4. generations from June to Sep-
tember. , |

MW. pune:

. Leaf eee Sp. (Jassidae). ‘Minor pest. (vide Gotton\\: ie
10

146 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

C. Borer.

1. Shoot borer—Laspeyresia pseulonectis Meyr. (Eucosmirae). Occasionally
recorded as a minor pest. The caterpillars bore into the shoots and are active
during. July and August.

Tobacco.
Nicotiana tabacum. Seedlings raised from July to August; transplanted in:
September; harvested from January to February.

A. Roor FEEDERS—NONE.

B. LEAF FEEDERS.
{. Biting :

1. Surface grasshopper—Chrotogonus sp. Minor pest. (vide Jowar)

2. Tobacco caterpillars—Prodenia litura F. (Noctuidae). Minor pest. Black
and stout caterpillars are occasionally seen feeding on leaves. Pupation in the
soil. There are 3-4 generations from September to January.

3. Cut worms—A grotis ypsilon Rott. (Noctuidae). Black and stout cater-
pillars remain hidden in the soil during day and cut the plants near the ground
devel at night, and feed on the leaves. There may be 2-3 generations from
August to October.

4. Brown cricket—Brachytrypes portentosus Licht. (Gryllidae). Minor pest.
The adults cut the plants near the ground level and feed on them. Damage
is serious during September.

C. Borers.

t. Stem’ borer—Gnorimoschema (Phthorimaea) heliopa L. (Gelechiadae).
Major pest. Small caterpillars bore into the stem and may cause the death
of the plant. Two generations are passed in a season.

Potato
Solanum tuberosum. Planted in July and November; harvested in Septem-
ber and February:

A. LEAF FEEDING.
{. Biting:

r. Cut worm—Agrotis ypsilon Rott. Major pest. (vide Tobacco).

II. Sucking :
i. Leaf hopper—Empoasca sp. Major pest. (vide Cotton).

B. Borers.

Tuber moth—Gnorimoschema operculella Z. (Gelechiadae). Major pest.
Dirty. white caterpillars bore into the tubers and occasionally the buds. Exter-
nally black excreta is seen at the eyes. There are about 4-6 generations
throughout the year. The pest is more serious during the hot months.

Cucurbits, —Sown in June, October and February; harvested from time to time.

A. L&ar FEEDING.

{. ee

. Pumpkin beetles—Aulacophora abdominalis Fb. and Aulacophora excavata
Ib. (GH eeaae Major pest. Red and black beetles are seen feeding on
leaves which are badly damaged. The germinating seedlings when attacked
are practically destroyed. The immature stages are found in the soil. The
grubs cause appreciable damage by boring into the roots and stems as well
as the fruits which come in contact with the. soil. The pest is active from
March to October.
_..2. Epilachna beetle—Epilachna 28 puncta F. and Epilachna 12 puncta M.
(Coctinellidae). Major pest. The adults are orange coloured with 12 or 28
black dots on the body, while the grubs are hairy and both the adults and
grubs feed on the underside of leaves. The adults eat leaf areas. while the
grubs feed on the leaf tissue, imparting ragged specarance: There ‘may be
3 generations from July to September. '

‘occupies 10-12 weeks; pupation in the soil.

LIST OF CROP PESTS IN THE BOMBAY PROVINCE 147

Il. Sucking :
1. Aphis malvae K. Major pest. (vide Jowar)
Ill. Feeding on flowers:

1. Banded blister beetles—Zonabris postulata Thunb. Minor pest. (vide
Bajri).

B. Borers.

1. Fruit fly—Chaetodacus cucurbitae Coq. Chaetodacus zonatus S. (Trypae-
nidae). Major pest. White legless maggots bore into the fruits and cause
their rotting. Pupation takes place in the soil. There may be 6 generations
from May to January, but they overlap.

Cruciferous vegetables.

Both Kharif as well as Rabi.
I. Leaf feeding :

1. Diamond back moth—Plutella maculipennis C. (Plutellidae). Minor. pest.
Slender green caterpillars bite holes and feed on the foliage where they pupate.
Active both on Kharif and Rabi crops.

2. Lucerne caterpillar—Laphygma exigua Hb. Minor pest. (vide Jowar)

3. Tobacco caterpillar—Prodenia litura F. Major pest. (vide Tobacco).

4. Mustard saw-fly—Athalia proxima K. (Tenthredinidae). Major pest. The
grubs are black, which feed on the underside of leaves and drop down with
the slightest touch. The damage is done by biting holes and. skeletonising
the leaves. Active from June to November.

Brinijal.

Solanum melongena. Seedlings raised in June—July, and October—Decem-
ber. Harvested when the fruits are ready.

A. LEAF FEEDING.
I. Biting:

1. Epilachna beetle—Epilachna dodecastima M. and Epilachna 28 punctata
F. Minor pest. (vide Cucurbits).

2. Leaf roller—Eublemma olivacea W. (Noctuidae). Minor pest.
caterpillar rolls the leaves and leads a concealed life.
met with in the winter crop.

The green
The pest is commonly

II. Sucking:
1. Aphis—Myzus persicae S. Minor pest. (vide Jowar).

B. Borers.

1. Stem borer—Euzophera perticella Rag. (Pyralidae). Minor pest.
Caterpillars bore into the stem and may kill the plant. Generally attacks
winter and summer ¢rops. It is also recorded boring into tomato plants.

2. Fruit borer—Leucinodes orbonalis G. (Pyralidae). Major pest. Cater-
pillars pink, bore in the top shoots as well as the fruits which are rendered
unremarkable. Winter crop is damaged severely. One generation may
take 4-5 weeks.

Sweet rotato.

Ipomoea batatas. Grown throughout the year.

Re A. LEAF FEEDERS.

I. Biting :

i: Hawk moth—Herse convolvuli L. (Sphingidae). Minor pest. The cater-
pillaris ‘stout and grey, provided with an anal horn. It feeds on the leaves and
damages them. Commonly met with from July to October. One life-cycle

a ot

B. Borers.

1, Tuber weevil—Cylas formicarius Fb. (Curculionidae). Major pest. Both
the adults and grubs tunnel into the tubers and cause their rotting. Occe-

148 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

sionally the vines may also be damaged which wither ultimately. The, adults
_may also feed on the leaves.

Ch lilies.

Capsicum. Seedlings raised during June-July; transplanted July-August and
harvested CUE eri February.

A. LEAF FEEDERS.
I. Biting: ;
1. Lucerne caterpillar—Laphygma exigua Hb. Minor pest. (vide Jowar).
II. Sucking : | |

. Thrips—Thrips tabacci L. (Thvipidae). Major pest.
food on the underside of leaves and cause their curling.
the Splants absolutely wither out.

.'Mites—Major pest. Damage similar to that of cee

Betelyine

Minute, pale insects
In severe cases

Piper betel. Perennial crop. Plucked when ready for harvest.

A. LEAF FEEDERS.
IG Sas _

Leaf-bug—Disphinctus maesarum Kirk. (Capsidae). Major pest. Both

the eee and the adults suck the sap from leaves as a result of which black

spots appear. Active from June-December. Each generation may occupy 4-6
weeks. |

OIL SEEDS
Groundnut.

Arachis hypogea. Sown in June-July: harvested during ‘November-December.

A. ROOT FEEDERS.
1. White ants. (vide Sugarcane).

B. LEAF FEEDERS.
I, Biting:

i. Leaf roller—Anartia ephippias Meyr. (Gelechiadae). Minor pest. Cater-
pillars roll the leaves and feed inside.

II. Sucking :

Pod bug—Aphanus sordidus F.. (Lygaeidae). Minor’ pest. Both the
Sears and adults suck the oil from the pods which give out rancid smell.

One generation takes about 4-5 weeks. It is more a pest in the store
than in the field.

Castor.

Ricinus communis. Sown in June or September ;

harvested in September
and February. .

A. LEAF FEEDERS.
Ieee Bitinge: an

1. Castor semi-looper—Archoea janata~ (Noctuidae Major pest.
Black caterpillars feed on leaves and skeletonise them. Active from Jug
October. One generation occupies 4-5 weeks. Pupation in the soil.

2. Hairy caterpillar—Pericallia ricini KF. (Arctiadae). Minor pest. Brome
hairy caterpillars feed gregariously on leaves. Active from June-October.
Pupation in the soil. Peas KOE :

3. Castor butterfly—Ergolis merione Cr. (Nymphalidae). Minor pest. The
caterpillars feed on leaves, and occasionally may defoliate the plants.

4. Woolly caterpillar—Trabala vishnu Lef. (Lasiocampidae). Minor pest.
Small woolly caterpillars feed on leaves during the Kharif season only. It is
generally a sporadic pest.

5. Slug caterpillar—Parasa lepida Cr. (Limacodidae). Minor pest. The
young larvae are gregarious, later on oe live solitary life. The white shell-
like cocoons are found clustered on stems. ; |

LIST’ OF.CROP PESTS -IN THE BOMBAY PROVINCE 149

Il. Sucking:

1. Mealy wings—Tvialeurodes ricint M. (Aleyrodidae). Minor pest. Nymphs
feed on the underside of the leaves on which black mould develops. All the.
stages are found on the leaves during the growing period of the plants.

2. Leaf hopper—Empoasca sp. Minor pest.. (vide Cotton).

B. Borers.

1. Shoot and capsule borer—Dichocrocis punctiferalis G. (Pyralidae), Occa-
sionally. a serious pest. Dark brown caterpillars bore and cut the tender
shoots and also web the seeds. Fupation in silken cocoon in the shoot or.
capsule. =

Sesamum.,

Sesamum indicum. Sown from June, harvested from September.

A,.. LEAF FEEDERS.
FE pe
= lbeaf olleee titi vasira catalaunalis D. (Pyralidae). Minor pest. Smali
Preonich caterpillars with dark tubercles; roll up and web the leaves and may

also bore in the shoots and pods. Considerable damage may be caused in the
seedling stage. Active from July-September.

Hs Sucking :
1. Pod bug—Aphanus sordidus F. (vide Groundnut),

B. Borers.

1. Gall-fly—Asphondylia sesami Felt. (Cecidomyidae), Minor pest. The adutls
are like mosquitoes. The maggots bore into the flower buds or stem and pro-
duce gall-like structures.

2. Leaf caterpillar—Acherontia styx West. (Sphingidae). Minor pest. Stout
and green caterpillars with anal horn, feed on leaves. There are two gene-

‘rations from July-December. Pupation in the soil.

PULSES.
Tur. .
Cajanus indicus. Sown from July and harvested from December.

A. LEAF FEEDERS.
I. Biting :

1. Aphis—Aphis medicaginis Koch. Minor pest. (vide Jowar).

B. Borers.

1. Pod borer—Exelastes atomosa W. (Pterophoridae). Major pest. The
caterpillars are greenish brown, slightly hairy. They bore into the pods and
feed on the seeds. Pupation on the pods. One generation occupies about
3-4. weeks.

2. Gram pod borer—Heliothis obsoleta F. Minor pest. (vide Gram).

3. Pod butterfly—Catochrysops (Enchrysops) Cnejus Fb. (Lycaenidae).

‘Minor pest. Green slug-like caterpillars feed on pods and damage the

contents.

4. Podfly—Agromyza obtusa M. (Agromyzidae). Major pest. The maggots
bore into the seeds when they are green. Attacked pods present a shrivelled
appearance. One generation occupies about 3 weeks.

II. Sucking : ;
. Podbug—Riptortus linearis F. (Coreidae). Minor pest. Dark brown

Bus feed on the sap from the pods and cause their shrivelling. Active from
September-March.

50 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

2. Podbug—Clavigralla gibbosa S. (Coreidae). Major pest. Small sized
bugs, brown in colour. There are 4-5 generations from November-March and
each cycle may occupy about 4 weeks.

Gram.
Cicer arietinum.

A. LEAF FEEDERS.
I. Biting:

1. Cut worm—Agrotis ypsilon Rott. Major pest. (vide Cruciferous vege-
tables).

B. Borers.

Pod borer—Heliothis . obsoleta F. Major pest. The young caterpillars
feed on foliage and when grown up enter the Pods and destroy the seeds.

Pupation in an earthern cocoon in the soil. There may be 4-6 generations in
a year. ~

Peas.
Pisum sativum.

A. LEAF FEEDERS.
{. Biting:

1. Lucerene caterpillar—Laphygma exigua Hb. (vide Jowar). —
2. Tobacco caterpillar—Prodenia litura F. (vide Tobacco).
II. Sucking :

1, Aphis—Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. Major pest. (vide Jowar).

B. Borers.

1. Pod borer—Heliothis obsoleta F. Major pest. (vide Gram).
Mung. | .

Phaseolus vadiatus.

A. LEAF FEEDERS.
1. Hawk moth—Herse convolvuli L. Minor ‘pest. (vide Sweet potato).

PEST OF FRUITS AND FRUIT TREES.

Mango.
Vangifera indica.

A. AFFECTING ROOTS.

1. White ants—Termites sp. Major pest. (vide Sugarcane).

B. Lear FEEEDERS.
{. Biting: | ; q

‘y.°Slug Caterpillars—Parasa lepida Cram. (Limacodidae). Minor __ pest,
Caterpillars feed on leaves, mostly found on-mango during December-March.
Round shell-likeé cocoons are found in clusters on tree-trunks. The larval spines
cause ‘considerable itching if handled without covering the hands.

2. Leaf caterpillar—Euthalia garuda M. (Nymphalidae). Minor pest. Beau-
tiful green caterpillars are observed feeding on the leaves. The pest. may be
found throughout the year.

3.'Mango leaf -webbing .’ caterpillar—Orthaga exvinaea W. (Noctuidae).
Minor pest. The caterpillars bind the leaves with silken threads and — feed
on green tissue. Often the’ damage is serious during August. to March...

LIST.’ OF CROP PESTS IN THE BOMBAY PROVINCE 15}

41. Sucking:

Mango hopper—Idiocerus atkinsont L., Idiocerus niveosparsus-L. and
ieee clypealis L. (Jassidae). Major pests. Both the nymphs and adults
feed on the sap of tender leaves and inflorescence as a result of which the
flowers fall off without setting any fruits. ‘Honey dew’ secreted by the insects
develops sooty mould and imparts blackish appearance to the plants. Breeding
takes place twice during December-February and June and July. One gene-
ration occupies about 2-3 weeks.

2. Coccids. Major pest in ,three species. Both the’ nymphs and adults feed
on sap. They cover the fruits and twigs in serious cases. Their presence
attracts red ants.

C. Borers.
J. Soot borers:

1. Mango shoot borer—Chlumetia transversa W. (Noctuidae). Major pest.
The caterpillars bore into the growing shoots. Young grafted seedlings are
severely damaged and may even be killed. Active from July—December.

2. Leaf and twig miner—Acrocercops sp. (Gracillariadae). Minor - pest.
The caterpillars attack very young leaves and fresh twigs. In case of seedlings
some damage takes place. Active from November-April.

Bo Castor! capsule borer—Dichocrocis punctiferalis G. Minor pest. (vide
Castor).

II. Stem borers:

1. Mango stem borer—Batocera rubus L. (Cerambycidae). Major pest. The
grubs bore into stems or branches as a result of which the plant may ultimately
die. The pest is active throughout the year, ‘one generation may take more
than 12 months.

2. Branch borer—Arbela tetraonis M. (Arbelidae). Minor pest. The cater-
pillars occasionally bore into the branches and cause their death. It attacks
various other trees besides mango.

VI. Fruit borers:

1. Fruit flies—Chaetodacus ferrugineus F, and Chaetodacus zonatus S. and
varieties of Chaetodacus ferrugineus. Minor pests. The maggots bore into the
ripening fruits and render them useless for consumption. Pupation takes place
in the soil. There may be 2-3 generations during the mango season. pau ney
also attack many other fruits:

D. GENERAL PESTS.

. Red ants—Oececophylla smaragdina Fb. (Formicidae). They do not cause
ae direct damage to the plant but indirectly protect the coccids and white
flies and cause their spread all over the plantation which results in considerable
damage. They. . are also.a nuisance at the time of harvest.

Pomegranate.
Pumica granatum,

A. Roor FEEDERS——NONE.

B. LEAF FEEDERS.
1. Biting:

Castor semilooper—A rchoea Papa L. (Noctuidae). Minor pest.. The
Pee altars are black which occasionally feed on leaves and defoliate the plants.
Pupation takes place in the soil. The pest is active from: Ee GCEMUEL:
during which period 3-4 generation are passed.

Il. Sucking:

Aphis. . Minor pest.’ Both the adults and nymphs sutk..the sap especially
fein tender shoots aid reduce the vitality ‘of \the plants.. pe Pprcieay
throughout.

Po *Coecids. Minor pest. Both the nymphs and adults feed on leaves, and
tender shoots and in serious cases the plants may wither.

ist! JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCIEPY, Vol 6

¥ C. Borers. PUREP ORT AERIS oH fl
Fruit® borer—Virachola isocrates F. (Lycaenidae). Major pest. The cater. ,
ne ate black which bore into the fruits and render ‘them inedible. ‘Fhe

damage continues throughout ee year and one generation occupies about 46
weeks.

Citrus. cr OW Eee eRCESS ple’ Ee
Citrus a

' A. Root FEEDING.
1. White ants—Termites sp. Minor pest. (vide Sugarcane).

B. Lear FEEDING.

I. Biting: me

xr. Lemon ‘butterfly—Papilio demoleus L. (Papilionidae). Minor pest. The:
caterpillars are green in colour and feed on leaves. In nurseries the seedlings
may be absolutely defoliated. The pupae stick to the leaves, and the adults
are noticed throughout the year.

2eeleeat miner——Phyllocnistis citrella S$. (Lyonetiadae). Minor pest. The
caterpillars mine the leaves and feed in between two epidermal layers. The
damage continues throughout the year. }

[I. Sucking :

1. Coccids—Chrysomphalus aonidum Riley, and Pseudococcus citri R. Major
pests. Both leaves and fruits are attacked. The infested fruits lose attrac-
tion. The second species may also attract the red ants.

2. White flies—Dialeurodes citri A. (Aleyrodidae). Major pest.- Black
nymphs are seen feeding on the underside of leaves. ‘Honey dew’ secreted
by the pest develops sooty mould which interferes with the pnalosymlaess:
Active from October—February.

3. Aphis—Toxoptera aurantii Boy. Major pest. Both the adults and nymphs ~
feed on the sap of growing shoots and in severe cases the growth of the plant —
is considerably checked. Active practically throughout the year.

C. FRUIT SUCKING.

1. Fruit sucking moths—Ophideres fullonica L. and Ophideres materna L.
(Noctuidae). Major pest. The caterpillars feed on some wild plants. The
adults are the real pests since they puncture the fruits and feed on the juice.
The fruits thus damaged begin to rot and drop down. Active from July to
October. Saat

D. Borers.
1. Fruit fly—Chaetodacus ferrugineus F. and varieties. Minor pest. (vide
Mango).
2. Red ants—Oeccophylla smaragdina F. Major pest, (vide Mango).
fiuava.
Psidum guava.

A. LEAF SUCKING.

1. Mealy bugs—Pulvinaria psidii M. (Coc cidae). Major pest. - The nym-
phs and adults. feed on leaf sap. Sooty mould is developed on the ‘Honey
dew’ secreted by them and the entire plant becomes black and_ sticky.

B. Borers.
1, Stem borer—Arbela tetraonis Mo, Minor pest. (vide Mango).
2. Castor capsule borer—Dichocrosis punctiferalis G. (Pyralidae). Minor
pest. (vide Castor).
Grapevine.
Vitis vinefera.

/:LISL OF CROP RESTS IN THE BOMBAY -PROVINCE 153
\

il de A. LEAF FEEDERS.
1. Biting:

1. Leaf beetle—Scelodonta strigicollis Mots. (Chrysomelidae). Major pest.
The adults feed on growing shoots and leaves. They resemble ‘Udid’ grain
and therefore known as Udadya beetles. The immature stages are passed in the
soil and the damage. after October: pruning is -most serious.

2. Cockchafer beetle—Adoretus ovalis Bl. Minor pest. (vide Sugarcane).
Il. Sucking : cet

1. Thrips—Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus H. (Thripidae). Minor pest. The
nymphs and adults feed on leaf sap and in severe infestation the shoots may
wither away. | .

Plantain, .
Musa sapientum.

A. LEAF. FEEDERS,

1. Tobacco caterpillar—Prodema litura F. Minor pest. (vide Tobacco).

2z. Hairy caterpillar Pericalia ricint VF. (Arctiadae). Minor pest. Brown
hairy caterpillars feed gregariously on the leaves. Only one generation attacks
the plantation during July and August.

B. Borers.

1. Stem and root borer—Cosmopolites sordidus G. (Curculionidae). Minor
pest. Dirty white, legless grubs bore into the roots and stem. The adults
are black with a conspicuous snout. Breeding takes place throughout the
year.

Coconut palm.
Cocos nucifera. :

A. LEAF FEEDERS.
I, Biting:

1. Black headed caterpillar—-Nephantis serinopa M. (Xyloryctidae). Major
pest. The caterpillars prepare galleries of their own excreta and lead hidden
life on the underside of leaves. The damaged leaf appears as if scorched
One generation occupies about 5-6 weeks. Active during the monsoons.

B. BORERS.
I. Soot borers :

1. Palm beetle—Oryctes rhinoceros \.. (Dynastidae). Major pest. Adults
are black beetles with a horn-like projection on the head, shining above and
hairy below. They bore into the growing shoots and kill the fronds. The
immature stages are met with in the manure pits. Only one generation in a
year.

1. Palm weevil—Rhynchophorus ferrugineus FF. (Curculionidae). Major
pest. The adult is reddish-brown weevil. The grub bores into the growing
shoots and damages them seriously,

FRESHWATER. ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY.
f. The Seasonal Succession of the Algae in a Tank at Bandra.

ELLA A. GONZALVES, B.A., M.SC.
and
Dwarka B. JOSHI, M.SC.
Botany Department, Royal Institute of Science, Bombay.
(With 5 graphs and 8 plates)
INTRODUCTION.

The immensity of the ‘field of algal ecology and the diversity
of its problems have been recognized by most algologists, who
also emphasize the value of one aspect of the subject, viz. prolong-
ed periodical observation of the algal flora of any piece of water.
This is very necessary, since algal species are known to appear
and disappear with startling rapidity.

Fritsch (1906, 1907) was the first to indicate the nest along
which research in algal ecology would be useful. Later, with Rich,
in a series of papers (1907, 1909, 1913), they. pointed out that

small bodies of water such as pools and ponds are very ‘suitable

for demonstrating the relations between external conditions and
algal growth, as they readily react to changes in the meteorolo-
gical and other conditions.

Among other contributors to the subject were Transeau (1913,
1916) who made continuous records, extending over a number of

years, of algal conditions in Caminall Illinois and Griffiths (1916,.

1922, 1923, 1425-27, 1927), who made an attempt to elucidate the
factors determining the composition of the water solution. of pools

in different parts of England, and consequently the occurrence of —

the plankton. Similar studies were made by Hodgetts. (1921,
1922), Atkins and. Harris (1924, 1925), Howland (1931), Lind (1938)
and others.

Though Iyengar (1928, reas) Biswas (1932) Pek Ginoes (1933)

have all stressed the need for such work, the only contributions
from India so far have come from Pruthi (1933), who worked on
the seasonal succession of the algal flora of an artificial tank in
Calcutta, and correlated the occurrence of the different species with
the physical and chemical condition of the water, Ganapati (1940,
1941, 1943), who worked on the same lines in Madras, and a few
others.

In India however, owing to the diverse climatic conditions, the
inferences drawn at one place will not be applicable to another. It

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

AGG

~ VE’ *
‘“ SOAR

SO SS

WWE
ee

Pe eRe Oe
Go

Photo 1. Monsoon aspect of Bandra Tank.

Photo 2. Dry Season aspect of Bandra Tank.

BompBay ALGAE

3s
in
‘
ee
, ‘
¥

eiayt

«
2
\
Base Gewarc we) 5 oagialVe Fowl veaindres ue BOA MeN idie task Uinty SRT oe fe
4

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY 155

was therefore decided to study the algae of the ponds around Bom-
bay systematically for at least a year, and to correlate the quantity
and nature of the algae present in the different seasons with the
chemical and physical features of the water and the prevailing
meteorological conditions.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TANK.

The first piece of water selected for study was a tank situated at Bandra
to the north of Bombay. It is known as the Motha Tank (Bombay Gazette,
1882) and is close to the railway staticn. It is approximately six acres in
area and roughly quadrilateral in shape (Fig. 1). On its western and eastern

ss + WELUMBO -NUCIFERA GAERTN.
“4 EICHHORNIA CRASSIPES SOLMS.
» — PISTIA STRATIOTES LINN,
~S $ 1POMOEA AQUATICK FORSK,
HO LEMNA TRISULCA LINN,
as CERATOPHYLLUM DEMERSUM
“ LINN.
4. os A POTAMOGETOR INDICUS ROXB.
ae O HYPRILLA VERTICILLATA
PRESL.

Fig. 1.—Plan of the Tank at Bandra.
sides, it is bounded by public roads. To the south is a by-lane, on the other
side of which:aie a number of huts, whose occupants make free use of the

* The identity of the species of Lemna is uncertain.

1865 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

water of the tank for washing and other purposes. On the northern side is’
a wall, flanking which are a number of buildings. a

The tank is exposed..to the full force of the sun and the wind, and ene
is more easily atlected by variations in meteorological conditions, Its - main.
supply.of water is ‘from rain received during the monsoon. During the latter’
half of the monsoon, it overflows through an outlet into a low level. street*
drain. The average depth ‘of the tank is 12 feet, the maximum level in the
monsoon being 15 feet. The depth towards the end of May in the middle is
6 feet.

A’ study of this tank is of additional interest, as it is used by the Department.
of Fisheries, Bombay, for stocking and breeding freshwater fish. Pearsall
(1924) has laid considerable emphasis on the economic importance of limnolo-
gical studies, on account of their relation to problems connected with freshwater
fisheries.

PHANEROGAMIC VEGETATION OF THE TANK:

In this tank there is a profusion of water weeds. The chief form is Nelumbo
nucifera Gaertn. (Nelumbium Speciosum Willd.) which covers practically the
whole surface and is not restricted to any definite region (Photograph 1). Ex-
cept for Nelumbo, the plants are not found scattered indiscriminately all over
the tank, but there is some. sort of zonation. The first zone consists of
Lemna., Eichhornia crassipes Solms., Pistia Stratiotes Linn, and Ipomoea
aquatica Fosk. The second zone consists of Ceratophyllum demersum Linn.,
together with which on the eastern side may be mixed Hydrila verticillata Presl.
The centre of the tank is occupied chiefly by Potamogeton indicus Roxb., and
a small amount of Ceratophyllum and Hydrilla. In addition the following plants
have occasionally been found, viz. Limnanthemum indicum Thw., L. cristatunt
sp. Griseb., Naias, Wolffia Michelit Sch.

When the pond dries up in summer (Photograph 2) numerous grasses spring
up and shepherds utilize the dry portion as a grazing ground for their flocks.

METHODS.

Collections of the algae were made once a fortnight from along the sides
of the tank and from the middle. The frequencies of the various species
were noted according to the method of Howland (1931) (cf. also Gonzalves and
Joshi, 1943). The quantity of the larger algae was estimated from general
impression obtained after observation made in the open field. The diatoms.
were not taken into account in the investigation.

METEOROLOGICAL DATA.

The meteorological data viz. for temperature, sunshine value and rainfall
were obtained from the Bombay Observatory. The monthly average tempera-
ture was calculated from the maximum and minimum temperatures each day.
The monthly average sunshine value was calculated from the values of daily
hours of bright sunshine. The rainfall for the month represents the total rain-
fall received during the month. The meteorological data from December
1940 to November 1941, during which time the tanis was under observation,
are given in Appendix I. The rainfall for the year was only 34.19 inches,
very near the minimum (33:4 inches) recorded during the last 90 years. Conse-
quently in most of the months the maximum temperature exceeded the average.
The graphs showing the average temperature, rainfall and hours of bright
sunshine are shown in Fig. 2.-

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE WATER.

Every month the water was chemically analysed. In order to calculate
the results statistically, eight samples of water from different parts of the
tank were each month analysed for (1) dissolved oxygen, (2) free carbon
dioxide, (3) total dissolved solids, (4) total hardness, (5) oxdisable organic mat-

(6) free ammonia, (7) albuminoid ammonia, (8) nitrites, (9) nitrates, (10)
carbonates, (11) bicarbonates, (12) chlorides, (13) phosphates and (14) pH. The
results are given in Appendix I and were in all cases found to be statistically
significant. The samples were. collected as far as possible every time between
Ir a.m, and 12 noon.

FRESHWATER ALGAK NEAR BOMBAY... 157

Dissolved Oxygen.

The dissolved oxygen was estimated by Winkler’s method (Public Health
Chemical Analysis, pg. 96).

The oxygen content of any piece, of water as mentioned by Ganapati (1940)
depends on the composite effect of the following factors:—(1) the solubility
of oxygen depending upon the temperature at the’ time of sample. collection,
{2) the ‘intensity of illumination, (3) photosynthetic activity of the vegetation,
(4) respiratory processes, (5) wind action and (6) abundance of vegetation. Con-

oe ee ——

TA <= aS ss oo
go, | FREE CARBON DIOXIDE 7
= 15 ee
w
i Q =
3 DISSOLVED OXYGEN
ro =
< 675 ass
a Sy
oe
© 8.75 TEMPERATURE
ri 80:5
y 77:25
Ge N74
ve! } SUNSHINE
oy BS oe
5) es A |
‘
12
a RAIN FALL
S 3
Be
aS :
aes ik Ab aaerree ss
iad JAN FEB MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SA Scie Tov

| ‘Fig. 2.—Graphs showing meteorological data and variations in the pH,
free Co, and Dissolved Oxygen of the water of the Tank.

158 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

sidering the first factor, it can be seen from the results that periods of- high
temperature were, except in a few cases, periods of low oxygen content (Fig. 2).

The intensity of illumination had a limited effect on the dissolved oxygen
content. During the months of December, January and February, when the
sunshine values were high, the amount of dissolved oxygen was also high;
but in May and October, though the hours of bright sunshine were very high,
there was a fall in the oxygen content, due to causes which will be discussed
later.

The algae and phanerogams, both qualitatively and quantitatively were found
in very healthy condition in January, February and March. Except for March,
the amount of dissolved oxygen in these months was unusually high. This is
natural because the greater the amount of vegetation, the greater the asssimila-
tion and the consequent liberation of oxygen. The fall in the oxygen content
in the month of March may probably be due to the removal of some of the
aquatic plants from the tank. About this time the fish were also in abundance.
According to Pearsall (1924), an increase in the amount of: fish is normatiy
correlated with an increase in the abundance’ of plankton organisms and is
also dependent on the physico-chemical condition of the water. "The fish utilize
the oxygen of the pond in respiration, but the abundant vegetation during
photosynthesis returns much more oxygen to the water.

In the rains active assimilation cannot take place due to cloudy weather
and hence the respiratory activities are more marked. A fall in the oxygen
content is therefore natural. This however, was not observed. In all probability
there was less demand on the oxygen, since the amount of vegetation was
less during the monsoon and the number of fish was also few, a large num-
ber of them having been removed from the tank at the end of May Another
factor, however, played a more important part at this time. Due to the action
of wind, the water was oxygenated by mechanical admixture of air and water
particles. ‘

The fall in oxygen content in May was due .to the temperature and to
the unhealthy condition of the vegetation. At the end of the hot season, there
was greater consumption of oxygen to oxidise the disintegrating plants. The.
dissolved oxygen in the water of this tank is thus influenced by a number
of factors, the two most important being temperature and the aquatic vegetation.

2. Free Carbon Dioxide.

Free carbon dioxide was estimated volumetrically using phenolpthalein as
indicator according to the method given by Thresh, Beale and Suckling (1933),
P- 307.

The free carbon dioxide in any water varies somewhat rapidly. In_ this
tank it was completely depleted in January, February and March. After March,
owing to the photosynthetic activity of the vegetation, it increased and the
maximum was reached in May, due to decay of organic matter. A steady fall
followed with only a slight rise in August and September (cf. Appendix 1).

There was a slight degree of relationship between the sunshine values and
the free carbon dioxide. The free carbon dioxide did not always. vary inversely
with the oxygen content. A definite relation to the pH and bicarbonates was
noticeable. Except for July and November, the free carbon dioxide content
was always inversely proportional to the pH (Fig. 2). Howland (1931) and
Pearsall (1930). also observed the same. relationship. ae

3. Total Solids. y

They were estimated according to the method given in Public Health Che-
mical Analysis, p. 68.

The amount of total solids was low in the cold season, high in the hot
season and decreased in the monsoon. The slight fall in February might have
been due to the rain received in the preceding month, as also to greater ab-
sorption due to increase in numbers and development of the algae and phane-
rogams. In May, most of the vegetation was decaying and so a rise in the
amount of dissolved solids was natural, as the products of decaying matter were
returned to the water. The total solids varied in proportion to the temperature
(Figs. 2, 3), and nearly always varied inversely to the water level. In June
however, there was no immediate fall in the amount of dissolved solids, even
though the rainfall was 10.33 inches.,Transeau (1916) has shown that high | salt
concentration does not always, coincide with low water level, as ‘the. Trains ‘bring

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY 159

in soluble salts as well as silt, clay and suspensoids which settle slowly at
the bottom of the pond. Hodgetts (1921) also found that the water level and
the amount of dissolved salts were not always inversely proportionate.

There was a clear relation between the pH and solids in the first half of
the year. When the former was high, the latter was low and vice versa; but
in the latter half of the year, the relationship was not so apparent.

4. Total Hardness.

Estimations were made according to the soap method (Public Health Che-
mical Analysis, p. 84). Results are given in degrees of hardness.

According to Thresh, Beale and Suckling (1933, p. 21) the water can be
classified as fairly hard. In the cold weather, the values for hardness were
fairly low (Fig. 3) due to precipitation of the carbonates by the abundant water
plants. A rapid increase occurred in the hot season due to increase in the
amount of bicarbonates. Low figures were obtained during the monsoon pro-
bably as a result of the rainfail and the consequent dilution of the water.
The hardness varied inversely with the water level except on one occasion,
viz, in February.

5. Oxidisable Organic Matter.

Tidy’s modification of the Forschammer’s process was used in the estima-
tion of organic matter (Public Health Chemical Analysis, p. 93).

The amount of organic matter was moderately low in the beginning of the
year; but with the onset of the hot weather and the consequent decay of vege-
tation, the values increased till the maximum was reached in May. The begin-
ning of the monsoon caused. a lowering of the values, till the minimum was
reached in August. The amount of oxidisable organic matter rose towards the
end of the year: (cf. Appendix I-and Fig. 3).

6. Free Ammonia.

It was estimated by Wanklyn’s Process (Public Health Chemical Analysis,
p. 77):
| In the beginning of the cold. season, there was a fall in the amount cf
free ammonia, till the minimum was reached at the end of the season. A
rise in April was followed by a fall in May. During the rains, the values for
free ammonia were very high, the maximum being reached in August. This
was probably due to washings from the surrounding areas being brought into
the water by the rains. After August there was a gradual fall till November
(cf. Appendix I and Fig. 3).

7. Albuminoid Ammonia.

It was estimated by Wanklyn’s process (cf. above).

After December there was a fall in albuminoid ammonia, till the mini-
mum was reached in February and March. Then it increased till a fairly
large amount was present in May and June, when masses of vegetation were
in the process of decay. During the monsoon, there was a decrease in albu-

minoid ammonia till August, followed by an increase in the remaining months
of the year. On the whole except for February and March, there seemed to
be some correlation between albuminoid ammonia and organic matter.

8. Nitrites.

_ They were estimated by Ilsovay’s Napthylamine Test (Journal of the Mavine
Biological Association, Vol. 14, p. 56). eee

_ Nitrites were only found in traces throughout the year.

9g. Nitrates, | fi

They were estimated ‘by Frederick’s modification of the Phenolsulphonic
sulphuric acid method (Public Health Chemical Analysis, p. 81). _

From December the nitrates decreased gradually till the minimum was
reached in February. .Then they rose with the rains, till the maximum was
reached in July, after which there was a fall. Benslp dP 0k

When vegetative activity was’ high, nitrates. were depleted by the phanero-
gams and green algae. At the end of the hot season, the nitrates were fairly

. 160

high,

JOURNAL BOMBAY. NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 46

due to the decaying vegetation. They increased still more during the

monsoon, probably due to drainage water charged with nitrates from the ‘sur-
rounding land being washed into the tank by the rains, and to the disturbed
condition of the water (Fig. 3). Lind (1938) also found an increase in nitrates
after heavy rainfall. “ .

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DEC JAN | FEB MARCH APRIL- MAY JUNE JULY ° AUG’ SEPT OCT Nov.

FRESHWATER ALGAE: NEAR BOMBAY 161

_10. Carbonates.

They were estimated by the acid-alkalinity method. (Sutton, p. 65).

They were found only for three months when carbon dioxide was absent.
According to Ganapati (1941) the period of active photosynthesis is a period of
greater formation than destruction of organic matter. In the absence of free
carbon dioxide, the green plants utilise the carbon dioxide from the bicarbo-
nates for assimilatory purposes and the result is the precipitation of the less
soluble carbonates.

11. Bicarbonates.

They were estimated by the acid-alkalinity method. (cf. above).

The bicarbonates were variable in the cold season. The low values in Feb-
ruary were probably due to the causes enumerated above. The rise in March
may have been due to the removal of some of the green plants and the conse-
quent lowering of the rate of photosynthesis. The Jarge amount of decaying
vegetation accounts for the rise at the end of the hot season. After the hot
season, there was a steady decrease in the bicarbonates, which remained fairly
low and almost constant during the monsoon.

32. Chlorides.

They were estimated by the standard AgNO3 method using potassium chro-
mate as an indicator (Public Health Chemical Analysis, p. 70).

The values for chlorides seemed to depend on the water levei. When the
water level was decreasing and the concentration consequently increasing, the
chlorides also increased. In April and May, the amount of chlorides was there-
fore high, while the water level was very low (Fig. 3). With the rise in water
level due to the rains and the consequent dilution of the water, the amount of
chlorides diminished.

13. Phosphates.

They were estimated colorimetrically by the method given by Atkins (1923)
(cf. the Coeruleomolybdic Method of Deniges, Journal of the Marine Biological
Association, Vol. 13, p. 144).

The values for phosphates were fairly low and more or less constant. Their
production was continuous throughout the year by bacterial action, as also by
contamination of the tank by human agencies. ‘They are among the important
nutrient substances found in pieces of water. The slight fall in phosphates in
the cold season was due to utilization by the green vegetation during photo-
synthesis. Atkins (1923) found that the values for phosphates in ponds were
considerably less in the months in which photosynthesis is active. In _ this
tank the fall in phosphates was not so apparent.

14. pH.

The pH was determined in the field roughly with Universal Indicator. In
the laboratory the pH was again determined using Beckmann’s pH meter with
the glass electrode.

The pH value was highest in the cold season due principally to the richness
of the flora. In the hot season the minimum was reached as a result of stag-
nation, decay of vegetation and an increase in carbon dioxide. Atkins and
Harris (1924) and Pearsall (1930) also observed a seasonal rise and fall in pH.
The pH value showed a considerable degree of correlation with temperature,
the concentration of dissolved carbonates and bicarbonates, concentration of
the nutrient salts, dissolved oxygen, and as mentioned before, with the free
carbon dioxide. On several occasions this was clearly brought out, e.g. in
February the values for pH, oxygen and carbonates were very high, while the
bicarbonates were low and free carbon dioxide absent (Figs. 2 and 3).

A general consideration of the chemical nature cf the water showed that
all the salts increased with a decrease in the water level. At the close of the
hot season, the water level was extremely low, and due to the stagnant condi-
‘tions, unoxidised organic compounds were present, resulting in high oxygen
absorption and an increase in=ammonia and carbon dioxide values. The dis-
solved solids, organic matter, chlorides and bicarbonates also reached their
maxima. With the first rains, these decreased slightly and the values for hard-
ness and albuminoid ammonia were very high, but there was not much change
in the amount of dissolved solids. As the rainfall increased, there was a

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FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY 163

consequent decrease in all salts, till a minimum was reached in the middle of
the monsoon. As the monsoon abated, a rise in the dissolved solids followed,

The amount of total solids in December 1940 was much lower than the
amount of solids in November 1941. This was probably due to the wide diffe-
rence in the amounts of rainfall during the two years. The year 1941 was
exceptional, the rainfall being very low, viz. 34.19 inches, whereas in 1940
the rainfall far exceeded the average, amounting to go inches.

THE ALGAL FLORA OF THE TANK.

The number of species observed throughout the year was 103. Table I
shows the frequencies of some of the more common forms. Some of the spe-
cies are seen throughout the year and can be regarded as perennials even though
they may not be in abundance at any time. These, according to Pearsall
(1924) are the constant forms as they are found in ali or in over 75° of the
collections. A large majority of the remaining forms are seen for a_ brief
spell, either as stray or common forms. Such species are regarded as epheme-
vals. A third group of algae are seen for a longer period than the ephemerals
but not throughout the year. For the purpose of discrimination they are
called the intermediate species. If any of the species in these groups at any
time constitutes 309/ of the algal vegetation, it can be called the dominant
species of the period. The list of the algae is given in Appendix II. The
letters after the name of the alga denote whether it is constant (c), intermediate
(i) or ephemeral (e).

SUCCESSION OF THE ALGAL FLORA.

The algae are very plastic forms and can adapt themselves to numerous
alterations in their environment. Changes in the weather and water conditions
however, do affect them to a-certain extent, so that some forms are only seen
when conditions are favourabe to their growth. In this tank a definite succes-
sion of the algal flora was observed from season to season.

THE ALGAE OF THE COLD SEASON.

The ituvestigation commenced in December at the beginning of the cold
season. This season (Dec-mid-March) is characterised by low temperature, fairly
long hours of bright sunshine and little or no rain. The daily range of tempe-
rature is largest during this time and may be over 11°.

In December all the algal classes were represented by a few forms belonging
to each, except the Heterokontae, which occurred later. As the season advanc-
ed, numerous species appeared, the majority in small numbers; but a good
percentage thrived satisfactorily, increased in quantity and then declined. Many
of them were restricted to the cold season only. Some of them became abund-
ant in the early part or the middle of the cold season. Others took longer to
develop, and reached their maxima towards the end. of the cold season.

The majority of the green filamentous forms such as Zygnema, Spirogyra,
Bulbochaete and Oedogonium thrived best at this time and reproduced them-
selves, some at the commencement, others at the end of the season. ‘The period
was also most favourable for the growth of members of the Desmidiaceae and
Chlorococcales. Of the Myxophyceae, only Anabaena fertilissima was found
in abundance in the early part of January.

THE ALGAE OF THE HOT SEASON.

The hot season (mid-March-May) is characterised by long hours of bright
sunshine, high temperature and no rainfall. The day to day variation in tem-
perature is smallest during this season, particularly in April and May, when
the temperature is very high and the humidity is high.. Oedogonium continued
forming oospores and remained fairly well represented during the early part of
the hot season.

A gradual change occurred in the algal flora from the middle of March on-
wards. Most of the desmids disappeared and only a few persisted as stray
specimens. Except for Scenedesmus, which was seen in May, the green algae
were in the minority in the latter half of the hot season while members of

164 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?T. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the Myxophyceae were prominent. Numerous Euglenineae also appeared in. small
numbers. Towards the close of the hot season, the rest of the vegetation was
in an unhealthy condition and masses of them commenced to decay. Except
for a:small portion in the middle, the tank was dry (Photograph 2). Some of
the fish were removed at this time, as the unhealthy conditions affected them
adversely.

Thus the only forms that flourished during this period were members of the
Euglenineae and the Myxophyceae. The dominant form of the first half of the
season was Oedogonium and of the latter part of the season were Lyngbya
Birgei and Coelosphaerium Kuetzingianum.

THE ALGAE OF THE MONSOON.

The rains in Bombay occur from June to September. The monsoon as
a rule is usually accompanied by squally winds and afternoon thunderstorms.
Once it has well set in, thunderstorms are rare; but they may occur again
towards the end of the season. The arrival of the monsoon causes a_ wel-
come fall of temperature and sunshine values also drop. In 1941 the monsoon
behaved very erratically, and the total rainfall was only 34.19 inches, well
below normal. The temperature also was above the average.

During the period of heavy rain, the tank seemed more or less devoid of
algae; but as soon as there was a spell of bright sunshine in the latter half
of June, there was a sudden swarming of Pandorina morum in the tank,
causing a bloom to the exclusion of almost all the other algae. This was
the outstanding feature of the monsoon period. Another noteworthy event was
the occurrence of a second sexual phase in two species of Oedogonium. The
least number of algal species occurred during the wet season. This was to
be expected as the unsettled and disturbed condition of the water, due to the
action of rain and wind, naturally retarded algal development. The algae
are delicately constituted, and sudden changes in the concentration of dissolv-
ead matter will affect them immediately. Moreover as it was very cloudy, the
sunshine necessary for photosynthesis and growth was not available. The do-
minant form in the early half of the monsoon was Pandorina morum, in the
latter half, the two species of Oedogonium.

THE ALGAL FLORA IN OCTOBER AND NOVEMBER.

After the withdrawal of the monsoon, there is again a rise in the mean
temperature in the first half of October, which remains’ constant till Novem-
ber. This is again another period of minimum variability of temperature,
the meteorological conditions at this time being the same as in May. In
1941 there was no rain at all in October and November.

As the hours of bright sunshine increased, new species made their appear-
ance, particularly in November, but the increase.in number was gradual.
Two members of the Chlorococcales: viz. Selenastrum gracile and Gloeotaenium,
Loitlesbergerianum and a few members of the Myxophyceae such as Anabaena
Fullebornii and Aulosira fertilissima etc. were characteristic of the period. The
presence of a number of forms belonging to the Myxophyceae was not un-
expected, as the meteorological conditions in October and May are almost
similar, and therefore certain resemblances in the algal flora during the two
months, are likely.

DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF SOME OF THE SPECIES.

It is a well-known fact that maintenance of chemical and physical condi-
tions is necessary to allow normal algal growth. It is, however, rather diffi-
cult to single out a factor or a group of factors and to attribute to them the
presence or absence of a particular species, and therefore no general deduc-
tions will be made in this section, but only the local conditions of weather and
water favourable for the growth of the more important genera will be dis-
cussed.

165

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY
ISOKONTAE (CHLOROPHYCEAE).

VOLVOCALES.
Gloeocystis.— It was seen in December, became abundant in April and dis-
The chief factors influencing its

appeared entirely (Fig. 4) with the first rains.

—t—x— SCENEDESMUS OBLIQUUS
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SELENASTRUM GRACILE

VR
esses PANDORINA MORUM
w—»—#— G LOEOCYSTIS VESICULOSA

VA
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Fig. 4.—Frequency-graphs of some of the algae in the Bandra Tank

increase in numbers, seemed to be the meteorological conditions, as it was

found when the temperature was fairly high, the hours of sunshine very

166 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

high and when there was no rain. It disappeared when the temperature and
the sunshine values were lowered, and when the rainfall was plentiful.

Pandorina—It appeared with startling suddenness in the monsoon after the
first few showers, and developed so rapidly (cf. Fig. 4), that within less than
a fortnight the tank was teeming with it, and the water took on a greenish
hue. Asexual reproduction occurred almost immediately after maximum deve-
lopment.

The causes underlying such sudden swarming of plankton are difficult to
determine, but Akehurst (1931) found that swarming may be due to the
availibility of accessory foods. Other workers have found that the Volvo-
cales are erratic in occurrence, and are markedly influenced by sudden changes
in the weather. According to Howland (1931) Pandorina morum was very
common in a month when the rainfall was abnormally high, sunshine record
low, and the salt concentration not unusually high; while Fritsch and Rich
(1913) found that abundant sunshine and high salt concentration were detri-
mental to its growth. Hodgetts (1922) however found pronounced growth of
Pandorina coinciding with rising concentration. Here Pandorina occurred
after sudden and much rain and when there was less of sunshine and decreas-
ing concentration.

CHLOROCOCCALES

Gloeotaenium—Except for the month of July, when the rainfall was. very
high, this genus was seen throughout the year, though not in abundance. It
commenced to increase from October and in January it reached its maximum
after which there was a fall in its numbers (Fig. 4). The conditions favour-
able for its development were very low temperature, fairly long hours of sun-
shine, low concentration of dissolved solids, large amount of dissolved oxygen
and not much carbon dioxide and_ nitrates.

Scenedesmus—All the three species of Scenedesmus, though not equally
abundant, had two maxima. The first was in the cold season (Dec.-Jan.).
A sudden increase occurred in May, followed by rapid disappearance (Fig. 4).
The periodicity of Scenedesmus was rather puzzling, as the physical and che-

mical conditions of the water on the two occasions when it was in abundance,

were totally different. The only similar factors were absence of rain, long
hours of sunshine and the same amount of free and saline ammonia. On the

whole it is dangerous to attribute the presence or absence of Scenedesmus to’

any particular factor, as it seems to be one of those ubiquitous forms which
is rarely absent from any piece of water, and is seen almost throughout the year.

Selenastrum—It was found in December 1940 as a rather common form, but
presumably it was declining, as in January 1941 it was rare. It disappeared
in March. In September it reappeared, and by November it was abundant

(Fig. 4). It is therefore a species which developed rapidly in the post-monsoon—
period with the advent of more settled conditions and longer hours of sunshine. |

Pediastrum—Pediastrum tetras was a constant form which was rare through-
out the year, but became abundant in early February. The cold season was
therefore favourable for its development. The other two species of Pediastrum

cecurred in the monsoon during a spell of bright sunshine after days of heavy

rain. They disappeared as soon as another period of excessive rain set in.
A consideration of this order brings out some interesting facts. Some of its
members may occur in the monsoon, but they disappear very soon, and cannot
develop to any considerable extent. Most of them attain their greatest develop-
ment in December or January during the early part of the cold season. It
. seems as if the low temperature of this period, together with the large amount
of dissolved oxygen and high pH, support their growth. Griffiths (1923) found
them in places where the oxygen content of the water is relatively high.

Howland (1931) found them when pH, water level and salt. concentration |

are moderately high. Both their results are confirmed here.

; CHAETOPHORALES
Aphanochaete repetis—It was observed as an epiphyte on Oedogonium.

It showed a certain amount of relation to the periodicity of its host; but

unlike Oedogonium, it was not seen throughout the year.

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY — 167

Coleochaete scutata—It was epiphytic on the icaves of Potamogeton in
early February. It developed best in late March, and disappeared by April.
Howland (1931) found that it favoured high pH. Here too the pH was high
when it thrived.

The Chaetophorales developed towards the end of the cold season and the
beginning of the hot season, and the conditions necessary for their growth
seemed to be the same as those for their hosts.

OEDOGONIALES,

Oedogonium—Five species of Oedogonium were recorded from the . tank,
but only two of them were constant. All of them began to reproduce sexually_
in March and April. In May they appeared to be in a definitely unhealthy
condition. With the rains however, they seemed to revive and the two constant
species formed oogonia again. Both these species. had two reproductive phases
(Fig. 5). Str@m (1924) remarks that two conjugation maxima annually are
‘ing a period of great vegetative activity in a spell of bright weather after
' A belief held by the early algologists was that the lower forms enter into
the reproductive stage at the end of their vegetative activity. It has however
been found that phases: of reproduction may coincide with periods of greatest
vegetative activity. In this tank the first reproductive phase of Oedogonium
occurred at the end of vegetative activity, when the sunshine was abundant,
the pH fairly high, the concentration of water and carbon dioxide increasing
and oxygen content decreasing. The second reproductive phase occurred dur-
ing a period of great vegetative activity in a spell of bright weather after
excessive rain. Brown (1908) has shown that a sudden change in external .
conditions can check the growth of an alga and cause it to fruit sexually.
The sudden change in .the environmental conditions probably influenced the
second reproductive phase.

Bulbochaete—It was seen in December and reached its maximum in Janu-
ary (Fig. 5). The conditions which favoured its growth and development
seemed to be the same as those for the Chlorococcales.

CONJUGATAE (ZYGNEMACEAE).

Zygnema—lIt occurred in December and became very abundant by Janu-
ary. The curves of Bulbochaete and Zygnema were almost similar (Fig. 5)
and the same conditions seemed favourable to both. Hodgetts (1921) found
that there was no relationship between Zygnema and bright sunshine unless
abundant bright sunshines was harmful to it. In this tank Zygnema appeared
when the hours of bright sunshine were moderately high, and disappeared
when they became longer, but temperature seemed to be a more important
factor influencing its appearance.

Spirogyra—Two species of Spirogyra, one fertile, the other sterile, were
common in February. Spirogyra formosa formed zygospores in late February
or early March, after which it disappeared. It was also seen in the monsoon.

The conditions necessary for the development cof Spirogyra were almost
the same as for Oedogonium. Other workers have seen that each time Spiro-
gyva became abundant, Oedogonium followed suit, and both may even fruit
simultaneously. Here also the same relation between the two genera was
noticeable.

A few sterile filaments of Mougeotia were seen intermixed with Spirogyra.

DESMIDIACEAE.

Desmids.—Though the desmids were best represented qualitatively, very
few of them were abundant at any time. Only a few occurred in noticeable
numbers. Str@m (1924) found that two factors are hostile for the occurrence
of desmids in large quantities as plankton organisms—contamination and the
basic reaction of the water, viz. pH conspicuously greater than 7. Slight con-
_taminaticn does not affect them much, but serious contamination renders
desmid growth impossible.

As the desmids occurred in relatively few numbers, it is impossible to put
forward any views with regard to the factors influencing their growth. Most

168 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

of them. were characteristic of the cold season and occurred when the pH
and the amount of dissolved oxygen were very high, free carbon dioxide ab-
sent, nitrates and albuminoid ammonia very, low, oxidizable organic matter
fairly low and the water dilute. The meteorological conditions favourable
for their growth were no rainfall, fairly long hours of sunshine and low
temperature.

HETEROKONTAE.

The only member of this group was Botryococcus Braunit which also seem-
ed to prefer the cold season.

EUGLENINEAE.,

Euglena—A number of species of. Huglena were present in the tank. With
the exception of Kuglena acus which was seen in the monsoon, all of them
seemed to thrive in the hot season when there was a large amount of organic
matter present. Fritsch and Rich (1913) also found that the maximum of
Euglena viridis coincided with an enrichment of the water with organic

matter and Lind (1938) found Euglena abundant when albuminoid ammonia
was maximum.

Trachelomonas—AlIl the species of Tvachelomonas occurred in the hot sea-

son, and disappeared in July. Howland (1931) did not find Trachelomonas iJ

volvocina and T. hispida when organic contamination was greatest and saw
no evident relation between their presence and salt concentration. Hodgetts
(1922) however, found that abundant sunshine together with a high salt con-
centration was favourable to them. In this case they were present when
there was abundant sunshine, large amount of organic matter and .in very
concentrated water.

The flagellates therefore seemed to favour high tempearture, great light »
intensity and no rain. They appeared when there was a large amount of
decaying vegetation and consequently much organic matter in the tank. They
were not wiped out entirely by heavy rain, but persisted for some time.

MYXOPHYCEAE.

Lynagbya—Two species of Lyngbya usually occurred together in the tank.
The curve for the first viz. Lyngbva aestuarii was almost similar to that
for Oedogonium iowense (Fig. 5). It was thus influenced by the same factors
as Oedogonium except that it was more unsuited to the cold season. More-
over it was unable to thrive in the latter part of the monsoon and_ soon
disappeared.

Lyngbya Birgei was the second species. It was very abundant in March
and_ remained so till July (Fig. 5). It decreased in numbers during the
latter part of the monsoon. It was typical of the hot season, and favoured
the same conditions as the flagellates.

Oscillatoria—Four species of Oscillatoria were seen in the tank. All of
them, with the exception of Oscillatoria gloeophila which was found in the
hot season, were found in the monsoon when the water was fairly dilute.
They were however never seen in abundance.

Anabaena. Two, out of the three species of Anabaena, were fertile. A.
Fullebornti occurred in September and formed spores in October. It persisted
till March. A. Fertilissima was seen during the monsoon as a rare species,
but it became abundant in January. Whenever it was seen, it was forming
spores. Thus it was probably a type which did not remain long in the vege-
tative condition, but formed spores at once.

Aulosira. Filaments of Aulosira fertilissima occurred densely intertwined.
forming mats which seemed like decaying leaves. By September and October
the species was very abundant and had formed spores, every alternate cell
of the filament being transformed into a spore.

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY 169

Coelosphaerium. It was seen throughout the year, but was abundant from
the end of March till the end of May. It persisted during the monsoon as
a rather common form but became rare in October (Fig. 5). The other genera
were only seen in the hot season.

ae —a COBRLOSPHAERIUM KUETZINGIANUM

~---- LYNGBYA AESTUARII
VA Bios ” BIRGE}S
A
NT
c
Rc
R
VR
J
VAS
yee BRULRBOCHAETE RECTANGULARIS YAR
A HILOENSIS
trees ZYGNEMA RETICULATUM
NG
Cc
Rc
R
VR-
VA
--—" QEDOGONIUM J!OWENSE
OEE 28 DECIPIENS FORMA
A DISSIMILE
NC
e
RC
R
VR

DEC JAN FER MARCH APRIL MAY June Juty AuG SEPT OcT No
1S 1S 1S 15 16 1s 5 "5 's

Fig. 5.—Freequency-graphs of some of the algae in the Bandra Tank
A consideration of the Myxophyceae brings out the fact that most of them

like the flagellates, occur in May. High temperature seems to be the deciding
factor for their good development. ‘This is also shown by the fact that some

170 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

of the Myxophyceae like Aulosira, Gloeotrichia etc. develop in October when
the temperature and temperature variations are the same as in May. Thus
most of the Myxophyceae favour high temperature; but some of them can
only thrive when there is a considerable amount »of organic matter present
in the water and when the concentration of dissolved salts is fairly high.
Other species can thrive in more dilute waters. Only a few forms like Calo-
thrix marchica var. crassa and Anabaena fertilissima are seen in the cold
season.

SUMMARY.

1. This paper deals with the seasonal succession of the algae in a tank at
Bandra and the relation of the algal flora to the chemical constitution of
the water and the meteorological conditions. =.

2. ‘The algae were collected at fortnightly intervals for a year, and the
water was analysed once a month.

3. The water level at the close of the hot season was very low and there
was an increase in all the salts. The first rains did not make much difference
in the amount of dissolved solids; but later, as the water level increased,
there was a decrease in all salts till a minimum was reached in the middle of
the monsoon. As the monsoon abated, there was a rise in the dissolved solids.

4. The number of algal species observed in the tank was 103. Of these,
8 were constant, 42 intermediate and the rest were ephemerals.

5. The majority of the species were seen in the cold season, which was
characterised by the predominance of members of the Chlorophyceae. They

grew luxuriantly and many species reproduced themselves. In the hot season,’

members of the Myxophyceae and Englenineae thrived. The least number of
species was seen in the monsoon. During the October-November period, there
were more species than in the rainy season, and the period was also charac-
terised by the appearance of a number of members belonging to the Myxo-
phyceae. — :

6. By noting the condition of the weather and water when some of the

more important species appeared, the local conditions favourable for their.

growth are determined.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to Prof. V. V. Apte,
Fergusson College, Poona, for the kind loan of a number of important books
helpful in identifying the algal specimens; to Dr.» S. R. Savur of the Colaba
Observatory, Bombay, for furnishing the meteorological data; to Dr. S. B.
Setna, Director of Fisheries, Bombay, for supplying details of the Bandra
Tank and to Messrs. Habbu and R. B. M. Colah for help in calculating
the results of Chemical Analysis statistically.

REFERENCES. ;

1. Akehurst, S.. C.—Observations on pond life with special reference to
the possible causation of swarming of phytoplankton.
Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. Vol. 51 (3) pp. 237-255, 1931.
Atkins, W. R. J.—The Phosphate content of fresh and salt waters and
its relationship to the growth of the algal plankton.
Jour. Mar. Biol. Assoc. Vol. 13, pp. 119-150, Dec. 1923.
3. Atkins, W. R.: J. and Harris G. T.—Seasonal changes in the water
and heleoplankton of freshwater ponds.
Sc. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., Vol. 18 (N. S.) pp. 1-21, 1924.

4. Atkins, W. R. J. and Harris G. T.—Seasonal changes in the water

and heleoplankton of freshwater ponds.
Notes from Botany School, Trinity College, Dublin, 3, 1925. (As
quoted by Lind, 1938).

5. Biswas, K.—Census of Indian Algae: Scope of algological. studies in
India.
Rev. Algol. 6 (2): pp: 197-219, 1932.

6. Brown, Harry B.—Algal periodicity in certain) ponds and_ streams,
Bull. Torrey Bot, Club, Vol. 35, No. 5, pp. 223-248, 1908.

Il.

12.

14.

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

20.

Zils
DP
23.
24.

25.
26.

‘FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY 171

Frederick, Robert C. and Forster, Aquila.—Public Health Chemical
Analysis.

Constable and Co. Ltd. London 1920.

Fritsch, F. E.—Problems in aquatic biology with special reference to
algal periodicity.

New Phytol. Vol. 5, pp. 149-169, 1906.

Fritsch, F. E.—The subaerial and freshwater algal flora of the Tropics.
A phytogeographical and ecological study.

Ann. Bot. 21, pp. 235-270, 1907.

Fritsch, F. “E.—A general consideration of the ‘subaerial and freshwater
algal flora of Ceylon—A. contribution to .the study of tropical algal
ecology—Part I Subaerial algae and algae of the inland fresh waters.
ELOCu NOV SOGy Lond y sere b., \VOlN179, pp 1197-254, 1007.

Fritsch, F. E. and Rich, F.—Studies on the occurrence and _ reproduc-
tion of British Freshwater Algae in Nature I. Preliminary observa-.

‘tion on Spirogyra.
Ann. Bot. 21, pp. 423-436, 1907. —

Fritsch, F. E. and Rich, F.—Ibid. II A five years’ observation of the
fish pond Abbots Leigh near Bristol.

Proc. British Naturalists 4th Sec. 2, 1909.
(As quoted by Hodgetts 1921, Howland 1931, etc.).

Fritsch, F. E. and Rich, F.—Ibid III. A four years’ observation of
a freshwater pond.

Annales. Biol Lacustre. 6, pp. 33-115, i913. .
(As quoted by Hodgetts 1921, Howland 1931, etc.).

Ganapati, S. V.—The ecology of a temple tank containing a permanent:
bloom of Microcystis aeruginosa (Kitz) Henfr.

Jour. of the Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. XLII No. 1. pp. 65-77,
Dec. °1940.

Ganapati, S. V.—Studies on the chemistry and biology of ponds in the
Madras City.

Jour. of the Madras Univ. Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 55-69, Jan. 1941.

Ganapati, S. V.—An ecological study of a garden pond containing
abundant zoo-plankton. ; ’

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., Vol. XVII, pp. 41-58, 1943.

Ghose, S. L.—Some aspects of the study of freshwater algae with
special reference to those of India.

Proceedings of the 20th Ind. Sci. Cong. pp. 279-299, Patna 1933.

Gonzalves, Ella A. and Joshi, Dwarka B.—The Algal Flora of Tem-
porary Waters around Bombay. An Ecological Study of the Algae in
some rainwater pools at Borivli. i
Jour. Univ. Bom. Vol. XI, Part V, pp. 34-45, Mar. 1943.

Griffiths, B. M.—The Heleoplankton of North Worcestershire.

Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. Vol. 43, 1916.

Griffiths, B. M.—The Heleoplankton of three Berkshire pools.
jours linn SOC) sBbote Vols XVI Noy 305, pp I-11, 1922.

Griffiths, B. M.—The Phytoplankton of Bodies of freshwater and the
factors determining its occurrence and composition.

Jour. of Ecology Vol. 2, pp. 184-213, 1923.

Griffiths, B. M.—Studies in the Phytoplankton of Shropshire, Cheshire
and Staffordshire.

Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. Vol. 47, pp. 75-98, 1925-27.

Griffiths, B. M.—The Phytoplankton of the Isle of Anglesey and of
Llyn. Ogwen—N. Wales.

Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. Vol. XLVII, pp. 355-366, 1927.

Hodgetts, W. J.—A study of the factors controlling the periodicity of
freshwater algae in nature.

New Phytol. 20, pp. 150-164, pp. 195-227, 1921.

Hodgetts, W. J.—Ibid.

New Phytol. 21, pp. 15-23, 1922.

Howland, Lucy.—A four years’ investigation of a Hertfordshire Pond.
New Phytol. Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 221-265, 1931.

Iyengar, M. O. P.—Algal work in India.

Proceedings of the 15th Ind. Sci. Congress, Calcutta pp. 207-222,
1928.

172

28.

29.

30.

Bila

34.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. -SOCIETY, Vol. 40

Iyengar, M. O. P.—Algal problems peculiar to the Tropics, with special
reference to India.
Proceedings of the 25th Ind. Sci. Congress. Part IV, Discussions—
1938.
Lind, Edna M.—Studies in the pen ocieity of the algae in Beauchieff
Ponds—Sheffield.
Jour. of Ecology, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 257-274, 1938.
Pearsall, W. H.—Phytoplankton and environment in the Byeue Lake
District.
Rev: Algol. 1: 52-57, 1924. .
Pearsall, W. H.—Phytoplankton of English ‘Lakes, I. The proportions
in the waters of some dissolved substances of biological importance.
Jour. of Ecology, 18, pp. 306-320, 1930.
Pruthi, Hem Singh.—Studies on the bionomics of freshwaters in India.
I. Seasonal changes in the physical and chemical conditions of the
water of the tank in the Indian Museum Compound.
Internat. Rev. Ges. Hydrobiol. U. Hydrography, 28 (1/2): 46-67,
1933:
(As quoted in Biological Abstracts Vol. 7 No. 15280, 1933).
Str@m, K. M.—Studies in the ecology and geographical distribution of
freshwater algae and plankton.
Rev. Algol. 1, pp. 127-155, 1924.
Thresh, J. C., Beale, J. F., and Suckling, E. V.—The examination of
water and water supplies J. & A. Churchill—London, 1933.
Transeau, E. N.—The Periodicity of Algae in Illinois -
Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 32, pp. 31-40, 1013.
Transeau, E. N.—Periodicity of !reshwater Algae.
Amer. Journ. of Botany, Vol. 3, pp. 121-133, 1919.
Bombay Govt. Gazette.—Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Vol. 13,
Part I, Thana 1882, (Salsette).

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY

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174

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

VOLVOCALES.

Gloeocystis vesiculosa Nag. (i).
2. Pandorina morum (Mull.) Bory (e), (qd).

APPENDIX—II.

THE ALGAL FLORA OF THE TANK.*

ISOYONTAE : (CHLOROPHYCEAE).

CHLOROCOCCALES.

CON aunt &

. Pediastrum tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs., (i).

. Pediastrum duplex Meyen var. genuinum A. Br. (e).
. Pediastrum clathratum (Sch.) Lemm. (e).
. Sorastrum spinulosa Nag. (e). |

. Trochiscia obtusa (Reinsch) Hansg. (e).

. Oocystis solitaria Wittr. (i).

. Oocystis elliptica W. West. (i).

Gloeotaenium Loitlesbergerianum Hansg. (c), (d).

Tetraedron muticum (A. Br.) Hansg. forma minimum Reinsch. (e).
Tetraedron trilobatum (Reinsch) Hansg. (e).

Tetraedron trigonum (Nag) Hansg. forma gracile Reinsch. . (e).

Ankistrodesmus spirlais (Turner) Lemm. (e).

Westella botryoides (W. West) Schmidle. (e).

siliensis Bohlin. (i).

Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turpin) Bréb. (i).

10. Oocystis lacustris Chodat. (e).
iti
12s
13.
14.
15. Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs. (e).
16.
17. Selenastrum gracile Reinsch. (i).
18. Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner) Mob. (e).
1g.
20. Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Br. (e).
21. Scenedesmus obliquus (Turpin) Kitb. (i).
22. Scenedesmus bra
2g%
24. Coelastrum cambricum Archer. (i).
CHAETOPHORALES.

25. Aphanochaete vepens A. Br. (i).
26. Coleochaete scutata Bréb. (e).

OEDOGONALES.

QE
28.
29.
30,
Biko
22:

Oedogonium
Oedogonium
Oedogonium
Oedogonium
Oedogonium
Bulbochaete

CONJUGATAE.

. Closterium

varians Wittr. (e).
decipiens Wittr. forma dissimile Hirn. (c), (d).

10wW

ense Tiffany. (c), (d).

longicolle Nordst. (e).
inconspicuum Hirn. (e).
vectangularis. Wittr. var. hiloensis Nordst. (i).

. Zygnema reticulatum Hallas. (i).

. Spirogyra formosa (Transeau) Czurda. (c).
. Spirogyra sp. (e).

. Mougeotia sp. (i
. Closterium Venus Kiitz. (i).

. Closterium Acerosum (Schr.) Ehr. (e).
. Closterium Leibleinii Kitz. (i).
Dianae Ehr. (e).

(i).

* The classification followed is that of West and Fritsch as given in- SA
Treatise on the British Freshwater Algae’. 1927. ‘c’ denotes ‘constant’, ‘i’ de-

notes intermediate’, ‘¢

denotes ‘ephimeral’ and ‘d’ denotes ‘dominant’ species.

. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Arthrodesmus
. Staurastrum
. Staurastrum crenulatum (Nag.) Delp.
. Staurastrum
. Sphaerozosma granulatum Roy and Biss.

FRESHWATER ALGAE NEAR BOMBAY

Lundellii D

Portianum

Meneghini

. Closterium sp. (mew). (e).
. Closterium sp. (new).
. Closterium

(e).
eboracense Turn.

. Euastrum substellatum Nordst.
. Euastrum bidentatum Nag. :
. Micrasterias pinnatifida (Kutz) Ralfs. (e).
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium
. Cosmarium

elp.

Arch.
Quadrum Lund.
Sublatere-undatum West & West.
Bréb.
abruptum Lund.

asphaerosporum Nordst.
divergens Krieger (new var.).

(e)..
(i).

var.
(i)
(i), (d).
; (i).
(i).

(i).

ellipticum

175

West. (i).

(i).

sexnotatum Gutw., var. tristriatum (Lutkem Schmidle.) (i).

Phaseolus Bréb.
cucumis (Corda) Ralfs. var. magnum Racib.
(Perty)

angulatum

var.

Rabent.

elevatum Nord.

forma

(i).
(i).
Grunow.

(i).

major

contractum Kirch. var. ellipsoideum (Klfv.) West & West. (i).

cymatopleurum Nord.
subimpressulum Borge.
Bréh.
convergens Ehr.

Bréb.

granatum
alternans

gracile

HETEROCAPSINEAE.

68. Botryococcus Braunit Kutz. (i).

Ralfs.

HETEROKONTAE,.

(i).
(e).
(i).

_(e).
(i).

(i).

EUGLENINBAE.,

(e).

EUGLENACEAE.

CHROOCOCCALES.

. Aphanothece pallida (Kiutz.) Rabh. (i).
. Coelosphaerium Kuetzingianum Nag.
. Microcystis stagnalis Lemm.
. Microcystis flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirchn.
. Aphanocapsa elachista W & G.S. West var.
. Chroococcus turgidus (Kutz.) Nag. (i).

. Euglena
. Euglena
. Euglena
. Euglena proxima Ehr.
. Euglena

. Trvachelomonas
. Trvachelomonas
. Tvachelomonas
. Trachelomonas

Ehrenbergii Klebs.
acus Ehr.
deses-

(i).
(e).
(i).

Ehr.

oxyuris Schmarda.
. Lepocinclis ovum (Ehr) Lemm.
. Lepocinclis Butschli Lemm.
. Lepocinclis Butschli Lemm var.
. Phacus orbicularis Hub.

(i).

(e).

(i).

horrida Palmer var.

armata Ehr.

similis Stokes.
volvocina Ehr. (e).

var.

(e).

Steinit

(e).
angustata Deflandre. (e).

crenulatocollis Skuor.
Lemm.

(e).

(e).
(e).

MYXOPHYCEAE (CYANOPHYCEAE).

(i).

(c), (
(c)

(d).

Conferta W & G.S, West. (c).

176 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

HORMOGONEALES.
88. Oscillatoria gloeophila Grun. (c).
89. Oscillatoria sancta Kutz. (e).

90. Oscillatoria chalybea Mert. (e).

gt. Oscillatoria tenuis Ag. (e).

g2. Spirulina subtilissima Kutz. (e).

93- Spirulina Major Kutz. (e).

94. Lyngbya aestuarii (Mert.) Lie. (e).

95. Lyngbya Birgei Smith. (c).

96. Schizothrix lacustris A. Br. (e).

97. Anabaena fertilissima Rao. (e).

98. Anabaena Fillebornii Schmidle. (e).

gg. Anabaena sp. (e).

100. Aulosira fertilissima Ghose. (e).

10:. Tolypothrix distorta (Fl. D.) Wartm. (e).
102. Calothrix marchica LemG. var. crassa Rao. (e).
103. Gloeotrichia Raciborskii Wolos. (e)

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Prate I.

BomBpay ALGAE.

1.—Pandorina morum (Muller) Bory. (xX 406).
2.—Pediastrum tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs. (x 406).
3.—Pediastrum clathratrum (Schroeter) Lemm. (xX 262).
4.—Pediastrum duplex Meyen var. genuinum A. Br. (xX 406).
5-—Trochiscia obtusa (Reinsch) Hansg. (x 406).
6.—Oocystis solitaria Wittr. (406).

7.—Oocystis elliptica W. West. (xX 406).
8.—Gloeotaenium Loitlesbergerianum WHansg. (x 406).
9.—Westella botryoides (W. West) de Wildom. (x 406).
10.—Sorastrum spinulosa Nag. (X406).
11.—Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs. (xX 406).
12.—Gloeocystis vesiculosa Nag. (xX 262).

13.—Coelastrum cambricum Archer. (xX 182).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prater If.

BomBay ALGAE.

Fig. 1.—Oocystis lacustris Chodat. (x 406).

Fig. 2.—Tetraedron trigonum (Nag) Hansg. forma gracile Reinsch. (X 406),

Fig. 3.—Tetraedron trilobatum (Reinsch) Hansg. (x 406).

Fig. 4.—Tetraedron muticum (A. Br.) Hansg. forma minimum Reinsch.
(X 406).

Fig. 5.—Selenastrum gracile Reinsch. (xX 406).

Fig. 6.—Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner.) Moebius. (x 406).

Fig. 7.—Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Br. (X 406).

Fig. 8.—Aphanochaete repens A. Br. (X 406).

Fig. 9.—Coleochaete scutata bréb. (X262).

1oa—Spirogyva formosa (Transeau) Czurda. (X 262).

Fig.
(portion of conjugating filament).
Fig. 1ob.—Surface view of the mesospore of No. 10a. (x 406).
Fig. 11a.—Zygnema reticulatum Hallas (showing parthenospores). ( X 182).
11b.—Surface view of the mesospore of No. r1a. (X 406).

Fig.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prats III.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

BomBAy ALGAE.

1.—*Closterium sp. (new species) Extremity of the cell. (x 262).

2.—Closterium
3.—Closterium
4.—Closterium
5-—Closterium
6.—Closterium
7.—Closterium
8.—Closterium
9.—Euastrum

sp. (new species) Semicell. (X52).

sp. (new species). (X24).

acerosum (Schr.) Ehr. var. elongatum Breb. (X40)
Leibleini Kiitz. (x 406).

sp. (new species). (xX 182).

Venus Kitz. (x 406).

Dianae Ehr. (xX 406).

substellatum Nordst. (xX 406).

10.—Euastrum bidentatum Nag. (xX 406).

11.—Micrasterias pinnatifida (Kiitz.) Ralfs. (x 406).
12.—Arthrodesmus convergens Ehr. (x 406).
13.—Sphaerozosma granulatum Roy and Biss. (xX 406).
14.—Staurastrum alternans Bréb. (xX 406).

15.—Staurastrum alternans (vertical view). (xX 406).
16.—Staurastrum crenulatum (Nag.) Delp. (x 406).
17.—Staurastrum gracile Ralfs. var. nanum Wille. (x 406).

_* This sp. appears to be a new species of Closterium and will be described
in another paper.

Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Sos.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
vertical
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
West.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
miidle.
Fig

BomBay ALGAE.

1.—Cosmarium Lundelii Delp. var. ellip

fo0000 09 OD
20000 006 &
0°0 00000 OP
000000005 OP
0000000 0 &®O

oo
aK)
oo
°°O
(ore)
00
©o
Oo
°°

ticum West.

20003 000 Ooh
©COCO000OMp
bo 0000000 Qh

AD GQ OO VS C090
BL0 C00 00 0 ONF

‘i

( X 406).

2.—Cosmarium cucumis (Corda) Ralfs. var. magnum Racib.

3.—Cosmarium Quadrum Lund. (x 406).

Piate IV.

( X 262).

4.—Cosmarium sublatere-undatum West & West (new var.) Front and

views. (X 406).

5.—Cosmarium angulatum (Perty Rabenh. forma major Grunow. (xX 182).
6.—Cosmarium granatum Bréb. (xX 406).
7.—Cosmarium divergens Krieger (new var.). (xX 406).
8.—Cosmarium contractum Kirch. var. ellipsoideum (Elfv.) West &
( X 406).
9.—Cosmarium Meneghinii Bréb. (x 406).
10.—Cosmarium Portianum Arch. (xX 406).

11.—Cosmarium abruptum Lund. (xX 406).

12a.—Cosmarium subimpressulum Borge.

12b.—Cosmarium subimpressulum (vertical view).
13.—Cosmarium phaseolus Bréb. var. elevatum Nordst.
14.—Cosmarium sexnotatum Gutw. var.

( X 406).
15.—Cosmarium cymatopleurum Nordst.

( X 406).

tristriatum

( X 406).

(Lutkem). Sch-

Journ.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puatr V.

9°?

°
°
°
°

cs)

BomsBay ALGAE.

1.—Bubochaete rectangularis Wittr. var. hiloensis Nordst. (X 406).
2.—Oedogonium iowense Tiffany. (xX 182).

3.-—Oedogonium longicolle Nordst. (x 406).

4.—Oedogonium decipiens Wittr. forma dissimile Hirn. (xX 182).
5-—Oedogonium varians Wittr. & Lund. (x 182).

6.—Oedogonium inconspicuum Hirn. (x 406).

7.—Euglena Ehrenbergii Klebs. (x 182).

8.—Euglena proxima Ehr. (X 406).

g.—Euglena deses Ehr. (X 182).

10.—Lepocinclis Biitschli Lemm. ( 406).

11.—Lepocinclis Biitschli Lemm. var. angustata Delf. (xX 406).
12.—Lepocinclis ovum (Ehr.) Lemm. ( 406).

13.—Phacus orbicularis Hub. (xX 406).

14.—Trachelomonas horrida Palmer var. crenulatocollis Skvor. (x 406).
15.—Trachelomonas armata Ehr. var. Steinii Lemm. (%X 406).
16.—Tvachelomonas similis Stokes. (xX 406).

17.—Tvachelomonas volvocina Ehr. (X 406).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate VI.

BomBay ALGAE.

Fig. 1.—Euglena acus. Ehr. (xX 406).

Fig. 2.—Kuglena oxyuris Schmarda. (xX 262).

Fig. 3.—Coelosphaerium Kuetzingianum Nag. (xX 406).
Fig. 4.—Aphanocapsa ellachista W. & G. S. West var. conferta. (X 406).
Fig. 5.—Aphanothece pallida (Kutz.) Rab. (xX 406).
Fig. 6.—Microcystis flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirch. (406).
Fig. 7.—Microcystis stagnalis Lemm. (xX 406).

Fig. 8.—Chroococcus turgidus (Kutz.) Nag. (406).
Fig. 9.—Oscillatoria gloeophila Grun. (X 406).

Fig. 10.—Oscillatoria tenuis Ag. (X 406).

Fig. 11.—Oscillatoria chalybea Mert. (xX 406).

Fig 12.—Oscillatoria sancta Kutz. (xX 406).

Fig. 13.—Lyngbya aestuarii (Mert.) Lemm. (X 182).
Fig. 14.—Schizothrix lacustris A. Br. (406).

Fig. 15.—Lyngbya Birgei Smith. (xX 406).

Fig. 16.—Spirulina subtillissima Kitz: (xX 406).

Fig. 17.—Spirulima major Kutz. (x 406).

fourn, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Pirate VII.

CN EE ane

000K!
00m

000950
0°09

BompBay ALGAE.

(xX 406).

( X 406).

Wolos.
3.—Calothrix marchica Lemm. var. crassa. Rao.

1.—Tolypothrix distorta (Fl. Dan.) Wartm.

2.—Gloeotrichia Raciborskii

Fig.
Fig

(Xx 406).
( X 406).

( X 406).

( x 406).

Schmidle.

4.—Aulosiva fertilissima Ghose (showing spores).

5-—Anabaena fertilissima Rao.

6.—Anabaena Fiullebornii

Fig.
Fig.
Fig
Fig

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‘ee , p| f by
7 5 2 J ‘
p i ; ¢
' od ‘
: ‘
* g , \
|
. ‘ d
5 ; Migs? Ca: %,
ara ve K; ene. »
a
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; OR Pred vats
it ys [SEAT PAST CY ;
] ‘ are ¢ wh : RyOubin' ee
tet j teat Cees by cis LOK RAV PANE &
ha ' « - 4 . ’ ; ro | Cle Sie a oe a +
i : + 4 ) Yen 8 rhe & wat 7h) ep ain) < Ce
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8, Siva
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fay te an | 1 ’ r at 5 ee aN ee a eit ~ ath
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y ¥ 5 } teybic .. ray Pal
¥ a. is . Ri & : 7
| thts 9) Rae. Guth Dae “hg B
: z & i a
Y
’ * F, ty
: j
. .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1.—RARITY OF MAN-EATING TIGERS IN SOUTH INDIA.

In your April 1945 number Lt.-Col. E. O’Brien raises a ques-
tion which has puzzled many. Why are Man-eaters so rare in South
India?

There have been, and may still be, many man-eating tigers in
the Ganjam District, of course, and part of this district is south
of a line drawn due east from Bombay. Vizagapatam District has
had its man-eaters, and also other parts of the ‘Agency Tracts’.

The Nallamallais, Kurnool District, provided the man-eating

tigress shot eventually at Diguvametta by the then Conservator of
Forests in September 1923. She preyed upon the luckless railway
gangmen; and this habit brought about her death. The Conser-
vator was told to walk along the railway embankment keeping
a sharp lookout on both sides. He soon spotted the tigress mak-
ing for a culvert ahead of him. He walked towards the culvert,
and then over to the other side of the embankment: and stopped.
The tigress, misjudging his position, popped up ahead; and re-
ceived her quietus. She was in good condition, but carried an
old scar.
_ A man-eater roamed the Baragur Hills, to the east of the
Biligirirangans (Coimbatore District), some 30 to 35 years ago;
killing people spasmodically—about 4 or 5 a year. A Government
Notification offering a reward for the brute described it as ‘Ashy-
grey, and somewhat stout’! It was said to have been shot by a
poacher: if so it was quickly succeeded by another man-eater (not
an unusual case) which also killed humans at infrequent intervals
from Talamalai north-eastwards to Madeswaram-malai and Pon-
nachi.(Kollegal Taluk, Coimbatore District). Lt.-Col. R. E. Wright
and I went after this tiger, reputed to have a kink in its tail. One
night our camp was pitched in a field at the western foot of the
Baragurs, an ill-chosen spot infested with masses of hairy-cater-
pillars. We went to sleep in two small tents facing each other,
with a ‘Petromax’ lantern burning between the tents; and loaded
rifles by our cots. I was awakened at midnight by a_ horrified
yell from R.E.W. and rushing out, collided with him; on which
he collapsed with laughter. Half-asleep he had imagined seeing
a large form stealthily moving into his tent; it turned out to be
the shadow cast by the petrol lamp on the wall of the tent, of a
large caterpillar crawling over his bed clothes!

Now this tiger was shot by a poacher. Sallying’ forth after
deer in the early morning he met the tiger round a corner, fired
his muzzle loader at it, dropped the gun and fled like the wind.
Later in the morning a Forest Guard and his watcher, on beat
duty, came on the dead tiger, and recognized it as the man-eater.
The gun was also recognized by the watcher who named its
owner. So a bargain was struck. The poacher was told that
he would not be reported for being in the Reserve Forest with an

178 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

unlicensed gun, provided the Forest Guard was given the skin and
skull of the tiger. This was gladly agreed to by the Pa
who had no idea that the tiger was a notified man-eater, with <
reward of Rs. 300 on-its head. The F. G. then proceeded ic
claim the reward, producing the skin and skull in the local Katchery
together with a wonderful story of how he had killed the tiger
single handed sitting up for it over a jungle path. The reward
was about to be paid when the watcher learned that the F.G. in-
tended to give him a mere pittance of the total. So the watcher
then ‘blew the gaff’. The only party to benefit was an unkind
Government who, while pardoning the poacher for his activities,
confiscated his gun and paid out no reward—the F.G. being sacked,
and the tiger’s skin and skull retained in the Katchery.

In more recent times, two years ago in fact, a tiger killed
four or five people at the western foot of the Bulligirirangans.
(Mysore District) and was finally shot by officials. Earlier this.
year a tiger killed three persons in the Talavadi firka, Gobichetty-
palayam Taluk,*and was finally shot in Mysore territory.

The foregoing still does not explain why there are fewer man-
eaters in South India—but I think the answer possibly lies-in a

combination of circumstances. Continued existence of man-eaters -”

in an area where both game animals and cattle exist in insuffi-
cient numbers, and where tiger are forced to remain instead
of emigrating to more fruitful parts—as in the case of Ganjam for
example. Sanderson’s description of the Honganur (Mysore Dis-
trict) man-eating tigress (in his ‘Thirteen Years among the Wild
Beasts of India’), which he finally shot, is an example of the vice
picked up by a tigress to provide easy food for her cubs in all
probability. It is a recognised fact that the villagers and jungle
‘tribes of South India ine not got the ‘guts’ of those of Central
and North India. They are less. inclined to stand their ground on
the appearance of tiger after their cattle, and in the proximity of
a tigress with cubs. This I think, has seswlkied in more herdsmen
and villagers being killed by tiger, or, tigresses (so attaining an
inherited taste for humans), in the Central and Northern parts of
India.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,
AMMBIRINN 1250), 5 R. C. MORRIS?

ViA. Mysore,
13th December 10945.

2.—MAN-EATERS IN THE DARRANG DISTRICT, ASS AM

During the past two or three years nearly 50 people have been
killed and eaten in this district. A kill would take place and when
next heard of, the tiger would be a distance of nearly 1o miles
away making it very difficult to bring the animal or (animals) as
turned out to be, to bag. |

A man was killed one evening and the next morning the vil-

lagers reported that the tiger was in their bari... On -arrival at

MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES 179

the village, just off a main road—the men pointed to a small hedge
of thatch and scrub jungle four feet wide and about the same in
height. On approaching to within six feet I saw a tiger crouching.
The tiger turned out to be an old emaciated male, 8! 10” in length,
—blind in one eye and covered in old bullet and dao -wounds. For
a time killings ceased, but after a period of three months or so a
man was reported killed. A few days afterwards villagers. from
near where the killingy took place reported they had a tiger sur-
rounded in a patch of jungle 5 or 6 acres in area. I lined the east
and west side of the jungle with strips of white cloth put a line of
drummers and beaters at the north end’ and waited in the neck
at the south end.

ia a as Rn, 3
= 2 ew oo
eas | > 2 Beaters = x
Ae x

oe White Cloth = —

Ear x
2 xN

Ss x
x
oe x%
pe AF = x
DT RPOSS oe es x

Nothing happened until the beaters were half way through,
then the tigress broke to the west, saw the white cloth, and entered
the jungle again, after a short time it broke east then turned back
into the jungle. When the beaters reached within 10 to 15 yards
of the south end the tigress broke cover and came roaring towards
me, when she was bowled over. A tigress in fair condition with
L.G. wounds in her shoulder and blind in one eye! !!

A short time afterwards I was out on an elephant near where
previous killings had taken place and came on a tigress which,
after shooting, was found to be an eight feet old emaciated tigress,
also blind in one eye.

No killings have taken place for 3 or 4 months and it looks as
if the last of the man-eaters is accounted for.

The extraordinary thing is the three tigers being blind in one
eye. }

Have any of your readers heard of a similar case.

“THE BORPUKHURIE TEA Company, LTD.,

Miyikayan P.O. & T.O., D. G. MESTON.
District DARRANG, ASSAM,

27th October 1945.

ZO wi OH A PANTHER ON A DGIGER’S KILL.

On 30-3-33 I wrote a description of a tiger pouncing on a
dead panther (which I had shot) on discovering it along-side his.
Rol pre ne -

180 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

A dead panther, killed by a tiger (but not eaten) has been
found within a few yards of the latter’s kill here recently. The
tiger had killed a cart-bull on a forest road and dragged it into
the jungle. That night a panther located the kili, and, unaware
of the tiger’s approach, obviously fell an easy victim.

Some years ago I wrote a note on the more cautious behaviour
of a panther which had designs on a tiger’s kill. It climbed the
tree on which I was sitting (together with a lady) and actually
perched itself above us. I was terribly sleepy at that time; and,
awakened by her nudge, and alarmed whisper of ‘what’s that
above us?’ I murmured ‘only a panther’ and drowsed off again—
only to be properly awakened this time with a thump and loudly
spoken ‘How awful; wake up’! The panther leapt down off the
tree; and the tiger did not turn up!

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., R. C. MORRIS.
Via. Mysore, S. INp1a,

1oth December 1945.

4.—SENSE OF SMELL. OF TIGER AND LEOPARDS.

There appears to be a lot of controversy over this. I have
killed over fifty leopards and tigers from sitting in holes in the
ground, have had tiger within a foot or so of me and only on
one occasion has a tiger shown any interest. Reieat

After sniffing loudly several times, apparently: satisfied, it pro-
ceeded to the kill, a dead buffalo.

I had over the hole (3/ square) a few bamboos and a thin thatch
covering, so had the animals’ power of scent been at all good they
would surely have detected me. :

It would be interesting to hear of other readers experiences.

THE BoRPUKHURIE TEA ComPANy, LTD.,

Muyikajan P.O. & T.O., ji D. G. MESTON.
Dist. DARRANG, 7
ASSAM,

roth October 1945.

5-—MUSK-SHREW (SUNCUS CAERULEUS) ATTACKING
BULL-FROG (RANA TIGRINA).

A few days ago, soon after sunset, as I was sitting in my
garden, my attention was attracted by the rasping croak of a big
frog in distress: This peculiar sound is usually emitted when
frogs are caught or are in the act of being swallowed by snakes
and monitor lizards. As it was then getting dark, I called for
my ear and directed the head-lights towards the hedge from whence.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 181i

the sound was coming, and calling my Arab watchman J approa-
ched slowly for investigation. No sooner had the car-lights been
focussed ,on to the hedge, a large frog (Rana tigrina) leaped out
into the open, and immediately following it a small rat appeared
and soon teeth fixed itself on the back of the frog. The rat had
now fastened its teeth in the nape of its prey and there was the frog
again emitting its pathetic cry. My Arab struck the rat with a
stick as soon as it was separated from the frog, and the rat being
killed, the frog leapt back into the hedge. On inspection I was
surprised to identify the ‘rat’ to be a Musk-Shrew (Suncus caeru-
leus). I have never even seen a common rat attacking a frog much
less a ‘Muck-rat’.

BHAVNAGAR, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI.
13th October 10945.

6.—A LARGE GAUR HEAD.
(With a photo)

A large gaur head.

We enclose a photograph of a Gaur Head (Bibos gaurus) shot
by H. H. the Raja Saheb of Korea State, Central India and feel
sure it will be of interest to your readers.

Greatest width 45”

Length from tip to tip 72”

Left horn 28”

Right horn 274”

Circumference at base of horns 174!

(Mysore S.I., VAN INGEN & VAN INGEN.
19th December 1945.

182 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

-—PERIOD OF GESTATION OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT
(ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

(With a photo).

Indian Elephant with newly born calf.

An interesting elephantine romance was brought to my notice
by Mr. A. S. M. Nair, Commissioner, Hindu Religious Endow-
ments Board, Madras. According to the very reliable reports he
had obtained, a female elephant belonging to the Sri Emuri Bha-
gavati Temple, at Kallekulangara, near Palghat, in the Malabar
District, was covered by a wild tusker, on or about the t19th
November, 1938. The tusker came probably from the outskirts
of the Olavakkot forest to the place where the cow elephant was
tethered. The tusker remained with the cow elephant for three
days, and the courtship and mating were watched by the inhabit-
ants of the locality. The report that the tusker did not eat a mor-
sel of food during the three days has not been verified by me.
Efforts made to capture it by doping seem to have failed because
of the tusker’s extreme wariness. The tame female elephant calv-
ed on Friday 6th September 1940—this date was noted by the
Manager of the temple, Mr.. KE. Chathu Achan, of Akathethara

village—and the baby tusker, now about five years -old, is said:
to be thriving. In the photograph reproduced here (which was,

very kindly lent to me by*’Mr. Nair), the baby elephant can be
seen sucking its mother’s milk.

The period of gestation in this case is about 21 month and 18
days. In the case of a male calf reported by Corse (Tr. Roy.
Soc. 1799) it was 20 months and. 18 days.

I was informed by the Manager of the temple that in August
1945, the same ‘wild tusker came again to the old spot to, meet
the female elephant, and this time it was driven away with the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 183

greatest difficulty. The people of Malabar are so elephant-minded
that reliance can be placed on their identification of the tusker as
the one they knew in 1938.

Govt. Museum,
EGMORE, MapbrRas, A. 'AIYAPPAN.
20th November 10945.

8.—BIRTH OF AN ELEPHANT CALF.

Reading in the Miscellaneous notes of the Journal of the B.N.H.
Society, on page 183 of Volume xxxvui, of the birth of an elephant
calf on the bank of the Menik Ganga in Ceylon, brought to my
‘mind an experience of my own on X’mas day 1903 in the \Anamalai
Hills, near Coimbatore. On that day, about gin the morning, the
late Mr. G. A. Marsh and I went to visit a small plantation of
bananas, on the Paralai Estate, which had been damaged by ele-
phants. Hearing a herd of elephants a considerable distance away
in the jungle making a tremendous amount of noise, much more
than usual,—trumpetting, squealing, breaking of branches ete., we
decided to investigate, and. proceeding” towards the ‘herd, which
could not be seen owing to the extremely dense jungle, we soon
found a wild fig tree, very easy to climb,°on one of the branches
of which, about 25 feet above the ground, we perched ourselves.
Shortly after this, three female elephants came up to our tree, and
one of them entered a cane brake, (EKeta) right under the branch
on which we were sitting. The other two remained outside the
clump of Eeta, apparently keeping guard, for on the approach of
other members of the herd, (it was a fair sized herd of about 30
animals we thought) they were definitely warded off. After a time
—about half an hour—the two guards went away, but we could
not descend from our tree because we knew the third elephant was
still in the cane below us. We were very mistified as we could
not even guess’ at what was happening. We waited there for a
full hour, at the end of which the third elephant emerged, went
a few steps, put its trunk to the ground and made that peculiar
drumming noise, one so frequently hears an elephant make. At
once a very small calf came out from the cane, and went with
slow steps towards its mother. It was wet and shiny, but not
very dark skinned. It was suckled for a short while, when the
mother moved on towards the direction of the herd which was by
then a quarter to half a mile away, still making much more noise
than usual.

When we considered it safe to do so, and the mother and calf
had disappeared, we descended from the tree and inspected the cane
brake. We found the placenta there—a very pale pink, and weigh-
ing, we judged, about to lbs. This placenta looked rather like pale
raw liver. There were two or three very much thickened portions,
roundish in shape, about 3 inches in diameter which we judged
might have been the attachment of the placenta to the body of the
mother. These thicker portions were between 4 to ? of an inch
thick, but the rest of the placenta was much thinner—not more
than 1/r16th to 1/8th of an inch.

184 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

By this time it was noon and we went home. We had no weapons
with us. | Unfortunately the cane brake was so thick that we
could not see the actual birth of the calf, and so are unable to
state whether it was delivered by the mother standing, or lying
down, but judging from the marks we saw, we thought the mother
must have been kneeling. So far-as we could guess, the calf when
it came out of the cane was about the size of a half grown wild
pig.

[I am afraid these notes do not add much if anything to our
knowledge of the subject, but they may be interesting to some
members.

28, LALBAGH ROAD, J. R. VINCENT.
BANGALORE,
goth October 1945.

9.—THE ASHY SWALLOW-SHRIKE (ARTAMUS FUSCUS)
IN THE NILGIRIS.

On April 26th 1944, I watched a pair of the Ashy Swallow
Shrike (Artamus fuscus) at Kotagiri in the Nilgiri Hills and at
an elevation of 6,300 ft. They were on a dead Eucalyptus tree
and may well have been breeding, since they were very pugnacious,
driving off crows and kites which came near. I put this on record
as this species does not seem to have been recorded much aboye
Es OOO! Et.

2, Assam RECT., C. R. STONOR,
Tha Gta ope Biguodl eos ar (Os Major.

November 1945.

10.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-BELLIED OR SNOW
PIGEON (COLUMBA LEUCONOTA LEUCONOTA) ‘AT A LOW
LEVEL IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA.

Early in January 1945, there was an unusually heavy snowfall
in the Kumaon and Garhwal Himalaya in the United Provinces,
snow incidentally falling in Dehra Dun at 2,000 feet and down to
as low as 1,600 feet in some of the deep valleys of the outer hills.
Later that month I was touring in the eastern part of Almora |
District, and on January 30th I was in the Sarju valley near Nali
forest rest house (about half way between Rameshwar and Bagesh-
war), where the river runs at about 2,200 feet and the road is
some hundreds of feet above the river. Here I came across a
flock of 8 snow pigeon (Columba leuconota leuconota) feeding on
a grass slope between the road and the river. Snow had by then
melted in most places below about 6,000 feet. I have often seen
and shot this species at high levels near the snow peaks between
about 10,000 and 13,000 feet, and the distinctive grey, white and
black plumage was unmistakable even at some distance. But 1
shot 4 of them and made certain by a reference to the Fauna ou
British India that my identification was correct.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 185

I have toured for many years both in summer and _ winter
throughout the U.P. Himalaya and I cannot remember ever seeing
this snow pigeon except at high levels near the main snow range,
and certainly not much below 9,ooo feet or more than 5 to 10
miles from the permanent snow level. But here was a flock at an
elevation of less than 2,500 feet and 35 miles in a direct line
from the nearest permanent ‘snow. It is probable that the excep-
tional snowfall earlier in the month had driven them to lower levels,
but I feel that this occurrence at such a low elevation and so far
from their usual habitat is worth recording. The habitat given
in the Fauna of British India is ‘between 10,000 and 12,000 feet
and less often a thousand feet higher or lower’, which agrees with
my usual experience, and the lowest occurrences mentioned are
5,000 feet in Chitral and 7,o00 feet in Kashmir.

Narni TAL, : D. DAVIS, 1.F.s.,
Wer, Conservator of Forests.
2nd November 1945.

r1.—MIGRATION OF THE MALLARD (ANAS
PLATYRYNCHA): RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRD.

A Mallard (A. platyryncha) was shot at Sakrand Lake, Nawa-
bshah, Sind, on the 14th January 1945, bearing one of the rings
of the Bird Banding Bureau, Moscow. The incident and descrip-
tion of the ring and serial number was sent to the society by Mr.
Hardit Singh, Inspector of Agriculture, Nawabshah Sind. Subse-
quent correspondence with the Director of the Russian Bureau,
elicited the information that the Mallard was ringed ‘as a moulting
bird at the Astrakhan State Reserve, near Astrakhan, delta of
the Volga River’. The date of ringing was not specified.

EDITORS.

12.—OCCURRENCE OF THE PINK-FOOTED GOOSE
(ANSER FABALIS BRACHYRHYNCHUS BAILLON) IN
INDIA: AN AUTHENTIC RECORD.

I am sending the skin of a goose shot by His Highness today
in Bikaner. It has not been possible for us to identify it. Will
you kindly therefore examine the skin very carefully and let me
have your opinion for His Highness’ information as to what species
of goose it is.

It is possible that it may be a hybrid. On the other hand it
is also possible that it may be a young Dwarf Goose. But in the
plate given in Hume and Marshall’s book opposite page 77 there
appears to be no black tip to the beak which this bird has. On the
other hand the beak in the plate is yellowish in colour, whereas in
the bird it is pinkish.

186 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The black wing and tail feathers seem to tally more with the
Dwarf Goose than any other. It also has yellow legs. On the
whole it appeared to be a bird not bigger than a Barr-headed Goose,
and if anything slightly. smaller.

Thanking you for the favour of an early reply.

LALLGARH, BIKANER, PRIVATE SECRETARY TO
RAJPUTANA, H.H. THE MAHARAJA OF BIKANER.

1st December 1945.

| On examination of the above-mentioned specimen considerable
difficulty was experienced in establishing its true identity as the
colouring of the soft parts described by re C. Stuart Baker (F.B.1.,
Vol. 6, p. 402) applies to the typical race A. f. fabalis, At the same
time under the heading of ‘Habits’, Wee writes, ‘Records of the
occurrence of this goose (Anser brachyrhynchus) in India are com-
paratively numerous but there can be little doubt that the great ©
majority of these refer to the next bird Anser neglectus or, perhaps, —
to some other Bean-Goose. In 1849, Blyth recorded the Saini! footed
Goose in the Punjab; in 1864 Hume shot two specimens believed
to have been this species in the Jumna, and Irby records one hay-
ing been killed near Lucknow in 1858. In 187g Hume again re-
corded it. General McLeod says that in 1853 he shot one near Gur-
daspur in the Punjab. The only record, however, which applies
without doubt to the Pink-footed Goose is that of the one shot by
one of my collectors in the Sarrma Valley, Assam. The smaller
bill of this specimen, 40.60 mm.,' alone is sufficient to show that
it was not one of the bigger Bean-Geese. The small bill of A. f.
brachyrhynchus certainly appears to form a good distinction bet-
ween it and the larger bill of A. neglectus, Sushkin’s Goose (culmen

55-63 mm.) which resembles it in plumage’.

However, C. B. Ticehurst, commenting in the Journal on the -
Fauna of British India: Birds (Vol. 34, p. 489) doubts Baker’s
Assam record. He opens his notes on A. brachyrhynchus with a
question. His remarks are as follows:—

‘Is there any specimen of this goose from India in existence? If
not, it should be deleted from the Fauna. The Pink-footed Goose is
a bird of rather limited and distinctly westerly distribution in
winter at which season, according to Buturlin, there is not a single
record so far east even as European Russia. What the Goose
obtained in Assam was with a bill of 40.6 mm. TI cannot say; this
is too small a bill for the Pink-footed Goose, 15 of which in my
collection measure 43-50 mm.’

Perhaps the last word on the subject is to be found in the
Handbook of British Birds, Vol. III and we can do no better than
reproduce the passages dealing with the essential details of both
the typical race, A. fabalis fabalis and A. f. brachyrhynchus, the
sub-species with which we are concerned:

’ Probably a misprint for 46 mm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 187

Anser fabalis fabalis (Lath.).

Measurements: “3 wing 447-498, mm. tail 117-145, tarsus 71-
87, bill from feathers 56-66, ..... Q@ wing 424-452, bill 51-60,
Ic. p. 196.

Distribution : “Typical race passes through Europe to winter in
Mediterranean (rarely N. Africa), Black and. Caspian Seas; also
Asia Minor, Palestine, Persia to Turkestan. Eastern races winter
in N. China and Japan. Casual in Madeira and Egypt.’

Anser fabalis brachyrhynchus :

Measurements: ‘3 417-490 mm., tarsus 69-83, bill from fea-
thers 41-54 (36 measured). @Q wing 395-454, bill 37-48. (32 mea-
sured.)’ Tail 16-18 feathers.

Colouring of soft parts: ‘Legs and feet ‘ad.) flesh-pink to bright
pink (sometimes almost purple. Caton-Haigh), (juv.) on first arri-
val (Sept.) usuaily pale pink or dull reddish-grey but many are
yellow ochre or ochreous—flesh is a changing to pink dur-

ing first winter (Coombes) ;’ lc. p. 200.

Distribution: Breeds only a N. E. Greenland, Iceland and
Spitsbergen. Winters in France (rare) Belgium, Holland, Ger-
many, and occurs (or on passage) Jan Mayen, in Faeroes, Bear
Island and Scandinavia. Accidental in Switzerland, Austria, Italy,
Cz.-Slovakia, Baltic States, Hungary, Y. Slavia, Roumania, N.W.
& S. Russia. Once U.S.A.

Very possibly the specimen referred to by Baker has not been
preserved or, if preserved, mislaid. As he gives the measurement
of the bill (40.6 mm.) he must have handled the specimen himself.
Being. a competent ornithologist, Baker must have known the spe-
cies he was handling at the time. Baker’s measurement falls well
within the range recorded in the Handbook of British Biras for
brachyrhynchus females, and even the slight difference of under
4 mm. is really negligible considering that the method of measure-

ment may vary with individuals.

The measurements of the bird sent to us from Bikaner are:

wing 395 mm., tarsus 82 mm., bill from feathers 46 mm., tail 135

(18 feathers), nail 12 mm. All the measurements suggest that this

bird is a female of the species A. f. brachyrhynchus. Eds. |

~13.—SOME COMMON BIRDS OF KATHIAWAR—ABSENT
OR RARE IN KUTCH.
Mr. Salim Ali’s ‘Birds of Kutch’ has shed a valuable flood of

light on the bird life of that area and in the side-light I cannot
“help comparing the bird-life of my province, Kathiawar.

The learned author has pointed out that the Great Rann is an

| effective barrier to the local movement of birds in Kutch. It

would be interesting to know to what extent, if any, the Little

| Rann presents such a barrier. I am’ inclined to think that there
might be a free seasonal movement of birds to and from the

_adjacent areas of North Gujarat and Kathiawar over the Little

'Rann. If that is true, I wonder why some of the common birds of
| Rathiawar are absent or rare in Kutch, while others are as common

188 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. 40

in Kathiawar as in Kutch. This appears to be strange when we
view it against the background of physiographical, climatic and
floral conditions, which are almost identical in Kutch, Kathiawar
and N. Gujarat. We are told that the resident birds of Kutch,
as also the local migrants, approximate more closely to the birds
of Gujarat and Kathiawar. There seems to be no reason, there-—
fore, to justify the absence of such common birds as the ‘Jungle
crow, the Tree-pie and the Crow- pheasant from Kutch. This ques-
tion may take us to the origin of species of birds in Kutch and
if Mr. Salim Ali will throw more light on the question I should not
be disappointed in expecting very valuable and interesting infor-
mation.

Giving’ some specific instances, I weuder what prompted the
Jungle-crow to make a ‘peaceful penetration’ into Kutch recently
where it was absent so long. The Tree-pie is not rare in afforested
areas and gardens in the three adjacent provinces. During my
flying visit to Kutch a couple of years ago I saw beautiful gardens
and ‘wadis’ near Mandvi and Bhuj, but I cannot imagine why they
have not attracted the Tree-pie.

The Jungle babbler presents a different problem, as also the
Rosy Pelican. If the former once flourished in Kutch it is difh-
cult to know the reason why it left the benevolent protection of
the bird-loving rulers of Kutch. Mr. Salim Ali observed the Peli-
can at Mithapur in N.W. Kathiawar, but not in Kutch where it
was observed by Lester in 1893. The bird is a common winter
visitor to the backwaters of the west coast of Kathiawar, and on
my way to Kutch I saw a party on the Mian: creek about half way
between. Mithapur and Porbander. .When I was stationed at Navi-
bunder, some distance south of Porbander, I observed that the
Pelican was the earliest bird to arrive there on the tidal waters of
the mouth of the Bhadar, the biggest river of Kathiawar. A party
of about 50 birds arrived there in the last week of August and dis-:
appeared next day, leaving a few to spend the cold weather there.
One of them tried to swallow a fish too big even for its bulky bill”
and pouch and the misadventure cost the greedy bird its life. I
wonder why the Pelican, on its way to Kathiawar, should rule out
the creeks of Kutch.

Mr. Salim Ali informs us that the Coucal or Crow-pheasant was
recently introduced into Kutch from Jamnagar under the name of
‘Jamnagar crow’. I have observed in Kathiawar that the Coucal
inhabits even distant and isolated gardens in barren tracts. In
fact it is so well known there that it has its local name which
appears to have been adopted in English. Another remarkable
absentee is the Magpie Robin, which Kutch is unlucky to miss
inspite of localities quite suitable to this pretty bird. Barring some
semi-desert regions in Kathiawar, every garden there claims the
patronage of this beautiful songsster.

As in Kutch so also in Kathiawar, the Paradise Flycatcher is a

rare straggling passage migrant and I have seen only one specimen
in a garden in the heart of Porbander. |

The distribution of the Bank Myna 1 is remarkable. While it is un-
common and patchy in Kutch, it is more common than the Common

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 189

Myna in Gujarat, tolerably common in E. Kathiawar and only a
winter visitor in W. Kathiawar. The Pied Crested Cuckoo, though
fairly common in Kutch, is unknown in Kathiawar except some
well shaded areas near Bhavanagar and, probably, Junagadh. On
the other hand, while the Coppersmith is a rara avis in Kutch |
cannot imagine a Ficus tree in Kathiawar not visited by this ventri-
loquist.

Besides the Pelican, I must arraign the White Stork for shun-
ning the domains of the Maharao and selecting the scanty marshes
of Kathiawar, where not many rulers have the love for birds at their
heart. While travelling from Jamnagar to Ahmedabad I saw a
flock of white storks in the month of May! Again, while taking
a morning walk to observe bird-life at Than in N. E. Kathiawar
I saw a party of white Storks busy with their morning breakfast.
This was in September.

Want of space forbids me to prolong these notes, but I cannot
close these lines without stressing the importance of the west coast
of Kathiawar in relation to the migration of birds for many ot
which it is a passage route. With thrill and delight I remember
the days of my boyhood when we enjoyed the pleasure of observ-
ing these annual migrations. Birds flew over even at night, and

while the sonorous and shrill trumpetings of cranes, resounded -in

the cool air, we craned our necks in vain to pick up a glimpse of
the birds against the canopy of the starspangled sky. It is impor-
tant to note that I have never seen their return flights in spring.
This shows that, as in Kutch so also in Kathiawar they take a
different route on their return home.

Let me hope that one day some enthusiastic ornithologist like
Mr. Salim Ali will get an opportunity to survey the avifauna of

my Province and give us surprising and interesting wealth of in-
formation.

ANDHERI, VeVi NASW.
11th January 1946. : Advocate.

14.—BIRDS OF VIZAGAPATAM DISTRICT’—SOME
NOTABLE OMISSIONS.

The contribution to the September issue of the Society’s
Journal by Mr. Humayun Abdulali on the birds of Vizagapatam
District (Vol. 45, p. 333) has filled a notable gap in the ornithologi-
eal records of India. It is indeed surprising that in spite of the
Vernay Survey there should have hitherto been such sparse records
of the bird life of this large and important district. The Vernay
Survey for instance reported that there was no record of three
very common birds, the Green Bee-eater, the Pied King-fisher and
the Blue Jay, in the Madras Presidency north of the Godavari. All
three of these birds can be seen in considerable numbers from the
windows of the Madras-Calcutta mail as it passes through the
Vizagapatam District. JI worked in the Vizagapatam District for

190° JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

two or three years, and from my observation there would say that
the Pied King-fisher and the Blue Jay are more common there than.
in any other district of the Presidency. There are two items of
information I should like to add to Mr. Abdulali’s article. The
Grey Hornbill is not uncommon in the plains of the district, and
I remember to have seen it frequently near Palkonda, in particular.
Also I saw a pair of Great Hornbills in dense jungle near Lotugedda
in the Agency tracts in September 1930. Although I read in a
back number of the Journal (xxxvil No. 4) that there was no re-
cord of these birds being found on the eastern side of the Madras
Presidency, I can positively assert that I was not mistaken. ;
' The notes of Mr. La Personne on ‘the birds of Salem district
in the. Vernay Survey are very complete. But I am sure much

valuable information could be gathered if an expert paid a winter.

visit to the district. Throughout the cold weather a blue rock-
thrush is to be seen at or about the same point on the ghat road

to Yercaud, some 3,500 feet above sea-level. It disappears about.

the end of April, and this year I saw it again on the 1st October.

On the 8th October last year a pair of Black Redstarts appeared

im my garden. They were gone the next day, and I have not: seen

the bird this year. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater puts in an appear-

ance in large numbers with the north-east monsoon. This year
the first. arrivals were noticed on. 6th October. The Green
Bee-eater is of course numerous throughout the year, but the Chest-

nut-headed Bee-eater seems to be rather commoner in summer,

than in the winter or the rains. It is perhaps worth noting that
the Brahminy Myna is extremely common in and around Salem,
whereas during a stay of a year and a half in the adjacent district
of Coimbatore I never saw a single specimen. In December last
year a wedge of a dozen or more wild geese was seen flying south-
wards over the middle of Salem town. The Vernay Survey ex-
presses some doubt regarding the occurrence of the Common River
Tern in Madras. Terns (presumably belonging to this species)
can be seen in fairly large numbers—together with cormorants and
one or two herons—on the Cauvery river at Hogainakal. There
are also terns and cormorants below the Mettur dam on this river.

Ikven in my own compound of some half a dozen acres the
variety. of birds that can be seen is quite remarkable. For ex-
ample I may mention that Ashy Swallow-shrikes perch every even-
ing, huddled close together, on the wireless aerial. The Wood-
shrike’s distinctive call can be heard almost daily. The Bay-

backed Shrike, the Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike, the large Cuckoo-

shrike, and the great Grey Shrike all visit the compound, some of
them frequently.

I should be very glad to offer hospitality to any observer whom |

the Society might depute to pay a visit to Salem.

COLLECTOR’S BUNGALOW,

SALEM, | R. C, BELL ics

6th November. 1945.

|
}
|
|

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES IQ!
TES fe —THE BIRDS OF BURMA.
[A reply to Major B. E. Smythies’ note (Vol. 45, p. 448). |

May I reply briefly to Major B. E. Smythies’ courteous criti-
cism of my monograph on the vegetation of North Burma in the
September Journal.

In the first place I did him less than justice both in my re-
mark that he had not visualised North Burma, and in my sugges-
tion that he had underrated the avifauna of that region. The
former error is perhaps pardonable as I believe Smythices’ journeys
(worthy of a pioneer explorer) were actually made after the pub-
lication of the Birds of Burma and | did not fully appreciate his
eeographical sense. My excuse for the latter must be his own
modesty in disclaiming any eredit for his book. I have since
learnt that a large. share of the credit is due to him, and from
letters I have received from him, as well as from. his published
work I have eome to realise how comprehensive his knowledge of
Burmese birds is, how accurate his observations and how authen-
tic his statements.

He says that North Burma is poor in birds, and I am bound
to accept that. At certain seasons however, as he himself is willing
to concede, there may be a flush of idee thous he appears scep-
tical of my procession. Though I am loath to withdraw my wager
that there might be 50 species and/or varieties new to Burma in
the far MOAI, I feel now that it was a rash bet. Might I how-
ever suggest “lie some of them are iikely to be found amone'st
the wrens, chats, warblers, fly-catchers, bulbuls, babblers and other
small birds. He must not however expect me to name them—-
if I did, they would not be new!

On one point however I must disagree with Smythies. I arn
indeed rather surprised that a field Pet tiealier of his calibre should
think that birds, many of which eat seeds and are responsible for
distributing plants in a variety of ways, are not the concern of the
botanist. The fact that I am ignorant about them does not alter
the fact that it is desirable to learn.

When Lord Cranbrook spent a season with me in the Adung
Valley, I collected 30% of the birds myself and made some observa-
tions, though I never got any credit for this. Now I know why.
1 am a botanist. . . It was when Cranbrook and I were camped
on the bank of the Adung at the last Tibetan village (6,000 feet)
from February to May, that we made the bulk of our collection and _
I noted the ‘vast procession of migratory birds’. The low level
Rhododendrons were in bloom, I think Cranbrook would: concur.
We added several birds to fine Burma list, though we could not
have collected a tithe of those we saw,—nor skinned a tithe of
those we might have collected.- And this in one short season, in
one small valley. Multiply our efforts by 10, by 20, and we might
conceivably begin to approach my figure. As for the ‘few passing
kicks’ which Smythies in lighter vein says that I handed out (can
one hand out a kick?) to the Birds of Burma, these were aimed
at the map only; and after all a friendly kick is not far removed

192 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

from a kiss! I have spent many happy hours on some of the
remoter rivers of Assam watching birds with the Birds of Burma
open beside me. Unfortunately it was not mine and I returned it
reluctantly to its trustful owner, having overcome a great tempta-
tion. Be

Smythies’ has written me that his book may be republished. I
sincerely hope this is true.

KHOWANG TEA ESTATE,
Moran District, F. KINGDON-WARD.
Upper ASSAM.

16 September 1945.

16.—ON THE BREEDING OF THE TIGER SHARK
(GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & HENLE).

The systematics of the Tiger Shark Galeocerdo tigrinus was in-
cluded by me in a previous paper published in this Journal (Vol.
xliv, No. 1, 1943). The paper also contained an account of its
feeding and breeding habits, based on the observations from such:
stages of pregnancy as were then available to me. Subsequently
I conducted an autopsy on a female with young in her uteri, al-
most ready for expulsion. The condition observed is described
below :—

Parturition stage :—

Parent female: total length 12’ 11”; app. wt. 1,500 lbs.;
date 4-5-43.

Each uterus had 13 foetuses, 7 males and 1g females. They
were enclosed in water-filled sacs and floated freely in them, there
being no attachment to the uterine wall. The foetuses ranged
- from 2! 3” to 2! 54” in total length. Their yoke-sacs and umblical
cords were extremely reduced in size and length and showed con-
spicuous structural degeneration. ‘There was no longer any yolk
in the yolk-sacs, and their walls were extremely shrivelled up
without any trace of blood capillaries. The reduced umblical cords
measured from 2” to 4”. The umblical vessels had atrophied and
fibrosed. The umblical sheaths showed considerable rugosity and
fibrosis near the points of attachments, suggesting that they wouid
shortly be cast off. A dissection of the foetus revealed the pre-
sence of a large internal yolk-sac containing plenty of yellow yolk.
All these features made it evident that parturition was near at
hand. The mucous membrane of each of the uterine compart-
ments (horizontally disposed) was plain and smooth but fairly
vascular.

These observations clearly verify the inferences drawn by me in
my aforesaid paper that,

1. The young of this species measure, at birth, about 2! 67
in length, and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 193.

2. That G. tigrinus is a non-placental form. The large quantity
of yolk in the sac serves as nourishment for the embryo through-
out its intra-uterine life, no placenta being at all formed.

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES,
BoMBAY, P. N. SARANGDHIAR, M.sc., PH.D.

30th October 1945.

17.—A NOTE ON THE CONSERVATION OF OUR INLAND
FISHERIES BY LEGISLATION.

An enquiry was made by Francis Day! in 1868-70 into Fresh
water Fisheries of India and Burma showed that an indiscriminate’
and wholesale slaughter of fish life took place annually. Dr. Day
pointed out that unless remedial measures were adopted this in-
discriminate destruction of spawners and spawn would result in
great diminution in the fish supply of India.

Legislation.—It was, however, in 1897 that protection to Fish-
eries in India was afforded by legislation with the enactment of
Indian Fisheries Act IV. This Act, as Comber? (1906) pointed
out was very far from being what all competent experts would
have liked to see it. It prohibited the use of poisons and dynamite
in rivers, but practically left everything else to local administra-
tions to whom power was given to frame such minor rules, under
the Act, as might seem necessary for the protection of fish in
waters under their jurisdiction—by prohibiting or regulating (a) the
erection and use of fixed engines, (b) the construction of weirs,
and (c) the dimension and kind of nets to be used, and the modes of
using them. No machinery was introduced for the proper work-
ing of the Act.

Provincial legislation.—Inquiries . recently made show that in
some provinces the Indian Fisheries Act has not been adopted at
all, in others it is in force but no subsidiary rules have been drawn
up. In Bengal, owing to Permanent Settlement, the fisheries posi-
tion is very complicated. Some protection to aclinsees in reserved
and protected forests is afforded under the Forest Act. In respect
of private waters, Private Fisheries Protection Act, II of 1899, pass-
ed by the Bengal Legislature penalises poaching in such waters. In
Bombay, fishing in the rivers is entirely free and no rules have
been framed for conservation of inland fisheries. The same applies
to almost all other provinces in India. It is only in the Punjab
that the fisheries are protected by Provincial legislation. The Pun-
jab Fisheries ‘Act II enacted in 1914. Its provisions are applicable
to all the rivers, canals and other public waters. The Act and the
Rules notified thereunder prohibit (1) all kind of fishing in rivers

* Day, F. (1871)—‘Report on the Fish and Fisheries of. Fresh Waters of
India and Burma. Simla. pp. 1-49.

* Comber, N. (1906—‘Protective Legislation for Indian Fisheries’. Journ.
Bomb. Nat. /Hist. Soc. XVII, pp. 637-644.

194 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

and canals except under a licence, (2) the use of small meshed nets
and fixed engines, (3) sale of certain important species of fish
caught in contravention of rules, and imposes (4) a close season
for fishing during the breeding period of the fish.

Legislation, undoubtedly, prevents the depletion of the rivers
by such harmful methods as small meshed nets, traps and fixed
engines and thus helps in improving the fisheries. But the Indian
Fisheries Act, IV of 1897, without any rules or without any ma-
chinery to work its provisions, is entirely inadequate to afford any
substantial protection to the fisheries.

For the conservation of our existing fisheries, it is desired, that
all Provincial Governments, where no rules or regulations for the
protection _of fisheries at present exist, may be advised to enact
protective legislation and at the same time create an agency to
work its provisions. The legislation should specially provide for
the following :—

1. Control of all kinds of fishing under a licence.

2. Prohibition of small meshed nets, fixed engines, erection
of dams and diversion of water for catching fish.

3. Imposition of a size limit below which no fish of such im-
portant species as Mahsir (Barbus tor), and others can be killed.
4. Provision of a close season during the breeding period of
fish.

5. Prohibition of the sale of certain important species of fish
caught in contravention of rules.

LAHORE, HAMID KHAN, pu.p. (Cantab), F.a.sc.,
wth July 1944. Game Warden, Punjab.

18.—ECOLOGICAL AND SPECIFIC VARIATION IN THE
CAMOUFLAGE DEVICES OF SPIDER WEBS.

I am at present collecting records of orb webs with camouflage
devices. Such spiders as the members of the Genus, Argiope,
Uloboridae and Cyclosa are common through the tropics.

Hingston in his paper Devices of Spiders’ snares (P.Z.S. 1927
Vol. xviii) gives an outline of the more common web designs,
which is useful for reference.

The preparation of webs is quite easy. A sheet of white paper
is covered with any good dilute gum, and then placed close to the
web. The supports are then broken and the web and paper dried.

I process these webs with water colour to make the webs stand
out.

The webs should be accompanied by the spider, in a small paper
packet, and with notes on—

1. Where collected.

2: Whether grassy, or shrub ground, or in house, etc.

3. Some indication as to whether the web is exposed to direct
sunlight and the amount of illumination.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 195

The webs should be sent to my home address, as my army ad-~
dress is not very permanent. My address is as follows :—

35, HicH Park Drive,
HEUTON, BRADFORD,
YORKS, ENGLAND.

Any webs which you may send will be very acceptable and
will help considerably in increasing the extent of my records.

Sol Dot Gey J. E. MARSON, F.R.E.s.
arith October 1945.

19.—NOTES ON THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER (NEPHILA
MACULATA) IN BURMA.

(With 2 plates).

Nephila maculata is very widely distributed in Burma. My
own records for 1945 give the distribution a& follows: 3-2-43
Maungdaw; 23-2-45 Ramree Island; 27-5-45 Taungup; 7-9- fe mile
35 Toungoo Mawchii Road; 14-09-45 mile 53 Toungoo Mawchu
Road; 1-10-45 Mawchii.

The structure and method of spinning the web is very well des-
cribed in Hingston’s paper ‘The Snare of the Giant Wood Spider’.*
I would however like to add the following notes on the web.

It is very common to find that the female Nephila uses a maze
of irregular webbing at one or both sides of the large orb web.
Hingston comments on this point as follows?: ‘There is another
structure in the architecture of the Nephila which I have not obser-
ved in ordinary snares. Not only does she spread an extensive
-sheet; but she also constructs a special barrier in order to drive
her victim more surely into the toils. She places it so as to face
one surface of the sheét, it is at a slightly higher level than the
main snare and a little distance away. There is nothing precise
or geometrical in its workmanship, it is merely a tangled maze
of lines.’

This addition of an irregular maze of webbing at one or both
sides of an orb web is not uncommon amongst orb-web spinners,
especially in the case of immature females, and with webs in shaded
places. This is quite common with species of Gasterocantha, es-
pecially with G. brevispina. In these cases it is usual for the
maze webbing to be dotted with patches of white webbing about a
quarter of an inch long.

The structure of which Shinsaion says® ‘she places it.so as to
face one surface of the sheet, it is at a slightly higher level than

* Hingston.—The Snare of Giant Wood Spider ; Journal of the Bombay
‘Nat. Hist. Society: Part I Volume xxxviii pages 642-649; Parts II & III
Vol. XXVili pages g11-923; Part IV Volume xxix pages 70-75.

_* As above.—Part III page 918, lines 18-31.

* As above.—Part III page 918, lines 21-22.

: 196 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

‘the main snare and a little distance from it,’ is typical of the web
of an adult female in-a position where there is a fair amount of both
room and light, e.g. between trees in fairly open woodlands. [|
found N. maculata amongst the well laid-out rubber plantations
in Ceylon. This was the first time that I had met the species, and
I cannot remember ever seeing any additional irregular webbing in
these perfect conditions for spinning the large orb web. It is
therefore probable that this irregular webbing is only added by an
adult female when there are shrubs surrounding the web. The
upper edge of this sheet of irregular webbing is attached to the up-
per supports of the orb web, the lower edge being attached slightly
in front of the lower supports, giving a sheet of irregular web-
bing at an angle to the orb web.

It is very common to find wide variations from this form even
in webs of adult females. When webs are spun in semi enclosed
conditions, the addition of irregular webbing at both sides of the
orb web is common, giving a much more impressive structure than
that of the simple orb web. From a side view the web has the
appearance of a spindle. In these cases the sheets of irregular
webbing are supported at their centres giving a dome of irregular
webbing, as illustrated by the heavy dotted line in Fig. 1, plate 1.

The following figures from a web of this type, spun in a rather
limited space, will indicate the size of this additional webbing.

H110cms. A, 25cms. A, 45 cms. B, 20cms. B, 40 cms.

The actual form this webbing is very irregular as can ‘be seen
in Plate II where the irregular webbing has been superimposed
upon the orb web as seen from a front view. These illustrations
were drawn from webs prepared after the whole web had been com-
pleted for three days.

The completest form of this irregular webbing is however best
seen in the young stages of the female. J have never found the
younger stages without an irregular web at both sides of the orb
web. Often these are large as compared with the height of the
orb web supports, the complete width of the spindle being equal
to the height of these supports.

nea

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

FIG!
nen
NEPHILA
MACULATA
FIG3
WEB TYPES,

FEM 2th S.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

gourn.

PLATED

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 197

With older stages, it is usual to find an irregular cone web at
the most shaded side, and the orb web and a sloping sheet of
angular webbing at the other side. In this cone the width of the
additional webbing is about half the height of the orb web, Fig.
2, Plate I. Webs of almost mature females usually have the irre-
gular webbing at one side, the shaded side of the orb web, Fig. 3,
Plate I.

I have only recently started recording measurements of these
webs but the first set of measurements indicate that the extent of
this additional irregular webbing is determined by the maturity
of the female and the intensity of illumination.

It is common to find immature male spiders in the webs of
immature females, but in this case they are always found resting
in the irregular webbing. They only move to the side of the
_female’s orb web when they both reach maturity.

It is quite common to find that insects have become entangled
in the irregular webbing and have not been touched by the fe-
male; so it is probable that the use of this maze of webbing is
to prevent the spider being plucked from its web by animals which
prey on the younger stages. Only insects caught in the central
orb are used as food.

In webs .of immature females, a vertical line of heavy white
webbing about three-eighth of an inch wide and half the height
of the orb web is often introduced. This has a camouflage effect
similar to the confusion effect of the concrete zigzag of Argiope’.
At times this line of heavy webbing is also present in the adult
female’s web, Plate II. The webbing of the immature female is
white but that of adult is yellow. There is no form in the arrange-
ment of this additional webbing and it may be composed of the
remains of parts of the web, which the female has broken down
and failed to digest?. With this additional webbing being yellow
in colour, the abdomen of the female merges with it, the large
spider’s outline being very confused.

Mawcnuu, Burna, Jj. E. MARSON,
30th November 1945. : F.R.E.S.

20.—THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS—
A SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE.

I should like to make one or two comments on Mr. Wynter-
Blyth’s excellent article, ‘The Butterflies of the Nilgiris, Part I’,
published in Vol. xliv, No. 4 of the Journal.

* As above.—Part III pages 918-919, lines 50-51, 1-50.
* Hingston.—Devices in Spider’s Snares; P.Z.S. 1921, Vol. xviii, pages
283-285,
13A

198 »JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

1. Pathysa antiphates navra, M.. In Vol, xxxvili, (No.4)
Brigadier T. E. Delves Broughton reported that he had in his
collection two specimens, taken on the Nadghani Ghat Road on
23-4-1921. The butterfly can definitely be included in the Nilgiri list.

2. Prioneris sita, Fd. The British Museum has this butterfly
from the Nilgiris, from Crowley’s collection (Vide my list in the
Journal, Vol. xxxviii, ‘No. 2). ;

3. Discophora lepida lepida, M. This is listed by Hampson :
‘one female seen on the Western Slopes in October 1888 at 300 feet’.

4. Euthalia nais, Forester., Euthalia lepida .miyana, Fruh.,

Euthaha garuda meridionalis, Fruh., Euthalia lubentina arasada,
Fruh., Euthalia evelina laudabilis, Swin:—All five, not merely nais,
are recorded by Hampson as Nos. 71-75 in his list of 1888. Of nais '
he says, ‘In bamboo jungles’. Of the other four he says, ‘Rare’,
and of evelina, ‘Rare and difficult to catch’. He records the heights
between which he took them.
_ By aslip of the pen Mr. Wynter-Blyth says, ‘evelina and garuda
seem to be common round Bangalore.’ I never heard of evelina
being caught or seen round Bangalore; perhaps my information
is incomplete. It certainly is not common in that neighbourhood,
if at all it exists. ‘Evelina’ is, I think, wholly an evergreen forest
butterfly. The two species common round Bangalore are nais and
garuda; the latter is very common among the mango trees.

5. Doleschallia bisaltide malabarica, Fruh., has been taken in
the Nilgiris. The record of one taken by Stokes Roberts was given
me by the British Museum; whereabouts, !I do not know. (Vide
my list in Vol. xxxvili, No. 2 of the Journal.)

CRANHAM,

BERKHAMSTED, J. A. YAS:
16th December 1944.

21.—NOTE ON THE BUTTERFLY, MELANITIS
PHEDIMA VARAHA.

Mr. Wynter-Blyth’s note on this insect, in Vol. xliv, No. 4 of
the Journal has induced me to offer a few observations.

(1) This butterfly is common in Coorg. It appears to favour
the evergreen area or the mixed evergreen and deciduous areas.
And, as evergreen and mixed forest or woodland, cover the greater
part of the province, it is almost ubiquitous. Specimens in my col-
lection—a selection of catches—range in altitude from the foot of
the Ghats upwards, and in extent from Urti in the south to Som-

warpet in the north, t.e. from 300 feet above sea level to 3,700
feet.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ~ 199

(2) The dry season forms appear, it would seem, early in
November and persist until early May. ‘As to the wet: season
forms, I find that I took them September-October. I was never
in Coorg during the heavy monsoon months, June to August; |
think it very probable that the wet season forms last from June
to October. My collection covers the months September to May.

(3) D.S.F. are generally quite a bit larger than W.S.F.

(4) W.S.F. g S Above dark. f.w. not produced, and termen
not angled, or only vestigially angled. Black spots not visible;
and no white spots on f.w. or h.w.

Underside, as described by Evans. ‘Ocelli small, but more
or less complete and usually well formed. (This applies also to
OQ TOE But there is great variation. In some specimens the
ocelli are very small; white centre hardly. visible. Or, the h.w.
ocelli are clear but f.w. Ocelli faint. The discal line, however, is
generally clear.

W.S.F. 9-9. Lighter in colour, brown not blackish. f.w.
slightly produced and angled. ‘Tail’ at v. 3 h.w. slightly longer
than that. of ¢ W.S.F. White spots variable, 2, 1 or o.

(5) D.S.F. 3.¢. Above dark brown, ashy on margin. Some-
times on f.w. angle and h.w. ‘tail’ slightly ferruginous. Dark
spots on f.w. visible, but not prominent... White spots f.w. gene-
rally present, 1 or-2, but occasionally 0. Sometimes minute white
spot on h.w. near v. 2 towards margin. :

D.S.F. 9 9. Above f.w. more produced and angled than
W.S:F. Spots on f.w. variable as in W.S.F. h.w. ‘tail’ v. 3 longer
than in W.S.F.

Underside.

D.S.F. $d. Very variable, commonly purplish brown.: Dis-
cal line, prominent or vague. Ocelli as a rule faint or vestigial
or mere dark spots. Occasionally, though not clearly ringed, a
full range of light spots.

D.S.F. Q @. Generally ferruginous, sometimes of a rich
umber tint. Discal line obvious, but perhaps not so defined as in
W.S.F. Ocelli very variable; seldom ringed. Thus they may be
just black dots, or vague yellowish spots not defined by a line.

GRANHAM, | plo Blo WOMB
BERKHAMSTED,

16th December 1944.

22._ STALKED COCOONS.

With reference to Mr. Loke’s note (1945, Journ. Bomb. Nat.
Hist. Soc., 45: 440) on the cocoon of the Tussar Silk Moth, the
pedunculate cocoon of Antheraea paphia L. is) quite normal. In

200 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

addition to this species, a number of Saturniids spin pedunculate
cocoons. :

Whilst I have never found any of these cocoons in situ, both
from literature, and from the cocoons of paphia and Leopa newara
Moore that have been given me by friends, I have always understood
that they were normally suspended by the stalk alone and had
no other support. |

Moore (Lep. Ceyl., ii) under his diagnosis of the family Satur-
niidae, writes ‘Cocoon . . . . attached to a twig by a silken
peduncle, or to pendent leaves by silken threads.’ Under Antheraea
cingalesa Moore, now often considered a sub-species of Mvylitta «
Drury, he states ‘Cocoon . . . attached to twig by a short coarse
silken peduncle’, and the figure shews the cocoon standing out
almost at right angles to its support. Under Attacus taprobanis
Moore, now considered a subspecies of atlas L., we find ‘Cocoon. .
attached to a twig by a silken peduncle amongst the leaves’, but
the figure does-not shew the cocoon in situ. )

Hampson (fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i) under Antheraea paphia
L., A. knyvetti Hamps. and Loepa newara Moore states ‘Cocoon
pedunculate’ without giving further details. 3

Seitz (Macro-Lepidoptera of the World, x) writes under Samia,
‘the cocoon often enveloped in leaves, . .:. it is often suspended
by a long strong silk cord’, and under Antheraeu, “‘Cocoons ot
paphia and mylitta shaped like a nut suspended on a long silk
thireadteaert es

No cocoon of either paphia or newara that I have seen has shewn

any sign of attachment to a leaf, and ‘none has had the vein marks
that are so clearly shewn on the cocoon of Samia cynthia Drury,
when it is spun in a leaf. _The attachment of Mr. Loke’s cocoon
to a leaf was, I think, rather exceptional. :
_ The explanation given for the stalked condition of these cocoons
is not merely that of attachment. It is usually considered to be
a protection from the attacks of birds, the cocoon merely swinging
away on its stalk when pecked at, instead of being torn open as
the normally fixed cocoon would be.

Samia cynthia Drury normally spins a non-peduncultae cocoon
among leaves or along a twig, but sometimes the cocoon is spun
inside a single leaf, and the stalk of the leaf is spun over with a
layer of silk and fixed firmly to the twig thereby, which prevents the
leaf falling. This is, I believe, considered a racial characteristic.

The stalk of the cocoon of A. paphia is, of course, pure silk,
the individual threads being spun side by side and fusing to form
a solid cord.

CALCUTTA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.s.
toth November 1945.)

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES. 201

23._INSTANCE OF FASCIATION IN PALMYRA
(BORASSUS FLABELLIFER)

(With a photo)

A Fasciated Palmyra Palm.

et ain enclosing a photograph of a fasciated Palmyra growing
on the side of the Pudukkottai-Ponnamaravaty Road (Road No. 18)
in the Pudukkottai State, at mile 9/2 near the Sittur village.

202 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HAIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The Palmyra has 12 branches and the main stem is about 12
feet high—cf. the painted 6 foot pole in the photograph placed
near the tree. Since the tree has not been observed in flower, I
am not able to say whether it is male or female. ,

The local people have erected a platform round it and worship
the tree as the abode of a popular local deity ‘Porpanaiyan’ who
is associated in local legend with the ‘golden palmyra’.

This note and the photograph if published will I hope interest
your readers.

STATE MUSEUM, | - K. R. SRINIVASAN, .a.,
PUDUKKOTTAI (S. INDIA). Curator.

14th November 1945.

24.—AN ABNORMAL FLOWER OF GLORIOSA
SUPERBA LINN.

Towards the end of the rainy season Mr. Prater, the Curator of
the Society, sent me an abnormal flower of Gloriosa superba Linn,

which had been collected by Mrs. Waber, a member of the Society.

Scar

RRO

Gloriosa superba. Linn.

The abnormality of the flower is at once apparent in the
accompanying photograph and diagrams. There were in all six
flowers on the one branch sent to me; five of these flowers were
normal, one was very abnormal.

MISCELLANEOUS .NOTES 203

The perianth of this abnormal flower consisted of 13 segments,
each of them regular in colour and structure; stamens were also
13, and the anthers and filaments were entirely normal. The

ovary was a very striking structure, obviously the result of the

fusion of 2 or 3 ovaries.» For the sake of comparison I append
a diagram of a normal ovary side by side with the ovary of the

abnormal flower. In the latter there were externally 9 lobes; on

dissecting the ovary, however, it was found that there were only
seven lobes, two of them being much more developed than the
rest; the placentation of the abnormal flower was of the usual
parietal type, with a double row of ovules along each of the
sutures. At the apex of the ovary there were two styles, each
with three stigmas or stigmatic lobes.

Gloriosa superba. Linn. A-B: 1T.S. of abnormal (A) and normal (B) ovary
(x 6). C-D: T.S. of abnormal (C) and normal (D) flower stalls (x 8).

Dissection of the stalks of the normal and abnormal flowers
showed a great difference between the two types of flowers. The

normal flower stalk is roughly quadrangular in transverse section;

that of the abnormal flower was rectangular and about as thick
as the normal stalk, but 24 times as broad. The number of
vascular bundles in the regular stalk are 6+6, arranged in two
concentric circles; in the irregular stalk there were 23 bundles
arranged in a very irregular fashion.

204 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The numbers of the various parts of the flower at once suggest
that the abnormality was the result of the fusion of 2 or more
probably 3 flowers. The fact that the segments of the flower were
not multiples of 6, seems to indicate that there were three flowers
fused in such a fashion that some of, the segments had been
suppressed or lost in the fusing process.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, BOMBayY. H:. SANDAPAUS sar
5th December 1945.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,
VEPERY, MADRAS (P. f. C. NO. Q.H. MS. 5)—20-6-1946—1,250 COPIES. C964
EDITORS : S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN AND SALIM ALI, 6, APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

Vol. 46, No. 2. AUGUST, 1946, Price Rs. 12 nett.

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SomME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXIII. By
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(With 1 coloured and 4 black and white plates and 7 text-figures)

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN
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Tar EARLY STAGES oF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XV. By Di: G.
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SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM. Part V. By
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THE RIDDLE OF THE BEARDED Pic. A Problem of Distribution.
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AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE TO LAKE MANASAROWAR AND
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Birps NOTED IN THE MAHASU:-NARKANDA-BAGHI AREA OF THE SIMLA
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BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FRESH-wWATER AND
BRACKISH-WATER FISHES. PartI. By S. Jones, M.sc.

NOTES ON THE INDIAN MAHSEERS. By K. de B. Codrington 606

A NOTE ON SOME SNAKES OF BENARES (U.P.). By M. N. Acharji,
M.SC. 200 000 900 900 cer

THE HEMIPENIS IN REpriLes. By Charles McCann, F.L.s. (With 10
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New PLANT RECORDS FOR THE PRESIDENCY OF BomBaAy (Il). By
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ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE BOTANY oF NortH BURMA. By F.,
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PAGE

205

216

253

269

281

286

308

317

336

344

348

374

377

381

li CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46, No. 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. A Tiger climbing a Tree. By Ch. dela Longerede (p. 391). 2. A
Tiger ‘runs amok’. By S. A. Christopher (p. 391). 3. A Panther with 20
claws. By Virbhadrasinh, H.H. Maharana of Lunawada (p. 392). 4. Tiger
kills Lioness. By Charles Theobald (p. 392). 5. A Queer Animal Habit.
By Capt. K. Boswell, 1.4.M.c. (p. 993). 6. ‘Drag Marks’ made by the Kyang
(Equus hemionus). By 8. Ali (p. 396). 7. An Albino Elephant from the
Travancore Forests. By E.S. Simon (p. 396). 8. Natural death of Elephants.
By Editors (p. 397). 9. A Large Wild Boar (Sus cristatus). By D. P.
Garga (p. 398). 10. ‘Shamming death’. By A. A. Dunbar Brander (p. 399).
11. Distribution of Red-Crested Pochard in Southern India. By H. G.
Lumsden (p. 400). 12. ‘Birds on the Hindustan-Tibet Road, N.-W. Himalaya’—
A Correction. By H W. Waite (p. 401). 13. The Paradise Flycatcher at
Sea. By R. Sassoon (p. 401). 14. Spring Passage of Phalaropes in Iraq. By
Major P.I.R. Maclaren (p.401). 15. The White-winged Wood-Duck Asacornis
scutulatus (Miller). By ‘T.C. Hutchinson (p. 402). 16. Do Snakes Drink Milk? By
V. M. Vasu (p. 404). 17. Aestivation of the Frog Ramanella montana (Jerdon),.
By C. McCann (p. 404). 18. The Distribution of Rana leithii Boulenger.
By C. McCann (p. 405). 19. Strong Odour emitted by the Fungoid Frog
(Rana malabarica). By C. McCann (p. 406). 20. A Record Mahseer. By
J. deWet Van Ingen (p. 406). 2l. On the Bionomics of the Indian Sprat
[Sardinella gibbosa (C. & V.).] By P. I. Chacko (p. 407). 22. Movement of
a group of insects in India. By Earl M. Zigler (p. 408). 23. A ‘ Hermit”
Spider. By Moses. Ezekiel (p. 409). 24. Abnormal Flowering of Careya
arborea Roxb. in Khandala. By Fr. H. Santapau (p. 409).

NATURE CALENDAR FOR 1947

The Bombay Natural History Society has issued a Nature Calendar |}
for 1947. It is illustrated with beautiful Nature photographs of Birds,
Mammals, etc., by Col. R. S. P. Bates, Dr. B. F. Ferreira, Mr. Salim Ali,
Mr. O. C. Edwards and others.

The demand for these calendars has prompted us to publish them
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Christmas and New Year Greetings.

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(Postage and Packing Extra)
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Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXV,

THE YELLOW JASMINE |
JASMINUM HUMILE Linn.

x |

NOTICE TO MEMBERS

The delay in the issue of this Journal is regretted and
is due to the difficulties experienced by our printers in
producing this publication in time ‘under ae day _

conditions.
EDITORS

< =x for —— . =i o a
‘ 1 es a = fra -
~ ¥ ~ 2 — = a a ~
~ } "s - i E a ¥ “a
ve Fee 3
’ - is oe Z

Pal

JOURNAL
OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

19406. VoL. 46. No. 2.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
BY
Nena BORMNGIGE:)aM-As,, DSCs, H.L.S. | 1sFsSs;
Forest Botanist,
AND
M. B. RAIZADA, M.SC.,
Assistant Forest Botanist,
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.
Part XXIII.
(Continued from Vol. 46, No. 1, 1946, p. 12.)
(With 1 coloured and 4 black and white plates and 7 text-figures.)
Oleaceae.
The Olive Family.

This family takes its name from one of its genera, Olea. Olea
is itself derived from the Greek word, elaia, a name for the Olive.
Olive oil was called elation in Greek.

Oleaceae is a large family of 22 genera and about 4oo species,
distributed throughout the temperate and warmer regions of the
earth. Included in the family are deciduous and evergreen trees
and shrubs with opposite leaves. The leaves are simple or com-
pound exstipulate. Inflorescence various, axillary or terminal;

flowers hermaphrodite, rarely unisexual, regular. Calyx nearly |

always present, small, 4 or occasionally more-lobed, usually bell-
shaped. Corolla gamopetalous, sometimes of four petals, often
4-lobed. Stamens 2; anthers apiculate, often back to back,
opening lengthwise; filaments short. Ovary superior, 2-celled;
Oyules usually 2 in each cell, Fruit a capsule, berry or drupe,

a” OT my

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The flowers of the species of Oleaceae are often sweetly scented
and numbers of them secrete a nectar at the base of the corolla,
characteristics which indicate fertilisation through the agency of
insects. An interesting fact about some species, e.g. Nyctanthes
arbor-tristis (the well-known Harsingar) and various species of
Jasminum, etc. is that their flowers are fragrant after sunset.
In these cases nocturnal Lepidoptera act as the unconscious agents
of cross-fertilisation. In certain cases, however, for example in
the ash, Fraxinus, where there is no corolla, the blossoms are
pollinated by the wind.

The fruits of the ash are winged but a good many species
depend upon an edible fruit for the distribution of their seeds.

One species, the olive tree, is of importance economically. In
all countries surrounding the Mediterranean the tree, Olea europaea
Linn. is cultivated for its fruit. The well-known olive oil may be
pressed out of the fruits, which are also used for pickling. Its
original home is in Asia Minor but it has been introduced with
great success into California. Efforts have been made in the past
to introduce this tree into India but with little success so far,
though reports from Kashmir are encouraging. In India the tree
does not bloom in which case there is no fruit, or if it does bloom,
the fruits drop off before they are ripe. It may, however, be
possible to achieve success by grafting the European olive on
to one of the indigenous olives.

The largest genus in the family is Jasminum, of which a large
number of species occur in India. The genus is well represented
in our gardens and is valued for its pretty sweet-scented
flowers and glossy foliage. Syringa and Ligustrum are sometimes
grown in the hills. Syringa vulgaris Linn. is the well-known
common Lilac of England.

KEy TO THE GENERA.

Leaves simple or compound; if simple articulated on the
petiole. 1. Jasminum.
* Leaves simple, continuous with the petiole. 2. Osmanthus.

Jasminum Linn.

The Jessamin, Jasmin or Jasmine.

(This generic name is said to be derived from ysmym, an Arabic
word. There is, however, no certainty about this and others de-
rive it from two Greek words, i.e. flower, and osme, scent).

An important genus of shrubby or climbing plants, comprising
about 200 species. Many of these are cultivated in the open in
the warmer, and under glass in the colder regions of the world,
not only for their pretty flowers and handsome foliage but also
for the delicate perfume of the blooms. Leaves simple, 3-foliate
or odd-pinnate; petioles articulated. Inflorescence usually, rarely
axillary, cymose; flowers bracteate, hermaphrodite yellow, red or
white in colour. Calyx usually bell-shape, sometimes cylindrical
with 4-9 lobes, Corolla-tube slender, 4-10 lobed; lobes spreading,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 207

Stamens 2, included within the tube on short filaments. Anthers
oblong; connective shortly produced. Ovary 2-celled; ovules 2 in
each cell, basal, erect; style slender; stigma linear. Fruit a berry.

The well known perfume, Jasmine, is extracted from the flowers
by the process known as ‘enfleurage’, first developed in France.
The flowers are lightly spread over a layer of solid fat. Every 24
hours or so the old flowers are replaced by fresh ones so that the
fat eventually becomes saturated with the sweet smelling substances.
These are subsequently extracted with the aid of alcohol, acetone
and other solvents. Another method in use in France to extract
the perfume is to spread the flowers on blankets which have been
soaked in olive oil, from which it is recovered in the usual way.
The principal ingredient of the perfume is a pale vellow oil with
small quantities of benzoyl acetate, benzul alcohol, indole and certain
esters. The trade in jasmine oil is very large. In France alone,
about 600 tons of flowers are used for this purnose and to this
must be added further large quantities nroduced in Tunis. Algeria
and in other countries of the world. Some of the species, used
as medicine. bear a high reputation for the treatment of various
diseases. The medicinal uses of the various plants will be outlined
under the species about to be described.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Leaves opposite.

Leaves 1-foliate.

Calvx-lobes short, plant hairy. JT. sambace.
Calyx-lobes very long; plant very hairy. J. pubescens,

Leaves 3- or more-foliate.
Flowers white.

Terminal leaflets much larger than the others, distal
pair not with broad connate bases; leaflets 3-7,

lateral acute. J. officinale.
Terminal leaflets not or scarcely larger than the

others; distal pair with broad connate bases; leaf-

lets 7-11, lateral usually very obtuse. 1. grandiflorum,
Flowers yellow. J. primulinum,
Leaves alternate; flowers yellow. J. humile.

Jasminum sambac Ait.

The Arabian Jasmine.

(Sambac is the Arabic name for the shrub, zambak in Persian).

Description.—A_ scandent or suberect shrub with pubescent
branches. Leaves opposite, exstipulate, petiolate, ovate in shape,
*1.5-3.5 in. long by .8-2.5 in. wide, thin, glabrous, obtuse, acute
Or acuminate at the apex, rounded at the base; lateral nerves 4-6
pairs, prominent beneath and looping within the margin; petioles
.2 in. long, pubescent.

Inflorescence in few-flowered terminal cymes or occasionally, of
solitary flowers. Flowers white, fragrant, pedicellate or not. Bracts
linear-subulate, hairy. Calyx-tube campanulate, tubular, .5 in. long,

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

5-9 toothed; teeth linear-subulate, longer than the tube. Corolla-
tube cylindrical, 1 in. long, 5-9 lobed; lobes acute or obtuse,
as long as the tube. Stamens 2, included; filaments ‘short. Ovary
2-celled. Fruit of 1-2 globose berries, each .5 in. in diameter,
black, surrounded by the erect, persistent calyx teeth.

Fig. 1.—Jasminum sambac Ait. x.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Does not set fruit in this
country.

Distribution.—Believed to be indigenous to South India, much
cultivated in the tropics.

Gardening.—A straggling shrub much prized for its exquisitely
fragrant flowers. The white, sweet scented flowers are considered
sacred to Vishnu and are largely used by the Hindus for making
into garlands. In the tropics the plant is almost invariably attacked
by scale insects, usually resulting in a black fungus growth on the
leaves. The shrub is consequently best alloted a place in the back
ground in an unfrequented spot. The plant prefers a dry location
and water must be applied to the roots and not on the leaves and
blossoms. When, however, water touches the flowers they usually
become blasted, turn black and fall. It flowers best and most pro-
fusely when grown in direct sun. Stripping off the leaves is a
method commonly used to induce more blossoms. Propagation is
by cuttings. It is commonly known by the name of Bela, Mottya.
or Mogra and has been under cultivation since very early times.

Economic and medicinal uses.—This plant has been cultivated
since very early times. Double-flowered races are common. The
flowers are used to give an aroma to Chinese teas. The perfume
is extracted in India by the method known as enfleurage, but instead
of fat or oil, crushed seasamum seeds are used. The leaves are

Risa ial
“
re att

|
|

Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 1

‘g
ee
dt, AN eS

Fae SARE Pasa Bhs

Photo by N. L, Bor
Jasminum pubescens, Willd.
New Forest, Dehra Dun

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 209

used in India as a lactifuge, and are said to be at least as effica-
cious as belladonna. <A decoction of the leaves and root is used
for sore eyes.

Jasminum pubescens Willd.

(Pubescens means hairy in Latin).

Description.—A scandent shrub; young parts velvety—tomen-
tose, often rusty. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, petioled, ex-
stipulate, ovate in shape, 1-3 in. long up to 1.5 in. wide, acute or
acuminate at the tip, rounded
or cordate at the base, upper
surface pubescent becoming
glabrous, under surface to-
mentose or pubescent, espe-
cially on the nerves; petiole
stout, .2-.4 in. long, densely
tomentose.

Inflorescence of dense capi-
tate cymes, terminal at the
tips of dwarf lateral branches.
Flowers white, fragrant, .7-1.5
in. across, sessile or nearly so.
Calyx-tube .5-.6 in. long, den-
sely rusty tomentose, 6-9 tooth-
ed; teeth subulate, twice as
long as the tube or more.
Corolla-tube .7-.8 in. long,
slender, 6-9-lobed; lobes ob-
long-lanceolate, acute, shorter
than the tube; stamens 2,
included. Ovary 2-celled;
ovules 2 in each cell. Style
slender. Fruit ellipsoid, about
5 in. long, black when ripe,
surrounded by the long hairy
calyx-teeth.

Flowers.—December-April
and also during the rains.
Fruits May-July.

Distribution.—Throughout
the greater part of India as-
cending to 4,ooo0 ft. in the
Himalayas, also in Burma and
China.

Gardening.—A scandent shrub with all parts covered with pube-
scence. The star-like slightly scented flowers appear practically
throughout the year and make this plant one of the most successful
of landscape materials, either climbing on a trellis or as a ground
cover and low shrub. It is not particular as to soil and sun re-
quirements.

Fig. 2.—Jasminum pubescens Willd. x3.

2i6 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Medicinal uses.—A decoction of the root has some repute as
an antidote to cobra venom, and that of the leaves is said to be
of use in stimulating static ulcers. |

J asminum jprimulinum Hemsley.

(Primulinum means primrose-like in Latin).

Description.—An evergreen twiggy shrub with 4-angled, glab-
rous, stiff branches. Leaves opposite, 3-foliate, exstipulate, peti-

Fig. 3.—Jasminum primulinum Hemsley. x4.

olate, up to 4 in. long. Leaflets almost sessile or with a petio-
lule up to .1 in. long, glabrous, narrowly elliptic or oblong-lanceo-
late, entire, 1-2 in. long, rather thick in texture, apiculate, wedge
shaped at the base, dark green and shining above, paler beneath.

Flowers solitary on axillary peduncles, primrose yellow in colour,
orange in the throat; bracts and bracteoles foliaceous often scale-
like. Calyx bowl-shaped, .1 in. long, 6-lobed; lobes lanceolate,
sparsely pubescent, .2 in. long. Corolla-tube stout, increasing slightly
in diameter towards the top, usually 6-lobed; lobes obovate; round-
ed about 7 in. long.

OURN., BOMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc.

Merchen Pro tar

Photo by M. N. BaKsHI
Jasminum primulinum, Hemsley
New Forest, Dehra Dun

Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Scc. PLATE 11

i Sok we ‘ EN a
Ce TE SINUS

Photo by M, B. Rarzapa

The Yellow Jasmine
Jasminum humile, Linn.
New Forest, Dehra Dun

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 2ti

Stamens 2, included. Ovary glabrous, 2-celled; ovules 2 in
each cell. Style slender, exserted in single flowers, glabrous; stig-
ma capitate, deeply and acutely 2-lobed.

Flowers.—March-May. Does not set seed in this country.

Distribution.—Native of Yunan and China apparently as an
escape from cultivation, now extensively cultivated throughout the
tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world.

Gardening.—A rambling, evergreen, shrub of recent introduc-
tion. The scentless blossoms of a rich golden yellow characterize
this plant. It will thrive in poor soil and under adverse conditions.
It has a nice foliage and being semi-trailing it makes a successful
ground cover. The plant spreads by layering itself. Propagation
is by cuttings or root suckers. It was one of the first plants intro-
duced from China by Mr. E. H. Wilson, for Messrs. Veitch of
England. The double-flowered form is the one usually common in
cultivation.

Jasminum humile Linn.

Yellow Jasmine.
(Humilis is a Latin
adjective meaning low
as opposed to high. It
hardly is appropriate
when applied to this
species).
Description.—A _ dif-
fuse shrub reaching
6 ft. at Dehra, ever-
green, glabrous. Bran-
ches green, angular.
Leaves alternate, exsti-
pulate, petioled, impari-
pinnate, very variable
In size, 2-3 in. long, of-
ten 6 in. long in cultiva-
ted examples; petiole
and rhachis channelled
above. Leaflets 3-5,
very variable in size,
rather thick, dark green,
paler below, elliptic,
ovate or lanceolate in
shape, sessile or sub-
sessile, acute or obtuse,
wedge-shaped at the
base, the terminal up
to 4 in. long in culti-
vated shrubs, the late-
ral smaller.
Inflorescence of terminal corymbose panicles. Flowers bright
yellow, seated on pedicels, .2-.6 in, long, furnished with linear

Fig. 4.—Jasminum humile Linn. 4%.

312. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

bracts. Calyx-tube .1-.15 in. long, 5-lobed; lobes .o05 in. long.
Corolla-tube .5-1 in. long, 5-lobed; lobes broadly ovate-obtuse or
round, usually reflexed when the flower is fully open. Stamens 2,
included. Ovary 2-celled, 4-ovuled. Fruit of 1-2 ripe carpels, ellip-
soid, .3-.4 in. long, black when ripe, full of crimson juice.
Flowers.—April-June. Fruit September-December.
Distribution.—Native of North-West Himalayas up to 9,000 ft.
also on the Salt Range, Mount Abu and Nilgiris, widely cultivated
throughout the country. |
Gardening.—An erect, rigid shrub with bright yellow flowers.
It is advisable to prune it hard after flowering so as to keep the
bush within bounds. Easily propagated by cuttings or seed. It is
locally known as “‘shanjoi’’.
Medicinal uses.—This plant is not of much repute medicinally
but the root is said to be useful in curing ringworm.

Jasminum officinale Linn.
The White Jasmine.

(Officinalis means medicinal, officially recognised as a drug).

Description.—A twiny shrub with striate branches, sparsely hairy
when young. Leaves opposite, exstipulate, imparipinnate, 2-4 in.

Fig. §.—Jasminum officinale Linn. ‘x4.

longs petiole and rhachis narrowly margined. Leaflets 3-7, the
terminal 1-3 in. long by .4-1 in. wide, ovate or lanceolate, acumi-
nate, usually larger than the lateral leaflets which are shorter and

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 213

relatively broader, acute, sessile or shortly petiolulate, the distal
pair sometimes with broad connate bases.

Inflorescence of terminal few-flowered corymbs or cymes and axil-
lary pedunculate few-tlowered cymes shorter than the leaves or the
cymes often reduced to single flower; pedicel of the cyme-flowers
.3--7 in. long, those of the solitary and corymb-flowers often much
1onger; bracts up to .5 in. long, linear-subulate or narrow linear.
Calyx-tube .1-.15 in. long, puberulous, 5-lobed; lobes subulate, .2-
.6 in. long. Corolla-tube .5-.7 in. long, cylindrical, 5-lobed; lobes
ovate or elliptic. Stamens 2, included. Ovary 2-celled; ovules 2 in
each cell. Fruit black when ripe, elliptic or globose, .3-.4 in. long,
full of crimson juice.

Flowers.—May-June. Fruit. October-November.

Distribution.—Native of Persia and Kashmir now widely distri-
buted throughout India, wild or cultivated.

Gardening.—This plant, whose native home is in Persia and
Kashmir, has been in cultivation in India and China since ver;
early time. it has been introduced into the milder parts of Europe
and has become established. It is a loose climbing ‘‘vine’’ requir-
ing a support but scarcely self-climbing. The glossy foliage and
fragrant white flowers which appear during the hot weather render
the plant very attractive. Like J. grandiflorum it is of vigorous
growth and hardy and requires periodic pruning. Easily propa-
gated by cuttings.

Medicinal uses.—It is mentioned in Chinese medical books dated
about the 17th century, as a valuable aphrodisiac. A decoction of
the root is said to be of use in ringworm cases. The fruits are
reputed to be narcotic and sedative. The fragrant oil from the
flowers is mixed with sesamum oil and rubbed on head as a nerve-
sedative.

Jasminum grandiflorum Linn.

The Spanish Jasmine.

(Grandiflorum means large flowered).

Description.—A large shrub with striate, glabrous, almost angled
branches. Leaves opposite, exstipulate, petiolate, 2-5 in. long; pe-
tiole and rhachis margined. Leaflets 7-11 in number, the terminal
somewhat larger than the lateral but not markedly so, glabrous,
dark green, entire, the upper lateral pair with broad flat base, often
confluent with the terminal, the lowest pair with short petiolules,
the intermediate pairs sessile, the terminal acuminate at the tip,
wedge-shaped at the base, the other apiculate at the tip and round-
ed, often obliquely at the base.

Inflorescence in lax axillary or terminal cymes longer than the
leaves. Flowers white, very fragrant, often tinged with red out-
side, pedicellate; pedicels .5-1 in. long; bracts ovate to spathulate-
oblong, foliaceous; bracteoles small, linear. Calyx-tube campanu-
late, .1 in. long or less, glabrous, 5-toothed; teeth subulate, two
to three times as long as the tube. Corolla-tube cylindrical, .7-1 in,

B14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

long, glabrous 5-lobed; lobes elliptic or obovate, obtuse. Stamens
2, included. Ovary 2-celled, 4-ovuled.
Flowers.—Hot and Rainy season. Fruit. Cold season.
Distribution.—Native of the North West Himalayas up to 7,000
ft.; extensively cultivated in gardens both in the plains and hills.

Fig. 6.—Jasminum grandiflorum Linn. x8.

Gardening .—A large twining or scandent shrub of vigorous growth,
hardy and drought resistant. The leaves are impari-pinnate and
the flowers which are pure white and fragrant are bigger than those
of J. officinale. On account of the great demand for the buds of
this species it is extensively cultivated. It is rather a troublesome
plant to keep within bounds as it spreads over a large space send-
ing forth roots from its stems wherever they touch the ground.
It is suitable for a light trellis and is quite attractive because of
its graceful deep green foliage and scented flowers. To induce
profuse flowering it is best to prune in November-December and
manure in March-April. Easily propagated by cuttings. It is
popularly known as ‘“‘chameli’’. |

Economic and medicinal uses.—The leaves and flowers have long
been known in Hindu medicine. The leaves contain a resin, sali-
cylic acid, an alkaloid, jasminine, and an astringent principle. The
leaves are astringent in action. The whole plant is considered to

JourN., BoMBAY NAGY, Jehisn, SOCy PLATE IV

Photo by M. B, RaizaDa
The Spanish Jasmine
Jasminum grandiflovum, Linn.
New Forest, Dehra Dun

ves
=
+ re
- , Brae
* a Ki]
” Tres
t
i

-
v
i ‘
«
.
F, '
n
’

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 218

be anthelmintic, diuretic and emmenagague. ‘The perfume from the
tlowers is extremely valued and is cooling in action.

This is the plant commonly cultivated in Europe for the per-
fumery trade. Up to the present the chemists have not been able
to copy it exactly in the laboratory, as the synthesis of ketone
found in the oil of the flowers, which gives a distinctive scent has
not yet been accomplished. The juice is said to be anthelmintic
.nd an antidote for scorpion sting. ~

Osmanthus Lour.

(The generic name means fragrant flower in Greek).

A small genus of evergreen trees and shrubs with serrate or
entire, opposite or alternate short-petioled leaves. Flowers
fascicled or in very short racemes, perfect, polygamous or
dioecious. Calyx short, 4-toothed. Corolla short- or long- tubular,
4-lobed; lobes 4, obtuse. Stamens 2, rarely 4; inserted on the
tube. Ovary 2-celled; ovules 2 in each cell pendulous from the
apex; style short, 2-lobed or entire. Fruit an ovoid or globose
drupe with a one-seeded stone.
ie Osmanthus fragrans Lour.

Description.—A shrub or small evergreen tree. Leaves oppo-
site, petiolate, exstipulate, glabrous, coriaceous, 7 in. long by 2

Fig. 7.—Osmanthus fragrans Lour. (x3.

in. wide, entire in wild but serrate in cultivated plants, elliptic to
oblong-lanceolate in shape, acute or acuminate at the tip, wedge-
shaped at the base; reticulation prominent beneath; petiole .6 in.
long.

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Flowers yellowish, very fragrant, .25-.75 in. long, densely fas-
cicled in the upper axils, rarely terminal, shortly pedicellate. Calyx
minute, .0o3 in. long, 4-toothed. Corolla-tube very short, 4-lobed;
lobes oblong, about .3 in. long. Stamens 2, inserted in the corolla
tube; anthers exserted; filaments short. Ovary 2-celled; ovules 2
in each cell, pendulous. Drupe 1-seeded.

The flowers of this species are extremely fragrant and will
scent the air for a considerable distance round a plant. The
sweet-smelling flowers are said to be used by the Chinese for scent-
ing their finer qualities of tea.

Flowers.—October. Also at other time of the year. Fruits.
April.

Distribution.—Native of the Himalayas extending to China and
Japan. |

Gardening.—An attractive, evergreen shrub with dark green
glossy foliage. The tiny pale yellow flowers have a strong smell
very like apricots and it is for the love of the fragrance that it
is extensively cultivated. It prefers partial shade and is propa-
gated by cuttings or ‘gooties’. It is popularly known as Olea
fragrans in gardens.

(To be continued.)

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER
SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

BY
A. St. J.. MACDONALD.

ParT XI.
(Continued from page 58 of volume 46).

Locality Index.—

1. Assam and Dooars.

2. Bengal and Chittagong Hill Tracts.

3. Bihar and Orissa.

4. Bombay.

5. Burma. | |

6. Central India and Rajputana.

7.~Central Provinces.
. Madras (including Hyderabad State, Mysore State, and
Eastern and Western Ghats).

g. Punjab and N.W.F. Province and Baluchistan.

10. United Provinces and Delhi.

LOCALITIES.

This Index of River and Tank Localities does not aim at
being exhaustive, nor providing detail beyond acquainting the reader
with some of the places where fishing is still to be had.

‘The Angler’s Handbook’ and ‘The Angler in Northern India’
both provide detailed notes.by individuals—unselfishly given 18 or

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 217

20 years ago, if the angling community to-day will co-operate on
the same line and send notes on rivers and tanks listed therein, with
any additional notes, to me direct or to the Society, a full and
up-to-date chapter on Localities, or a second part to this book,
can be compiled and published for the benefit of all.

The object of this Index is to give a brief list of Localities that
the enterprising angler can trace by means of a Gazetteer, or the
Road Map of India, or Survey of India Maps, or through local
enquiry. The size of the river will generally indicate the size of
the fish to be taken.

Detailed maps and sketches are outside the scope of this little
book. The chapters on Assam and Burma include some of the
best localities and must suffice until more information is forth-
coming.

I. ASSAM AND THE DOOARS. See Chapter viii.
2. BENGAL AND CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS.

Bengal is dealt with under Chapter viii, or rather those por-
tions in North Bengal that are well known in the Districts of Dar-
jeeling, Jalpaiguri, and Mymensingh.

The Chittagong Hill Tracts of which very little is known or,
more correctly, advertised, have some good rivers in which mahseer
are plentiful but owing to the difficulty in getting to the best
places, and the time and ‘bundobast’ involved, little attention has
been given to this secluded part of the Province.

Nothing is known of the Estuary fishing either; but it can be
safely asserted that Bahmin and Cock-up will be found in all

the many estuaries all the way down the coast to Akyab and
beyond.

District. Rivers & Tanks. REMARKS.
Chittagong. Karnaphuli. R. I have been given most attractive
Sajjuk. R. accounts of the Races and Pools
Mayani. R. of the upper waters above Ranga-

mati and Barkal in the tributaries
Sajiuk and Maiyani by a _ non-
angler,

Sanju. R. This river, further to the south,
also. traverses wild country and
holds promise of good sport.

3. BIHAR AND ORISSA PROVINCES.

Bihar, north of the Ganges has numerous rivers draining through
to the South-East. Above Patna the Gogra and Gandak join in
from the left bank, and the Sone from the right bank, swelling
the Ganges to three times its former size; further East the Kosi
another huge river, runs over the country in numerous channels
and joins the Ganges in the Purnea District.

There is an abundance of fish life of all kinds though little
to offer the Angler, except in the smaller streams where one
can have good sport with Butchwa and sometimes Silund. But
for the Tank Angler this provides the best fishing in India. There
are innumerable lakes formed in the Districts of Champaran and
Mozufferpore which hold monster Rohu and Catla, besides all
the predacious fish, There are numerous tanks dotted all over

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the country, almost one or two in each village, stocked with fish
of all kinds.

In the Darbhanga District there are huge tanks too large to net
to extinction, besides many others protected by Zemindars who
will permit fishing if approached. In Darbhanga itself there are a
number of large tanks, almost lakes, that hold enormous fish, in
which one may fish after obtaining permission from the Raj.

To list these tanks would fill a tome. Local enquiry will soon
satisfy the Angler; and the nature of the tank with its old banks
and trees will indicate the age of the tank and size of fish to be
expected. esl |

DIstTRIctTs. Rivers & TAnkKs. REMARKS.

Champaran. Gandak R, Tirbani. North of Bagaha, is
in the N. corner of the District and
is the headworks of the Canal. J
have been told of some rapids be-
low this point, but no one appears
to have caught any Mahseer here
though the ‘Malars’ bring in 30 and
40 |b. fish for sale into the local
markets,

fanks, Bettiah. Raj. Wave some tanks
well stocked with Rohu being pro-
tected from netting; permission to
fish can be obtained. /

Lakes. Motihari. Has two large lakes
(the old bed of the Buri Gandak)
full of. fish. These lakes continue
all the way down to Mozufferpore
on both sides of the Buri Gandak,
which flows in a south easterly
direction, joining the Ganges — in

, Monghyr District.

Ruri, Gandak R. Fed from Nepal it is confined
between high banks throughout its
course in Bihar. It runs clear and
is ‘full of all kinds of fish, and
gives good sport with Butchwa and
Silund, but is little fished.

Mozufferpore. Mozufferpore. It enters the Dist-
rict near Mehsi and leaves it near
Pusa. The same remarks hold as
those mentioned for Champaran. It
passes through Mozufferpore town to
the North.

Lakes, 3 There are a number of. lakes
similar to those in Champaran in
this District. Also plenty of good

' tanks.

Bagmati R. Flows: into the District from Ne-
pal near Dhang St. on O. & T. Ry.
in the North of the District Mahseer
have been caught at the bridge, but
for the best fishing one must go
into Nepal, where it is excellent,
but permission must be obtained :
No easy matter, as it is the sac-
red river of the Country. In_ its
lower reaches it gives good sport
with Butchwa and the other preda-
cious fish. Tt also flows into the

Ganges in Monghyr District,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER KS

DIsTRICTs. Rivers & TANKS. REMARKS.

Darbhanga. Buri. Gandak R. Enters the District near Pusa and
leaves it at Rusera passing through
Samastipore on its way, I know of
good Silund being caught at Dowl-
atpore 3 miles from Rusera. It is
little fished or would give good re-
sults. Tank angling is so good that
the rivers receive little attention.

Bagmati R. The Darbhanga line crosses the
river at Hayaghat Stn. It is very
similar in formation to the river
Gandak with the same fish.

Tanks. There are literally hundreds to
choose from and local enquiry will
satisfy any one interested. I took
out -of the Mohanpore tank near
Ryam three Rohu one evening of
33,32,303 Ibs. and with another rod
in a tank near Benipore 17 fish in
three hours best 17 Ibs.

Chupra. Tanks, In Chupra at the old Dharam-

sala is a very old Tank, where the
fish are fed, and one can see 20-40
Ibs. Ruhu come up and take par-
ched rice on the surface; fishing
is not permitted. There are other
tanks but it is poor in comparison
to the other Districts mentioned.
The rivers are too large to be worth
while.

Bhagalpore Kosi R, North Bhagalpore is drained by
the many channels of this mighty
river that knows no bounds, and
shifts its course as much as 30
miles in a single Monsoon Season.
From a fishing point of view it
holds little attraction in the Dist-
rict, except for netting of the parish
fish, of which there is a good sup-
ply. The Ganges is at Bhagalpore
but it is a vast wilderness of water,
and uninteresting from an_Angler’s
point of view.

I have heard of good fishing in
the Kosi in the North of the Dist-
rict, but for Mahseer one must get
into Nepal, for which special per-
mission is required. I have had great
accounts of the water below the last
gorge and where the river fans out
into a sort of delta and breaks up
into several large channels and
some excellent fishing is available.

Purnea Kosi R, The main channel of the Kosi
passes under the Ry. at Kursala
forming the boundary of the District
with Bhagalpore, but is flat and
sandy, and uninteresting.

Panar & Kankai_ R. Further east the Panar and Kan-
kai rivers drain from Nepal into
the Ganges, but nothing is known
of the fishing. A large portion of
the fish from this District is sent
to the Calcutta market,

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DIstTRICcT. Rivers & TANKS. REMARKS.
Purnea. Panar & Kankai R. There are a number of very old |
and large tanks belonging to the
Darbhanga Raj, with excellent tank
fishing. There are besides a num-
ber of lakes, formed by the old
river bed of these wandering
streams, in which good sport can
be had with murrel.

South Bihar and Orissa has hilly country with a number of
rivers feeding the Sone in the North-West, chief of which is the
Koel, in the Palamau District which holds Mahseer, and has a
number of good runs and pools near Daltongung.

West of Daltongung lie the Eastern States of the C. P., Sur-
guja ete., with wild hilly country and a network of rivers, with
great possibilities. Little is known of this tract of country from
the Angler’s point of view. The Rer, and another large stream
just above Bardi join the Sone, and should hold Mahseer.

The Bashda rises near Sonhat and flows south to join the
Mahanadi, but there must be many other good streams of which
nothing is known.

Further South in Orissa are the Feudatory States with the
Ong, Suktel, and Tel, all of which flow into the Mahandai near
Manda in Sonpur State. The Tel is the largest of these and has
a number of tributaries in Kalahandi State.

The South Koel in Singbum, and Santh further West join in
Gungpur Stream and run on as the Bhramini River entering the
Sea at Hansua.

Ganjam District is one of the districts ceded to Orissa by
Madras, in the extreme South. It also has a number of rivers
but no notes are available.

/
/

4. BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

These brief Notes are only part of the wealth of information
that must be available to Anglers. I have avoided mention of
Sea Fishing as this is dealt with under Chapter II.

For those interested I can do no better than recommend that
excellent publication by the B.N.H. Society ‘Game Fishes of
Bombay’. It has coloured illustrations of a number of fish and
contains a host of information. It is sold at the very modest
price of Rs. 2/-.

Districts. Rivers & Tanks. REMARKS.
Ahmadnagar. Godavari’ R. Forms the N. and N. E, boun-
Prewara and dary with Aurangabad. These two
Mula R. rivers join at, or just above Nevash

and flow on for 12 miles or so to
join the Godavary; running through
some wild country.

Paithan on the borders of the
Aurangabad District has a junction
but no details are available. The
Gazetteer would help.

Subarmati R. A huge pool about a mile from
Cantonments below Achar, V, on
the opposite bank, with a slow run
into the top of the pool, and un-

Ahmedabad,

DISTRICTS.

Ahmedabad—(contd.) Subamati R.—(

Belgaum.

Bijapur.

Bombay.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER - 221

Rivers & TANKS.

Gatprabha R.

Tamrapani

Dhupdal L.

Gokak Falls,

Kistna R.

Ulhas R.

REMARKS. |

contd.) der a cliff on the far bank. It

is good in the late evenings and
early mornings. I had good sport
here in 1919!! and caught several
fish of 4 and 6 lbs. Mahseer Kan-
ker-Beds. 6 miles up-stream are
some rapids we knew as the Kan-
kerbeds, it is past the pig-sticking
country, and under a cliff. I had
grand sport with Mahseer of 8 lbs.
and Rohu of 4 lbs. which I caught
with green weeds used as a fly.
It is a long, tiresome trudge, but
worth it.

Rayasan. 14 miles up-stream,
and connected by bad road, has
some good water but it varies from
year to year. The pool at the
place may go off-and the water
at Koha. V. 3 miles down improve,
or at Radasan 1% miles above.

Mehmedabad. Half a mile by
rail south of Ahmedabad, some
good water a mile or so above the
bridge. There are besides some
good places up the Metre gauge
line where I had good sport with
fly spoon about 4 stations out. Notes
lost.

Sutgatti. 17 miles from Belgaum
holds fish up to 20 lbs.

Punderi. 32 miles from Belgaum,
with a R. H. a few hundred yards
from the river, which is quite good
water.

Tambulwadi R. H. and bridge
over the Tamrapani stream, a tri-
butary of the Gatprabha _ also
holds Mahseer.

Dhupdal. Station has a_ large
lake formed by an artificial bund
which holds fish.

Gokak Falls three miles down
stream has a deep pool full of fish
but difficult to approach. These
rivers run dirty for a considerable
time after rain, which takes away
from their attraction.

Kistna is joined by a river
from Belgaum, I think it is the
Gatprabha, which fishes well in the
Belgaum District. No first hand
notes available.

Uhlas R. (Kalyan Creek) the
tidal part of this from Bassein up
to the Railway bridge some miles
above Kalyan is good for Bektie
or Cock-up wherever there are
rocks. Fish much over 50 lbs. have
been caught on live bait. Spoon is
entirely useless. Plugs are better.
Fish are not plentiful. Best time
August/October in turbid water.
Bahmin do not ascend the creek
much above Ghod Bunder.

223 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DISTRICTS.
Bombay—(contd.)

N. Kanara.

Khandesh.

Poona.

Rivers & Tanks.
Kalu R.

The Ghat Lakes.

{uake Tansa.

L. Bhiwandi.
L. Beale.

L. Arthur Hill.

L. Andra or Gibbs.

L. Sheravata.

Kalinadi R,

Girna, Tapti, Panjkra,

REMARKS, .

Kalu R. the non-tidal- parts of
this, an affluent of the Uhlas, and
of the Uhlas itself, hold carp and
Mahseer up to and above 15 lbs.
in restricted numbers. A well
known spot is near Neral. Murrel
and Wallago also frequent those
waters.

Lakes Andra (L. Gibbs), Wal-
wan, Sheravta, and Mooljee (the
latter at the head of the Moola
valley) all hold fairly good mahseer
and carp (Barbus dobsoni, B. jer-
doni) the largest in Muljee Lake.

Permission to be obtained from.
Messrs. Tata & Co. Bombay. A
collapsible punt is very desirable for
successful fishing in these lakes.
Trolling, spinning, and _ bait-casting
are successful.

Tansa 55 miles north of Bom-
bay provides part of the water
supply.

Bhiwandi 29 miles from Bom-
bay approached by Agra road.

Beale between Gote and Asvali
Stations is 17 miles long. Niphad
Stn. is near the lower lake form-
ed from Lake Beale and connect-
ed by the Darna R.

Igatpuri. 26 miles S. and form-
ed by the Bhandaradara Dam. It

feeds the Pravhra. R. 14 miles of

good water with fish up to 20 lbs.

Andra. A good many miles to.
East of Bhor ghat is also a good
place.

Lonavla. In the neighbourhood
is this Lake also L. Walwan which
is reported to hold big fish.

Most of the fishing in the lakes.
is mixed and anglers will tackle
chilwa if nothing else is available..
It is treated rather as a side show.

Kalinadi R. This and other

rivers Gangavali, Tadri, Sharavati
(on which Gersoppa Falls, 830 ft.):
all hold mahseer, together with
their tributaries. All these rivers:
drain the District westwards into
the Arabian Sea. No detailed
notes are available.

No notes in the fishing books.

and Bari Rs.-also the as to these. waters but there must
Narbada for wh: seebe many places where good mah-

Ce R Section.

Lake Fife.

Bhima | Re

seer fishing is to be had by the
adventurous angler.

Near Rhadakwasla. Fish are
taken trolling with spoon or dead
bait. ‘Mahseer Fishing in the
Deccan Lakes’ by Major Trevenen,
Bom. N. H. S. Journal, vol. xxxi,
p. 120 is a good reference.

The Upper Waters. About 10
miles north of the Nasik road the

Districts.
Poona—(contd.)

CIRCUMVENTING.THE MAHSEER 223.

Rivers & TANKS.
Bhima R.—(contd.)

Mula R.

REMARKS.

river is fishable for mahseer up to-
ro lbs. or so in various runs,
during and immediately after the
rains for a short time only. There
is a rocky chasm quite often hold-
ing huge goonch and _ fair-murrel,
besides mahseer.

Bhima R. This holds good for
the fish in the fine pool below the
confluence above Pargao village, I
have seen mahseer of 30 lbs. netted
there.

The big pool near Nandgaon
(off Patas) is too broad for fishing
from shore. It becomes shallow in
the dry weather and is good in and
shortly after the rainy season only,
when large fish may frequent it.

The rocky runs below the pool,
and the water into which they run,
are also good in the same season.
A dug-out canoe is usually procu-
rable at the big pool at one or
other of the villages. Patas is yo
miles from Poona on the Sholapore
road.

The upper waters of the Mula,
i.e., from above Kirkee to Kooljee
Lake, present several fair runs.
shortly after the rains and good
pools throughout the year with carp:
and mahseer rarely over to lbs.
Also fair murrel and wallago Mutha.
Mula R. The pool at Kirkee is
still fairly tenanted. There are
now three dams below it includ-
ing the one near the Fitzgerald
bridge, so that fish can no longer
reach their old spawning grounds.
in the upper valley.

The spot near ‘Snake Island’,
which still haunts the literature, is.
completely useless since many years
for spinning and trolling and holds
no sizable mahseer nowadays.

The stretch below the bridge
and up to the Cavalry falls is still
frequented by a few fish up to 25.
Ibs. during and shortly after the
rains, but sizable fish are few and
far between. They respond to
spoon, dead bait, and plug, but pre-
fer paste, crab, or such country
baits as chapati or a triangular slice
of coconut spun like a spoon, with
a single hook tied to it, or better
still the single hook concealed bet-
ween two thin slices. This is a
very killing bait in slightly colour-
ed water. It spins very well in
fairly fast water and is very attrac-
tive.

Further down there are good
runs at Loni and Theur yielding
fish of the same size, but not many.

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOEIETY, Vol. 46

DistrIcTs.

Poona—(contd.)

‘Poona.

Rivers & TANKS.
Mula R.—(contd.)

Ghod R.

Indrayani

L. Whiting,

Nira

“REMARKS,

I believe that the three dams in
Poona have made the river unpopular
with mahseer as these three dams
create a dead end, or ‘culdesac’.

The povl just above the conflu-
ence with the Bhima still holds a
few good mahseer, but they dis-
dain all artificial lures. Bottom
fishing is the only way with them.

Ghod R. The part north of the
Nasik road runs through pretty wild
country and holds some great fish
in the vicinity of Ambegaon Fish-
able after the rains. This part is
not easy of access and camping is
a necessity. A deep, rocky chasm
on a small tributary some 16 miles
from Sirur holds large fish (mah-
seer and silund) very difficult to land
as the rocks are high above the
water. This is certainly the place
mentioned in Thomas’s ‘The Rod
in India’ 2nd edition 1881, page 337.

The word ‘Dav’ in the same
para probably refers to the village
Dehu on the Indrayani River in
the Poona area.

I have seen mahseer up to 50
Ibs. netted in the Ghod R. some
six miles from Sirur where their
retreat down river had been barred
by a palisade of stakes. This was
after the rains when large fish re-
tire from their spawning grounds
in the Ghats and return to the
deeper waters of the Bhima low-
er reaches. Very large goonch are
also caught there.

This, by the way, is the type
locality for Sykes’s Barbus ‘mussu-
lah the very hump-backed and
heavy, golden-bronze coloured mah-
seer of the Deccan, which I believe
to be identical with the record fish
of the Cauvery river. It is dis-
tinct from the ordinary more Slen-
der Deccan Mahseer which Dr.
Hora has classified as Barbus (Tor)
khudree, Sykes.

All the above as to Poona rivers
also Ulhas R. and Ghat Lakes is,
contributed by Dr. M. Suter, D. Sc.,
and gratefully acknowledged.

Shelavadi Station on Lonavla-
Poono line is 4 miles from Dehu
where is a temple and pool full of
sacred fish up to 40 lbs. and over.

Bhartgarh. The Lake is form-
ed by the Lloyd Dam and Nira R.
which also carries off the overflow.
Good fishing is reported in both the
lake and river.

Ing. 3 miles below the lake
has some good runs.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 225

Districts. Rivers & Tanks. REMARKS.
Satara. Warna, Keina, Yerla The Warna is in the South. The
: Rs. Koina runs through the centre, and

the Yerla in the East of the Dis-
trict. All are tributaries of the
Kistna and must hold fish. No:
notes available.

Surat. Rariinix: Bulsar. Take a bus on to the
river. Good sport is reported both
above and below the Ghat.

Kolaka Reysits Udvad Stn. The river is two
miles south of the Station. Holds.
mahseer and other fish.
Dhamanganga_ R. Dhaman Rd. Station. The river
is 14 miles South of the Station. A
few miles up-stream is reported to:
be well stocked with fish, both fresh
water and estuary.

Two miles below the Ry. bridge
and near the Salt Dept. bungalow
is reported to have good estuary

' fishing.
Sanjan R. Sanjan R. 1 mile South of the
Sen Station is well stocked with
estuary fish.
A reference to the Road Map of India will show the Angler that there
are great possibilities for estuary fishing ali along the Surat coast where the
Tapti and Narbada rivers enter the sea.

5. BURMA, see Chapter vii.

6. CENTRAL INDIA AND RAJPUTANA STATES.

Little is known of the fishing in this vast area, except perhaps:
by the privileged few, keen on fishing, who have served in these
States.

There are said to be large mahseer in some of the Udaipur
Lakes. In earlier days, as we know from articles in the Oriental
Sporting Magazine of the middle 19th century, the Chambal river
and its many tributaries afforded large catches of Barilius Bola.
It is probable that the same species still afford opportunity to
those who can visit those regions.

Skene Dhu makes brief mention of indifferent fishing near
Mhow. Notes regarding the Narbada River in the Central Pro-
vinces and Bombay localities lists should be referred to.

Any Notes on the Chambal and other rivers would be of inter-
est to Anglers and science alike.

STATE. Rivers & Tanks. REMARKS.
GWALIOR STATE. Chambal R. The largest river in Central
India. It rises in Indore near

Mhow taking in a large number
of tributaries of considerable size
Kotah, Bundi, which rise in Kotah, Bundi, Ner-
Nerwar and Datia war, Datia, etc. It runs in an
Easterly course skirting Gwalior
State om the North to join the Jum-
na near Etawah. (U.P.).

Indore State. Nerbudda R._ Mhow. is well situated for the

streams in the South of the State
that drain the Satpura R. into the
Nerbudda.

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DIsTRIcT. Rivers & TANKS. REMARKS.

Rajputana. W. Banas R. Banas R. rises in Sirohi in the
South the drains the western por-
tion of the Aravalli Range, and runs
into the Runn of Kutch.
Sabarmati R. Sabarmati R. also rises in this
range (for notes on this R. See
under Ahmedabad).
Mahi R. Baswara & Durgapore. The
Mahi rises in the hills in these dis-
tricts, it is wild hilly country, but
nothing is known of the fishing or
fish.
Banas R. Not to be confused with the
Western Banas which runs west.
The Banas also rises in the Ara-
valli R. but follows a North-Easter-
ly course, taking in the Kheri, Ko-
tari, from the West and the Berach
from Tonk State near Udaipur.
The Banas joins the Chambal about
20 miles East of Sawai-Madhopur
2. sonmthe wb Damen © rss lomsncy,

7. CENTRAL PROVINCES.

This Province may well be divided into four sections. The

North is drained by the tributaries of the Jumna; the West

and Centre by the Narbada and Tapti flowing into the Arabian
Sea. The South and South West and greater part of the Central
portion is drained by the largest of its rivers flowing into the Goda-
vary through the Warda, Penganga, and Wainganga, which form
the Pranhita. The East has the Mahanadi and Seonath, with their
many tributaries, leaving the Province at Chandranpur.

DisTRICT. Rivers & Tanks. REMARKS.
Amraoti. Ganga, Katbi, Ellichpur. For full details see
Sipna ‘Rs. under Khandwa.
Wainganga River. Dongaghat is a good place with

fish over 20 lbs. The large fish
are taken on atta, the smaller ones
take spoon. For further details
refer to District Gazetteer for detail
of approach.

Padregunj, a little south of Nain-
pur on B. N. Ry. has some excel-
lent water, I have heard of big
fish being taken and others lost.

The Laknagunj Gorge, up-stream
a couple of miles, is a celebrated
place, fish take both spoon and
atta.

. Bhandara. Wainganga R. Wainganga R. there is very good
fishing in this District but I reg-
ret I have lost the Note sent to me
by a Forest Officer who caught
some good fish both in this river
and the one which drains the Dis-
trict further East! (name not avail-
able). It joins the Wainganga just
north of Ambgaon (in Chanda) in
the extreme South of the District.
Fish well over 20 Ibs. were caught
by this rod.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 227

DIstTrRIcTsS. Rivers & TANKs.
Bhandara—(contd.) Wainganga R.—(contd.)

Bilaspur. Hasdeo R.

Chandrapur. Mahanadi_ R.

Maniari R.

Seonath R. -

‘Buldhana. Tank.

Khamgeon Tank.

Chanda. - Indravatti R.

REMARKS.

36 miles from Nagpur. on the>
Raipur road are some good rapids
down stream about 9 miles. Bait
with atta, then fish with spoon or
paste balls when fish have collected.

Hasdeo R. a tributary of the
Mahanadi and joining it at Seori
Narayan a few miles below. Banjo
in Uprora Zemindari has some
good water; Best mentions in his
Shikar notes some good water 15
miles north of the Railway.

Mahanadi R. Padampur, and
water between Seori Narayan and
Chandrapur is good, with fish over
20 lbs. For details refer to Dist.
Gazetteer.

Maniari R. a tributary of the
Seonath R. and joining it at Satti
Ghat about six miles S. S. W. of
Bilha Ry. Station or 15 miles S.
W. of Bilaspur.

Lormi on this river is mention-
ed by Best as a good spot, and
fishes all the year round. Fish of
5 Ibs. have been taken. The route
to Lormi is via Mungeli 30 miles,
then by track for 16 miles. There
is a Rest House, P. O. and Police
Station at Lormi on the banks of
the river. 30 miles from Bilaspur
where the Raipur road crosses the
river, is said to be good.

Seonath R. Nandghat. A good
run 600 yards above the bridge, and
another run about the same dis-
tance below.

The drinking water tank has
good Murrel and a few Butchwa.
Good fun can also be had with
chilwa with a fly. It is a mile
out.

Khamgeon Tank also has a large
tank and it is here I have caught
Murrel on fly in the evening and
when the shoals are rising. The
only place I have found Murrel
rise in this way.

Indravatti R. joins the Godavary
in the S. E. corner of the district.

Allapillai 75 miles then on_ to
Repanpalli 21 miles along the Ser-
oncha road. Turn off the main
road close to R. H. and go East
by a cart track to Damarincha (15
miles) to Palli another 15 miles,
total 51 miles, near Damarincha is
the Bandia R. a sandy bed and
heavy going. Except for this river
the cart track, offers no difficulty.
Make for Bhamragarh 4 miles up-
stream where there are several runs
and reports of monster but elusive
fish. At Bomragarh is a Bungalow.

228° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

Distaicts.
Chanda—(contd.)

Rivers & TANKS.
Indravatti R.—(contd.)

Pranhita R.

Wainganga R.

REMARKS. TRE

Semanapalli about 6 miles above
junction of Indravatti and Godavari
has a pool full of big fish, A
Forest R. H. here.

One hears wonderful accounts.
of monster fish of 80 lbs. being seen
and tackle broken. It has always
remained a dream of mine.

An old shikari reading these
notes writes that when he was at
Warda. Junction on 22nd March
1898, on way to Chanda and the
Indravatti, he met an Officer from
Poona who had had all his tackle
torn to bits by huge mahseer of the
Indravatti.

He (my present informant) was.
at Damarincha by the 26th April
1898 and caught a small mahseer
of the thick lipped type. Then he
got bad remittent fever and had to
return to Cantonments.

It was not until 1929 that he
was again able to get to the Ind
ravatti and that was at end of April.
He fished from Bomragarh for seve-
ral days, trying all methods, with-
out success. He had the impres-
sion that the river had been large-
ly denuded of fish owing to exten-
sive killing of all fish and fry in
the upper waters of the river and
its tributaries by the aboriginal in-
habitants of Bastar State. During
his stay the locals were unable to
get any fish by means of cruives.
or other means.

In 1924 a friend had lost a very
big fish in the long, deep pool
below the Bungalow. It was hook-
ed on atta.

Probably the season for the In-
dravatti River would be February
and March, and again after the
Monsoon. Fever would have to be
guarded against. .

Pranhita R. runs into the
Godavari R. in the extreme South
of the district and I have heard
wonderful accounts of monster fish
of 80 lbs. being seen, and tackle
being broken.

These waters have always re-
mained a dream of mine and though
I have planned to visit South
Chanda twice I have never mana-
ged to do so.

Wainganga R. four marches from
Chanda on the Sironcha road the
fishing water is both above and
below the cause way for about a
mile. Fish of about 15 Ibs. have
been taken. In this District, in
the South East corner, is a host of
places; but they are very difficult

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 229

Districts. Rivers & TANKS.

REMARKS.

Chanda—(contd.) Wainganga R.—(contd.) to get at. Were it not for this the

Chhindwara. : Penchi R.

Jilmilli.

Damoh. Bearma R.
Ken R.
Sonar R.

Hoshangabad. Nerbudda_ R.

fishing would have lured _ the
keen angler long ago and many a
good bag would have been recorded.

Penchi R. a tributary of the
Wainganga rising in the hills South
of Pachmarhi.

Jilmilli 14 miles from Chind-
wara on the Seoni Road is reported
as having good water.

Kundlai is a small village in
the corner where the three districts
of Chhindwara, Seoni and Nagpur
meet, roughly 25 miles S. W. of
Seoni.

Khawasa about 30 miles from
Seoni on Nagpur Road 12 miles
West the River is crossed, and has
good water. Bait with gram or
atta for small fish of 5 lbs. or so.

Alikutta is 6 miles upstream
from Kundlai is mentioned as fish-
ing well in the early part of the
Season.

Beayma R. Nohta, 52 miles on
Jubbalpore road is a R. H. on the
banks of the river. Best water a
short mile up-stream. Best in the
early part of the season water too
low in the hot months.

Ken R. the line to Katni crosses
one of the main tributaries of the
Ken about 30 miles from Damoh.
Good at Ghat Piperia in the early
part of the season. A good block for
tiger with a nice F. R. H. over-
looking the river.

Sonar R. Narsinghgarh, io
miles North of Damoh. A large
pool below a high bank on the
right bank of the river from which
big fish of 30 lbs. can be seen on
occasions. The river is about half
a mile N. W. from the R. H. The
best time is early in the Season
while the runs are still strong.
Bait, gram and atta.

Hatta, 22 miles by road to the
North of Damoh is another place
mentioned.

Two runs opposite the Judge’s
Bungalow. One well out in the
River the other near the bank.
The further one is the better of
the two.

Bandraban, 6 miles up-stream
from the town, the Tawah joins
the Nerbudda. Above this is good
water. Bait atta or gram. Best
season April/May, fish run to to
Ibs.

Karraghat, the Ry. crosses the
river two miles west of the town,
this is good water, if runs are
first baited with atta.

230: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. .HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DISTRICT. RIVER & TANKS. ; REMARKS. ....>;
Hoshangabad— Nerbudda R.—(contd.) | Nandpa, 20 miles S. W. of Hos-
(contd.) hangabad is another good spot after

baiting with atta. ;

Gadarvada Stn. 72 miles East
of Itarsi the line crosses the Shak-
kar R. a tributary of the Ner-
budda R. Two or three good pools
within 4 miles of the Station and
one very good one half a mile

above the bridge.

Pachmarhi. Denwa R. Denwa R. at Pachmarhi small
fish have been taken in Oct. on fly
spoon at Panzy-pool and Waters-
meet. Above Matkuli is also men-
tioned as good water.

Fullers Khud small fish can be
taken on atta.

Jubbulpore. Nerbudda R. Nerbudda R. Bargi, 14 miles
out on Seoni Road, the river is
about two miles from the road.
The Tamer joins in near here.
Three runs worth fishing with gram.

Bahoripar is g miles down the
Seoni road where a track takes off,
motorable in dry weather, about 1
mile distance. Cross the Ry. and
the river is about 1 mile further
on. Bait with gram before fishing.

Guwarighat, 5 miles down Seoni
Road. Runs are only a few hundred
yards away. There is also some
good water near the Ry. Bridge
2 miles up the river.

Tilwaraghat, 8 miles from the
town or 3 miles below Guwarighat,
has a good run and I have heard
of good fish being taken on gram
and atta.

Lamheti is two miles further
down, and has three good runs.

Bheraghat, Notha 52 13 miles
from Jubbulpore, has a R. H. run
below Bungalow holds fish.

Bearma R. Bearma R. Notha 52 miles
down the Damoh Road. Fishes
best in Oct. after the rains, when
good sport can be had with not
only mahseer but Silund and
Butchwa.

Belkhund R. Belkhund R. Dhanwani & Chug-
ra. 33 miles from Jubbulpore,
Follow Sehora-Khamtara ‘Road *'to
52 mile stone, and turn South
along track to Chugra. Dhanwari
is about a mile up-stream. Some
nice pools and small runs.

Gaur R. Gaur R. Guraiyaghat, 5 miles
out on Mandla Road, good fun can
be had below the causeway in a
fine spell during the rains or in
October when the water clears.

Kosamghat, 4 miles up-stream,
has one or two nice pools, much
fancied by Indian fishermen.

ye Pararia, 13 miles down-stream

CIRCUMVENTING THE: MAHSEER is 231

DiIsTRICT. Rivers & TANKS. ae aA JREMARKS.

Jubbulpore—(contd.) Gaur R.—(contd.) has a small bund across the river
which breaks up the water «and is
7 good after the rains for small fish.

Goorda R. Goorda R. in the Seoni Road,
looks a likely river, for small fish.
Hiran R. Hiran R. Ganiari, Leave Jub-

Damoh Road at 173 milestone and
take cart track for a couple of
miles. Some nice runs and pools
which hold good fish.

Kakarhatta, 203 miles down Da-
moh Road. Some four good runs
here and ask for Mawah and Barn-
dar Ghats, the two best places.

Mahanadi_ R. A tributary of the Son and Gan-
ges, which rises in Mandla, and
joins the Katni R. North East of
Katni town. Crossed by the Shah-
pura Road at mile 37, where the
water looks good.

Wasari, 16 miles East of Katni
on the Barhi Road is the only place
I know where it has been fished
with success, but it is a fast flow-
ing and rocky stream and must be
good in a number of places. Fish
will take spoon in this river be-
sides atta and gram.

Temar R. Temar R. joins the Nerbudda
near Bargi, and has fished well at
times. Basanpani, Temar and
Bargi all on the Seoni Road are
favoured spots, but I have no de-
tails of sport.
Khandwa. Ganga R. Ganga R. is crossed by the
Burhampur-Edichpur Road 5 miles
West of Dharni village and 2 miles
from its junction with the Tapti.

Dihtarniehasmam hem tiesanda ky @©).
and is 58 miles from Ellichpur.
There is good fishing here and lots
of good water for gram and atta.

Tapti fish do not fancy spoon.

Katbi. R. Katbi R. is a tributary of the

Ganga.

Balkhund has a R. H.. over-
looking a big pool full of fish. It
is 18 miles from Harisal on the
Akot Road. When the river is high
there is a fall into the pool and
must be good. No details avail-

7 able.

Sipna R. Sipna R. also feeds the Tapti
joining it at Kegda a few miles N.
E. of Dharni.

Melghat, Best claims to have
caught Mahseer with spoon, both
large and small. Other places
mentioned are Semadoh, Rakhidih,
and Harisal.

Mandla. Nerbudda R. Nerbudda R. Dindori, 50 miles
| N. E. of Mandla is reported to have
fished well.

Sahasradhara is only three miles
down-stream from Mandla_ where

232 ° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DISTRICTS.
Mandla—(contd.)

Nagpur.

Narsingpur.

Nimag

Rivers & Tanks.

REMARKS.

Nerbudda pra there is a nice fall at the head of

Thanwar R.

Penchi R.
Wainganga

Nerbudda R.

a deep pool. Large fish have been
hooked here.

Imdhi, 6 miles from Mandla on
the Jubbulpore Road has a small
fall at the head of a nice run which
widens into a deep pool and holds
big fish.

Thanwar R. is a tributary of the
Wainganga and is best approached
from Padregung. I had a_ note
years ago by a Ry. Official who
caught some good fish of 20 Ibs.
and over and lost a lot of tackle in
others. Fish take a spoon in the
Wainganga system.

See notes under Chhindwara.

The river forms the border of
the district in the E. with Bandara,
there are some good fishing spots.

Barhman to the N. and where
the Saugor Road crosses, there is
some very nice water, and good
sport has been had fishing with
atta and gram.

The Dharigha Falls: a grand
place for fishing. Season after the
S. W. Monsoon, as soon as the
river begins to clear. Also March
but then heat is very great.

There is a basaltic barrier ac-
ross the whole river, about 500 yds.
wide at this point. The water falls
in a series of cascades through pas-
sages worn in the rock. Fall of
water level about 4o feet.

Fish of all species in the river
are here. Mahseer up to 20 lbs and
more, large perrun and many mur-
rel muggger.

Live bait, and natural bait and
spoon spinning, all successful, spoon
least so, Plug not tried would
probably do well. No accom-
modation on the South bank, a
village on North bank (Dhar State)
from which supplies and men can
be had.

Approach from Bir railway Sta-
tion on G. I. P. Ry. via Punasa
(F.R.H.) which is 6 miles from
the Falls and 18 miles from Bir.
Better to take men and_ supplies
from Punasa with kind assistance
of Forest Ranger.

Boat necessary for access to
further bank, and also to rocks in
river. The South side of River is
all Reserved Forest.

25 miles below is Mandhata
where a number of boats. Many
mahseer opposite the Temples on
either bank.

7 miles below Mandhata is Road
& Rail bridge over the river. Sta-

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 233

DistTrIc?Ts.
Nimar—(contd.)

Saugor. Betwa_ R.
Bewas R.

Dhasan R.

Seoni. Goorda R.
Pench R.

Wainganga R.

Rivers, Tanks & LAKES.

REMARKS.

tion Mortakka. Good water below
the bridge. Excellent runs for gram
fishing. ©

From Mortakka to Kalghat (by
water) 4o miles; and from Kalghat
to next place where motorable road
touches the river 4o miles (by
water): all this portion of the river
should be good, but probably never
fished by any angler. So also the
next go miles all of which runs
through hilly country. Must be
any amount of good water and pro-
bably many rapids.

Only way to fish the river from
Mortakka to the furthest point
would be by boat, and take scm
considerable ‘bundobast’, but worth
it! Certainly never been fished by
anyone.

Almost the best river in the pro-
vince as fish will take a spoon and
run to a decent size, for further
notes on this river see under Jhansi
in U. P. section.

Bina, there is some very good
water near here, and fish run large.

Kanjia, 15 miles from Bina. Ap-
proach via Mamboali on Bina-Goo-
na line. Make for Kanjia about 5
miles away. 1 mile below is a good
run but it must be fished early,
Oct. or the river shrinks and has
not enough water in the hot months.
Try spoon, atta and gram.

Bewas R. crossed at the 12th
mile on the Damoh Road, and at
the goth mile by the Narsingpur
Road. There is good water at both
places. Best in Oct. or in a break
in the rains, when one may get
into a good Silund.

Dhasan R. the river is crossed
Io miles from Saugor on_ the
Jahnsi Road. It fishes well after
the rains and good fish have been
taken 15 lbs. and over.

See note under Jubbulpore.

See under Chhindwara.

Chhapara, 20 miles down the
Jubbulpore Road there is a R. H.
near the bridge. A good pool a
mile down-stream with fish of 6
Ibs.

There was an Angling Association formed for the C. P. with its hiew Oat
Jubbulpore, they published a Journal with a lot of useful information for the
Resident or visiting Angler, but I cannot say if this is still functioning, I am

talking of 1930-31.

Any one interested should try and obtain a copy of the Journal sold, I think

for Rs. a-8.

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

na Lae Hyderabad State, Mysore State, Eastern and Western
ats. |

8. MADRAS FISHING LOCALITIES ARRANGED BY PROVINCES.

Hyderabad State.

Within this area, or forming part of its boundaries, are the
Godavary, with its tributaries Pranhita, Penganga, and Manjra;
and the Kistna with its tributaries Bhima and Tungabhadra.

All these great rivers hold Mabseer and sport is to be had with
them wherever there are rocks and rapids by spinning, and in
deep, still pools by bottom fishing: so also with other large carp
and sporting fish of several species.

For very many miles on end portions of these rivers, such as
the Godavari between Nander and Sironcha and from thence down
to Rajahmundry ; and the Kistna from a few miles below the G.I.P.
Railway Bridge north of Raichur nearly all the way to Bezwada
are almost unknown to the Angler. There are also long reaches
unattractive to the angler because of alluvial soil and sluggish
currents. This applies to almost all of the Manjra River. Where
the Renganga and Godawari run through the northern jungles of
Adilabad and nirmul those rivers offered good sport in many places.

Generally speaking the Kistna and its tributaries offered the
best sport from early November when the waters begin to clear
after the S. W. Monsoon, up to March or April. The Godavari
and its tributaries do not fish well until somewhat later on account
of the colder climate up to middle or end of January.

DIstTRICT. RIverS, Tanks & LAKEs. REMARKS.
Hyderabad State. Hussain Sagar & These large Lakes are stocked
Mir Alam Lakes. with all the usual species of Jank

fish, and good sport can be had
from the embankments. Informa-
tion could be had as to baits and
methods from a number of local
Anglers, mostly Muhammadaas.

Besides these two lakes there are
many large artificial Lakes and
Tanks throughout the State in ail
of which sport could be had.

Kistna R. Kistna R. good water above the
bridge for 3 miles and down-stream
for a number of miles. There used to
be a Bungalow, more or less un-
furnished, at Devursugur 3 miles
below the bridge on the right bank.
Permission from the Tahsildar,
Raichur.

Officers of the Hyderabad Con-
tingent had great sport in this
part of the Kistna also in the
Bhima (from Yadgiri) about fifty
years ago. The fishing may still
be good. .16 ft. fly rods and_ fly

_ spoon were used, killing mahseer
“up to go Ibs. and over. A_ portable
collapsible boat is necessary. The

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 235

DistTricTs. Rivers, Tanks & Lakes. REMARKS.
Hyderabad State Kistna R.—(contd.) 7 ft. Berthen was found excellent.
(contd.) Suitable boats not locally available.
Yadgiri Stn. Bhima R. Half a mile from Railway Stn.

good pool and runs. Mahseer up
to 40 lbs. Portab boat essential for
real success. No boats available
locally. Accommodation in Station
waiting room.

The junction of the Bhima with
Kistna is about four miles above
_the Ry. bridge, but is not attrac
tive for fishing.

Except as above there are no detailed note available for the Rivers and
Lakes of the Hyderabad State.

Murrel: Large fish of this species are to be found in a
number of the deep, spacious, masonry wells in various parts of
the country. They run to to lbs. in weight and it is sur-
prising that more attention to the cultivation of this ex-
cellent table fish in this manner has not had more atten-
tion in many parts of India.

Eastern Ghats.

The Sabari and Sileru rivers, in the portions of them flowing
within, or on the borders of the Jeypur state afford good mahseer
fishing from early February on to end of May. The latter is the
larger and better river with fish up to 30 lbs. These rivers are
only accessible to the turing official or the sportsman on a shoot-
ing expedition. The mahseer take spoon.

The two rivers meet at the S. E. corner of the Bastar State
and the combined river joins the Godavery 20 miles south, below
Bhadrachallum.

Districts. Rivers. Tanks & Lakgs. REMARKS.

Jeypur State. Sileru’ R. Sileru R. the river has that name
from the junction of the Machkund
R. (always muddy) with the Gur-
epreo, R. (always clear.).

Eight miles up the latter on the
left bank is a Bungalow, Janwai.
The junction is at Kondakambru
where is also a Bungalow.

There is a fine pool at the junc-
tion.

From here to Konta where the
river joins the Sabari is apprexi-
mately 60 miles. First 45 miles
through a valley with hills on ei-
ther side and forest all the way.
All the Game animals and birds.
Many muggers. A few riparian
hamlets. Malaria prevalent. No sup-
plies. Trip can be done by means
of dugout canoes which are avail-
able from Kondakambru. Allow

ten to fifteen days.
Malabar. A number of streams; Remarks as for S. Kanara.
also Beypur. R. Pal-
anted. R. and Head
it Sto waters of Kabbani.
eotermue TTA R. -flowing east.

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DISTRICTS. Rivers. Tanks & LAKES. REMARKS.

Travancore State. High Range. In this area are
many Tea Estates. Some of the
streams have been stocked with Ra-
inbow Trout by the Planters Fish-
ing Association which controls the
fishing. Tributaries of the Periyar
R., and of the Chalakudi. R. (Co-
chin State) hold mahseer.

Periyar Lake. Holds big mahseer which are
seldom caught.

Sizable fish can be got from the
Dam with plug bait. Area of Lake
is 1I4 square miles, much of it
studded with dead tree trunks.
Very little water escapes below the
Dam. There is a mile long tunnel
taking water into the plains of
Madura to east of the high hills
in which the lake is situated.

The Periyar river enters the lake
in its eastern corner. Mahseer run
up the river at time of the mon-
soons. When the river clears
spoon fishing can be good. No ac-
cess to the river except by boat
and nothing can be done in the

: lake without a boat.

The fishing in the Pariyar area
is controlled by the Vandiperiyar
Planters Fishing Association.

Madras.

The fishable (hilly) portions of the Travancore and Cochin States
rivers are less accessible than those of Malabar and South Kanara.
Most of the Travancore streams, even in their remotest parts,
have been practically denuded of fish by gangs of poachers; this
may also be the case with some of those further north in S. Kanara

and Malabar.

The main mahseer rivers are the Godavery, Kistna, Tunga-
bhadra, Cauvery, and Bhavani. Except as to the Bhavani no
detailed notes are available.

Coimbatore. Bhavani R. Bhavani R. for full information
/ see article by Lt.-Col. R. W. Bur-
ton in the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, vol. xli,
828. Season July and August and
September and January February.
Salem. Cauvery R. Cauvery R. from the Sivasa-
mudram Falls until it reaches the
north corner of the Mettur Lake at
the Hogenakal Falls, a distance of
some go miles approached nowhere
by motorable roads or even cart
tracks, this portion of the river
should afford fine sport and can
have been seldom, if ever, fished
by an angler for mahseer.
The trip could be done with 2
coracles one for fishing, one for
followers and supplies. All supplies

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 237

DIsTRICTS. Rivers & Tanks.

REMARKS.

Salem—(contd,) Cauvery R.—(contd.) would have to be taken, nothing

Godavari. Godavari R.

Kistna. Ikistna R,

Mettur Lalse.

Nilgiris.

Neyar R.

available. Season from mid January
to March. A good and adventurous
trip well worth undertaking. Ma-
larial precautions necessary. The
mahseer would run large.

Godavari R. this river is within
the Madras Presidency or on _ its
border from 30 miles below Siron-
cha until it flows into the Bay of
Bengal near Coconada.

There is good water where the
river narrows below Bhadrachalam,
and at a number of places where
the river winds its way through
the hills south of latitude 17.30 and
40 miles north of Rajahmundry.

All this part of the river is
known to only a few anglers who
may have been serving in that part
of the Presidency. No notes are
available.

Kistna R. from Kurnool to Bez-
wada the river is the Southern
boundary of the Hyderabad State
and northern boundary of Madras
Presidency for 150 miles below
Kurnool the river flows through a
deep, jungle-clad gorge which has
probably never been fished by an
angler for mahseer. There are no
roads or cart tracks. Many mug-
gers. The trip could only be done
by basket boat as for the Cauvery.
Supplies would have to be taken.
‘The heat would be great and the
sport perhaps, phenomenal !

Season early November to March.

Mettuy L. formed in recent years
by Hydro Electric Dam at Mettur.
Lake 30 miles long varying in width
from 5 miles at widest part Depth
at the Dam and about 30/40 ft. at
north corner where the Hogenakal
Falls former 70 ft. high. Many
large fish collect at this place. Half
way up the lake the Palar R.
comes in from the west.

Here follow notes from Mr.
Madhavan Nilgiris.

In this area are many streams,
and a few artificial lakes, which
have been stocked by the Nilgiri
Game Association with Rainbow
(Trout. These streams are the
head waters of the Bhavani and
Moyar rivers. Some of the lower
portions are open to coarse fishing
but almost all is for fly fishing only.

All information from the Secre-
tary of the Association at Ootaca-
mund.

Neyar R. forms boundary be-
tween Nilgiris and the Mysore State

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DIstTRICTS.
Nilgiris—(contd.)

Mysore State.

Rivers & TANKS.
Neyar R.—(contd.)

Tungabhadra. R.

REMARKS.

and runs in a thousand foot deep
gorge known as the Mysore Ditch.

Holds large mahseer and other
carp but is seldom fished on account
of malarial fever of a bad type and
difficulty of access.

Tungabhadra R. borders the Mad-
ras Presidency from MHarihar to
Kurnool where it joins the Kistna
Kk. Impending irrigation projects
may affect the river. It is to be
hoped that suitable fish ladders will
be provided. -

The river holds large mahseer
and has runs and rapids where
sport should be good November to
March.

Distance from Harihar to Kur-
nool is about 250 miles and motor-
able roads give access at Hovanur,
Hospet, Kampli, Siruguppa, Ram-
puram; but it is not known if
sport available within reasonable
reach of those places. There is said
to be malaria at Kampli. A porta-
ble boat would be essential. Sup-
plies would have to be taken.

From Hospet 12 miles is Bala-
sanski district and 2 marches below
is Sovainhulli—a Ferry here.

In the north the Tunga and
Bhadra rivers rise in the Western
Ghats to flow eastwards and meet
near Shimoga whence they form
the Tungabhadra river.

The Bhadra is the better fishing
river and affords good sport to the
Coffee Estate Planters of the area.
Mahseer run to over 30 Ibs.

Further north is the Sharavatt
river which makes its way via the
Gersoppa Falls (830 ft.) to the Ara-
bian Sea. It holds mahseer up to
at least 20 Ibs. Recent Hydro-
Electric works may have affected
the fishing above the Falls.

To the south the Cauvery river,
its sources in the mountains of
Coorg, having added to its waters
many streams rising in the West-
ern Ghats, leaves the State 30 miles
below the Sivasamudram Falls. It
is joined by its largest affluent, the
Kabbani River, a few miles below
Mysore City.

Mahseer in the Cauvery and
Kabbani run to over 100 lbs.* The

———SS|= ——

* In May 1946 Mr. Van Ingen caught one of 120 lbs.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 230)

DISTRICTS. Rivers & TANKS. REMARKS.

Mysore State—(contd.) record fish for India (119 lbs.) came:
from the Cauvery some 14 miles
below Mysore City and the next
largest (110 lbs.) from the Kabbani
in its higher reaches.

These large fish are mostly
taken on balls of ragi paste.
Where there are rocks and rapids
fish up to 40/50 lbs. have been taken
on spoon; but other large mahseer
have been caught on both live and
dead bait, and on spoons.

Lakes. The Krishnarajasagara Lake
formed by a Dam across the Cau-
very 11 miles above Seringapatam
holds many monster mahseer which
are very difficult to catch in such
a deep and extensive sheet of water.

The Vanivilas Sagar is another
large Lake. It is west of Hiriyur
and a hundred miles north west of
Bangalore.

There are other large Lakes
and Tanks in all of which use of
portable boats is essential to suc-
cess.

The State is well served by a
number of motorable and other road
giving access to the lakes and
rivers of the country.

AVAILABILITY OF GAME FISHING FACILITIES IN MYSORE STATE.

(Information supplied by the Fisheries Office, Mysore State).

DISTRICT. RiveERS, LAKES, OR PLACE. REMARKS.

Mysore State. Cauvery R. Cauvery R. Seringapatam io
miles from Mysore and 78 miles
from Bangalore reached by rail
and motorable road. A good T. B.
with servants is available. Sur-
rounding Seringapatam are a few
good pools for Mahseer and other
carps.

Doddinamadu on the 4th mile
stone from Seringapatam on_ the

~ way to Bluff. Two pools here are
famous as containing record size
Mahseers. Coracles are available.

Bommanathittu, 5 miles from
Seringapatam up-stream, on_ the
way to Krishnarajasagar reservoir.
Close by is a Bird Sanctuary and
the pools within about 2 miles are
good for Mahseer, Labeo, Carnatic
carp and Barbus dubius. Usually
baiting is practised in this spot.
Coracle is available.

Mudukthore, this place is 28
miles from Mysore on the way to
Bluff or Shivasamudram. There is.
a small T. B. in Talkad, 2 miles
below along the river course. The
large pool formed above the weir

240

DIstTrRICTS.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL

Rivers & TANKS.

Mysore State—(contd.) Cauvery R.—(contd.)

Krishnarajasagar
Lake.

HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

REMARKS.

offers a very good baiting for Mah-
seer and other carps. Area cover-
ed by the pool is more than 4 miles
along the river. Boats are essen-
tial though coracles may be made
available.

Shivasamudram or Bluff, this
is where the Cauvery leaves the
Mysore plateau by means of two
falls. Hydro-electric power gene-
rating station is situated close by
and the place can be reached both
from Bangalore and Mysore _ by
road, or up to Maddur by rail and
thence by bus. Spinning may be
done in the rapids above. Pools be-
low the falls contain good cat-
fishes like Silundia Mystus aor, and
Mahseers. A collapsible boat
will be essential in the pools and
rapids below.

Mekedatu. This is perhaps the
most unfrequented fishing spot com-
paratively unknown to the anglers.
It is reached via Kankanahalli, 30
miles from Bangalore by road and
another 22 miles from Kankanahalli
by road. A total of 52 miles nego-
tiable during hot months _ only.
Otherwise the motor road from
Bangalore to Channapatam on the
Mysore road has to be used and
the road to Satnur and Aladahalli
a distance of about 62 miles has
to be covered from Bangalore.
There is a small T. B. and coracles
are available. The rapids and the
large pools contain record size Mah-
seers. From what has been gath-
ered from the local fishermen, it

-is evident that the large pools and

the rapids have very old and large
inhabitants more particularly mah-
seers and catfishes. Coracle is
availabe. Both spinning and _ bait-
ing may be practised very success-
fully.

Krishnarajasagar, the lake is
formed by a large dam across the
Cauvery. It is reached from My-
sore either by train or by road, (12
miles). Good Travellers’ bungalow
available as well as a European
Hotel run by the Government of
Mysore. Angling is good only in the
rapids below the dam in the waste-
weir and the river course. Baiting
may be done on the quieter pools
along the river or in the reservoir
itself. Rapids below offer good
spinning. But the reservoir itself is
not very good as it is too deep and
game fishing is not tried successful-
ly on it so far. Two miles below
in a pool formed by another small

———E

DIstTrIcTs.

Mysore State —(contd.) Krishnarajasagar

Shimoga

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 241

Rivers & Tanks.

Lake—(contd.)

Kabbani R.

Thunga and the
Bhadra.

REMARKS.

weir across the river good angling
for Mahseer as well as other carps
and some catfishes like Wallago is
available. The back washes of
the reservoir in the river course near
about Krishnarajnagar 18 miles by
rail, and 22 miles by road, baiting
may be practised successfully for
Mahseer, Labeo, Carnatic carp etc.
Boats are available and _ coracles
may also be arranged. Krishnaraja
nagar is two miles from the angl-
ing grounds possessing a good T.
B. with servants.

Chunchankatte, 10 miles from
Krishnarajnagar, this can be rea-
ched by a motorable road. A small
T. B. is available. The rapids
and pools below the weir are good
for spinning and baiting and very
good Mahseer may be had at all
times. 6 miles above along the
road is another place, Hansoge
which is also good for angling and
could be visited from Chunchanka-
tte. 25 miles from Krishnarajnagar
and about 16 miles from this place
is Ramanathpur where a Temple
Sanctuary is interesting as it shel-
ters almost all the carps of the
Cauvery. They are accustomed to
human company and are very tame.
Fishes ranging up to 80 lbs. (Mah-
seers) are seen in the pool. Angl-
ing of any kind is prohibited for
about a mile surrounding this area.
There is a good T. B. also in this
place.

Kakankote. 48 miles from My-
sore. Very good mahseer is avail-
able surrounding this area. The
pools are ‘palace game preserves’.
Other pools not set apart are also
good and may be tried successfully
as the Kabbani teems with large
mahseer. The river 12 miles below
may be tried in the deeper pools
near about Sargur. There is a good
T. B. in Heggadadevankote, about
15 miles from Kakankote down-
stream. The pools from Heggada-
devankote are between 6 to 8 miles
and are reached by roads. Probably
the good fishing season in this area
is between October and December
when mahseers breed in the pools
of these head waters of the Kab-
bani.

Shimoga. This town is reached
by rail from Bangalore towards the
northwest of the State. Also a good
road from Bangalore up to Honna-
var in North Canara which passes
through Shimoga. Sacrebyle, 9

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.

DISTRICTS.
Shimoga—(contd.)

Chitaldrug.

Rivers & Tanks.

Thunga and the

Bhadra—(contd.

Thungabhadra

Sharavathi R.

Sulekere Tank.

Vanivilas Sagar.

)

HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. 46

REMARKS. :

miles from Shimoga has good num-
ber of pools and abounds in mah-
seer, Barbus neilli, Labeo fimbria-
tus and several catfishes like Mys-
tus aor, Psendotropius, Bagarius. A
Small T. B. available at Sacrebyle
(as well as a good T. B. in Shimo-
ga itself provided with servants).
Other pools along the river may be
tried near about Sacrebyle and a
collapsible boat may be very use-
ful as there are no locally avail-
able coracles or boats. Occasional-
ly an eel or two are also hauled.

Honnali, 24 miles from Shimo-
ga by road possesses a few good
pools where mahseer, B. neilli and
other carps and catfishes may be
successfully angled for. There is
a good T. B. here on the bank of
the river.

North-west of Shimoga District
is this drainage which is almost un-
known for anglers. Mahseers, and
other carps like B. neilli and Lab-
eos are available. The camping
facilities available are at Gersoppa
or Jog Falls itself which is going to
become a Hydro-electric generating
station. There are good travellers’
bungalows for staying and angling
may be tried both above the Falls
and below. A collapsible boat is very
essential. Talguppa has a good T.
B., 12 miles from Jog Falls and
could be reached from pools of the
river, 5 miles distance by good
motorable road. Angling has not
been tried here properly by anyone
though the local records show the
occurrence of game fishes in large
numbers.

Sulekerve Tank. 26 miles from
Bhadravathi and 36 miles from
Shimoga by road, this place has a
good T. B. and angling for small
carps up to 12 Ibs. as well as cat-
fishes up to 30 lbs. may be done
profitably. There is no facility for
boats or coracles nearby. Lot of
butterfish (Callichrous) and_ occa-
sional eel offer good variety.

Vanivilas Sagar :—102 miles from
Bangalore in Bangalore—Bellary
road, turning west at Hiriyur.
There is a good T. B. and an In-
spection Lodge. This large lake is
not very well stocked with good
varieties of fish and it is not placed
very conveniently for an, angler.
This lake is the second biggest in
Mysore. There is good boating and
a steam launch. Mahseers, B. neil-
li are recorded occasionally and se-
veral large catfishes and carps up

DISTRICTS,
‘Western Ghats.

South Kanara.
(for N. Kanara see
under Bombay).

South Kanara.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER -.- 243

Rivers & TANKS.

Holadi R.
R.

Sitanadi

Swarnanadi
Gurpur R.

Netravati

Gundayahole
Payaswani

Valarpattanam. R.

Holadi. R.

Sitanadi

Swarnanadi

Gurpur

Natravati

REMARKS.

to 15 Ibs. are usually common.
Eels are also caught now and then.

All rivers having sources in the
Western Ghats and flowing west-
wards into the Arabian Sea hold
mahseer in their hilly portions. Or-
dinarily size will not be above 15
Ibs. Except where within reach of
motorable roads the streams are
not easy to get at. Apart from
such notes as are available and
given below, the interested angler
can obtain information as to roads,
accommodation, and rivers from
the Road Map of India, and Sur-
vey of India Maps.

“The Rod in India’ by H. S.
Thomas, 2nd Edition, 1881; and
‘The Mighty Mahseer’ by Skene
Dhu, 1906; should also be referred
to

Mahseer in all these rivers take
spoon bait, in some of them they
will accept no other bait, and in
some they will take fly.

In some of the streams the less
glittering spoons of frosted silver
finish do better than ordinary bright
spoons.

Holadi R. this river may be
fishable from the Hulikal-Hosangadi
road which runs parallel, and a
few miles from it, after it leaves
the Mysore State. No information
is available.

Sitanadi R. is crossed by the
Agumbi Ghat road _ (motorable,
Buses ply) between Someshwar and

~~Hebri east and south of which is

another stream. ee

Swarnanadi R. crossed by the
Hobri-Karkal road and in its upper
reaches by minor roads at Mala
and Miyar.

No information is available.

Gurpur R. crossed in several
places, Yenur, Marur and, to the
north Naravi, by major and minor
roads.

No information is available.

Natravati R. enter sea at Manga-
lore. Has a number of large hill
tributaries. A large tributary with
many hill streams joins the main
river at Uppinangadi. On the north-
ern streams are Charmadi and
Neriya mentioned by Thomas (the
former on the Mudgiri—Mangalore
Ghat road) and on the eastern stream
is Shisla, accessible by cart track
(3 miles) from Shiradi.

The other main tributary also
joins in at Uppinangadi. -It is the
Kamaradhari and has two bran-
ches.

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DIstrRIcTs,

South Kanara—(contd.)

Malabar.
(See also p. 236)

9g. PUNJAB AND

Abbotabad.

NORTH

Rivers & Tanks.

Natravati R.

—(contd.)

Payaswani R.

add: Az. FE. oR HP vat
Parappa down-stream
about 4 miles from

Jalsur.

Malaria.

Vallarpattanam,) R.

Beypur

Palanted R. &
Head waters of

Kabani
East.

Beypur

R. flowing

Siran R.

REMARKS. - °

The Gundayable comes from
near Manjarabad and has the Has-
san-Sakleshpur-Mangalore Ghat
road alongside it for about 20 miles,
Buses run. Stay night at Manja-
rabad Club (road branches here for
bisole on upper reaches of Kama-
radhari which can also be got at
from where the above mentioned
ghat road joins with it 20 miles
below Shoradi.) next day take bus
and go stay Kumphulla, D.B. Fish
accessible parts of river from there. —
Then go Gungaya where is old
Forest Shed now used as a cow
shed. Camp. Five miles further
down is Shiradi, L.F.R.H. at mile
53 from Mangalore. Good spot 1
mile above bungalow also below.
Four miles from bungalow cart
track for Shisla turns off to the
right. Nowhere to stay, river full
of fish. Period for these waters mid-
dle September onwards. Malaria
precautions necessary.

See also Notes by Skene Dhu at
pages 219 & 220 of his book.

Good looking water at Sulya
which is 33 from Mercara and 52
from Mangalore on the Ghat road
between these places. At Sulya
from F.R.H. and from here to-
wards Mercara the road runs with-
in reach of the river for about 20.
miles. No information available
but fishing should be good. 5 miles
up and down available at Sulya.

General remarks as for South
Kanara.

The Vallarpattanam R. becomes,
higher up, the Valiyapuzha which
rises in Coorg.

A F.R.H. at Makut inside Coorg
and a P.W.D. Bungalow at Kutu-
poya in Malabar. These only two
miles apart. Other side of river
from Kutupoya is Portland Rubber
Estate. Ghat road runs for eight
miles within reach of the river un-
til Iritti where it is joined by the
Aralam Puzha, a large stream with
many hilly affluents. 4 miles up
stream village Aralam.

Beypur R. Upper reaches fan-
ing out in the valleys are accessible
in some places from the Calicut-
Gudalur road. Mahseer up to 15 lbs.

INEST FRONTIER PROVINCE AND BALUCHISTAN.

Sivan R. From Harriapur Sta-
tion, then 7 miles to Thapla fishing
is good from the junction of the

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 245

Districts. Rivers & Tanks. REMARKS.
Abbotabad—(contd.) Siran R.—(contd.) Dore with Siren down to junction
with Indus. Bala is another good
place.
Kalapani’ R. Kalapani R. Was stocked with

trout (fario) years ago, but have
since disappeard I understand.
Dore R. Dore R. Crossed near Sultan-
pore on Hassan-Abdul-Abbotabad
road by a large bridge, but is a
poor stream with very small fish.

Ambala. Jumna R. Jumna R. The only water is at
the Head works of the Jumna
Canal at Tajuwallah, and Dadu-
pore. Served with a good motor
road, or by railway to Jagadri sta-
tion 12 miles away. The canal
falls all hold Mahseer as far down

| as Karnal.

Baluchistan. Rakni_ R. Rakni R. Approached by Fron-
ties road from D. G. Khan to
Peshin, through Loralai. Best water
between Mat and Rakni.

Anambar R. Anambar R. The best fishing
is between Shadiani and Missi and
Misri kach 20 miles from Loralai.

Bolan R. Bolan R. Train to Sibi or Nari
bank and make for Kirth Rest
House or Wundalami R. H. an
easy ride, Fish are all Mahseer
under 15 Ibs.

Bannu. Kurrum R. Kurrum R. Near Bannu and
below the Kurrum Post small fish
of 2 and 3 lbs. can be caught, but
the best fishing is in the upper
reaches above Thal extending up to
Parchinar where fish of 5 and 6
Ibs. have been caught.

Tochi R. Tochi R. Good sport can be had
with small Mahseer near Saidgi and
Shinki, I have caught them as high
as Edak but it is unfriendly coun-
try and hardly worth the risk un-
less under pickets.

Campbellpore Hurroo R. Hurroo R. Mahseer are to be
had in some good rapids 1o miles
out, but the best fishing is at the
junction with the Indus.

Kabul R. The Kabul R. also join the Indus

Ferozepore. Sutlej R. near here and is reported to hole
larger fish.

Sutlej R. Sluices & pool below
Sutlej Dam on Ferozepore-Lahore
road (6 m. from Ferozepore & 44
from Lahore).

Butchwa on fly (jungle cock &
silver) or any lake size fly with sil-
ver tinsel about it, also small fly-
spoon.

Mulley. not uncommon and fre-
quently taken.

Seetul, large numbers are seen
and some are caught when trolling
big pools below the bridge dam.

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DistRIcTs,
Ferozepore—(contd.)

Jhelum.
Kashmir.

Kohat.

Kulu.

Lahore.

Loralai.
Murree.

Pathankote.

Peshawar.

Ouetta.
Rawal-Pindi.

Jhelum R.

Ravi

Tanks.

Rakni
Mahl

Ravi

Swat’

Bolan
Sohan

RivERS & TANKS.

R.
R.

Korung &

Chiblat

REMARKS. <*

Mahseery are present. No. infor-
mation as to size there is an excel-
lent fish-ladder. Plenty of rohu
and other fish many turtle and a
few garial.

For all the fishing boat almost’

essential and can be readily obtain-
ed from local fishermen.

See under Tangrote.

Trout are to be had but the sub-
ject has been dealt with so tho-
roughly in books already in print
that it is unnecessary to enumerate
the rivers and localities here. A
book on the rules with general in-
formation is published by the State
and is obtainable for 8 annas.
There are besides a number of
agencies who make all arrange-
ments for the new comer.

Small Mahseer may be had near
Dobah and below.

To the intending visitor to Kulu
no better guide than JT. Tyson’s
book ‘Fishing in Kulu’ could be re-
commended. It is published by the
Civil and Military Gazette Lahore.
It has maps and all the inferma-
tion necessary.

Butchwa and the commoner fish-
es can be had near the Bridges.
For mahseer, journeys must be
made to one of the many places
listed.

A number of tanks have been
stocked with Labeo by Government
for information apply to the Direc-
tor of Fisheries, who will give up
to date information.

See note under Baluchistan.

This river can be reached in two
easy marches.

Distance 24 miles to Dhalkot via
Thanda. It joins the Jhelum at this
point, much up-stream it is indiffe-
rent fishing with small fish. When
the Jhelum is in flood and banks
up the mouth of the Mahi big
fish are to be had by both spinning
and on frog. See further nctes on
this river under Tangrot.

Madhojur 8 miles away is at the
Headworks of the Lower Bari Dhob
Canal off the Ravi R. best fish-
ing is above the wier.

28 miles from Cantonments is
Fort Abazai, built on the river.
Good fish are recorded from here,
in the ‘Anglers Hand Book’ but
times may have changed.

See under Balauchistan.

All within easy reach of Canton-
ments, and were once protected by
a Fishing Club, local information
is necessary or if the Club log book

CIRCUMVENTING THE. MAHSEER 247

DistRICTS, Rivers & TANKS.
Sialkote.
Chenab R.
Simla Hills. Giri R.
Sutlej, R:
Bias. R.
Tangrote. Jhelum & Poonch.

REMARKS.

is available reference to notes there-
in will be of help.

The Chenab takes in two or three
streams, the junctions of which are
all reported to be good. Trolling
in the deep pools has also met
with success. The Jammu-Tewa-
ri? Bhab-Nala? and Khano Bhao
Nala. :

This river can be reached from
Solan, from where it is 10 miles
to the junction of Giri and Ashai
stream, or from Salogra Ry. Stn.
only 7 miles from the same junc-
tion. If planning a long holiday—
Fish from here to the junction,
with the Jumna about 50 miles of
good fishing water, with innume-
rable tributaries joining in.

This river runs north of Simla,
and provides power and_ water
and is an easy days march. For
details of good fishing places local
enquiries should be made.

On the road to Kulu and in
Mandi State some of the streams
are stocked with trout. For de-
tails see under Kulu.

This is probably the most cele-
brated spot for fishing in the Pun-
jab and needs little introduction.

It is reached from Dina Ry. Stn.
then by road 16 miles or from Jhe-
lum 23 miles by road or river. The
Bungalow has a Visitors Fishing
Book full of most interesting notes.

Trips from Poonch can also be
undertaken and are an _ interesting
and popular approach.

This concludes these brief notes on fishing in the Punjab, there
are of course scores of other places about which little is written
or known, except to a select few who guard them as secret.

IO. UNITED PROVINCES AND DELHI.

Allahabad. Jumna & Ganges.

All the commoner fish are to be
taken, Butchwa, Silund, and
W. Attu, etc.

The Jumna has much the best
water of these two sacred rivers at
this revered junction. It carries
the greater volume of water being
fed by the Central Indian Rivers.
The best places to fish for Butchwa
are undoubtedly around the piers of
the Railway Bridge in the broken
water, and in the swirls near the
banks from the water works down
to the Junction. The best time is
from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. when the
water is clear, and at the changing
of the seasons, and hot weather.

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Districts. Rivers & Tanks. REMARKS.
Allahabad—(contd.) Jumna and Ganges Bait. Fly-spoon, Fly, Mole cric-
—(contd.) ket or small fish will all take But-

chwa, but for Silund a slowly spun
bait 4 to 6 inches long is the best,
or a ‘Plug’ may be_ successful.

The Ganges is indifferent, though
fish are visible near the Railway
Bridge. It has very little water in
the best Season, being drained for
irrigation by Canals.

Tens. Small Mahseer are taken on Fly- —
spoon both below and above the
bridge on the Rewa Road from two
to four miles. Best season is after
the Rains when the river clears,
fish up to 1o Ibs. have been caught.
Fishing is good from Lohaa_ to
Korhar about 16 miles of water.

MacPherson Lakes. These lakes are in the Canton-
ments and are well stocked with
Labeo, Catla, and Mirgil. Evid-
ence of their popularity is seen by
the) number of Machans erected.
Fishing permits are issued by the
E.O. and the Chowkidar will erect
a Machan for Rs. 10/-.

A Book of catches is kept by the
Chowkidar and makes interesting
reading. Fish are caught all the
year round, the best bags are re-
gistered in September and October
and part of November: Catla of 60
Ibs. have been taken and Rohu of
over 30 Ibs.

There are also tanks within a
radius of 20 miles of the town,
that fish well.

Balan R. A small river in the South of
the District holds small Mahseer
and B. Bola.

Take road to Kuraon then follow
the Mirzapur road to where it cross-
es. Good water to Mando village
down stream. This is from a fri-
end.

The Balan also fishes well in the
Mirzapur district. Places mention-
ed in the Anglers Handbook are
Buroundeth 25 miles down the Rewa
Road a P.W.D. Bungalow, also a
bridge. The River is 300 yards
away, and fishing is good to Kaol-
sara.

Almora. Kosi R. The Kosi is crossed on the way
from Ranikhet, but it is a small
stream here and the best fishing is
lower down and above Kairhna,
though it is not really good until

“ it enters Reserve Forest one march
below Kairhna, from here down to
where it comes out of the hills is
all good. Further west is the W.
Ramgunga an excellent river and
easily approached from Ranilxhet,

DistRICcTS,
Almora—(contd.)

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 249

Rivers & TANKS.

Kosi R.—(contd.)

suru R:

East Ramgunga.

REMARKS,

or from Ramnagar on the O & T.
Railway.

But for the best fishing in this
District we must look East to the
Surju and East Ramgunga.

The water from Kapkot (D. B.
Bungalow) 14 miles above Bagash-
war on the Pindari Glacier road
to two marches from Almora down
to Rameshwar where it joins the
Ramganga is all good water and
fairly well provided with Rest
Houses.

There are some imposing Gorges
along this stretch of river, and fish-
ing is somewhat restricted, though
they are worth any amount of
trouble as they hold huge fish of
50 and 60 Ibs. Kit must be carried
by coolie, as the pony track leaves
the river in places, and good water
is missed out.

Bait. This is a chilwa or dead
bait river, and gives far better re-
sults than spoon, except for the
light work with Fly-spoon.

The best water is lower down and
I would recommend making for
Upper Shera Ghat 29 miles from
Almora. From here down to
Rameshwar is all good water tak-
ing in the R. Ramganga here it
flows on for another 6 miles to join
the Kali at Pachashwar, making
a wonderful junction and which I
think is the best water in Kumaon.
There are monster fish here and it
is not unusual to be running fish
all day.

The best time is March and April,
May is a bit late, besides it gets
oppressively hot.

This river is still further East
and runs on a parallel course, more
or less from Tajam to Rameshwar
with the Surju. It is a river of
deep un-approachable gorges, which
has to be approached in certain
portions and only after long mar-
ches and much climbing.

It can be approached (1) by cros-
sing the Samapass above Kapkot,
and working down the river to
Rameshwar to the Junction with
the Surju. I have done it once,
but it proved more an adventure
than successful fishing. A boat to
work down through these gorges
would be an experience well worth
trying, there is certainly no other
way of doing it. It holds enor-
mous fish, (I have a belly scale of
a fish I foul-hooked in this river
that is the size of the palm of the

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Districts.
Almora—(contd.)

Baraich.

Benares.

Dehra Dun.

Rivers & TANKS.

Gori R.

Gonah Lake.

Sarda R.

Surju & Rapti.

Ganges R.

Tanks.

Ganges.
Song & Suswa &
Asan Rivers.

REMARKS.

hand). It is a much faster and lar.
ger river than the Surju.

Still further East is the Gori a
raging torrent almost all the way
down to its junction with the Kali.
It offers wild scenery and good
shooting, but has proved a disap-
pointing river to fish for mahseer.
I feel sure it would, with its many
feeders, make an excellent Trout
river.

Is not in the Almora District but
in Tehri Garhwal. One of the
easiest ways to it is from Almora
so I have included it here. It has
an abundance of trout, and the
angler is amply repaid for the long
and arduous ‘trek’ of getting there
in 7 or 8 marches.

Katernian Ghat on O & T. Rail->
way is on the bank of the River
fish have been taken both above to
the Nepal frontier and also a few
miles down, small Mahseer and
B. Bola. The best fishing is to be
had in Nepal to a place called Chi-
sapani 32 miles inside. But for
this, special permission must first
be obtained and this is not easy.
The arrangements for getting sup-
plies and transport are a further
difficulty, as it is wild country with
very poor roads.

These two rivers in the North
East of the District should be good
but the best water is in Nepal.

Butchwa and other predacious
fish can sometimes be caught by
the keen angler near the Pontoon
and Railway Bridge, or if one
wishes to catch the foul feeders,
the outlet of the sewage drain be-
low the Railway Bridge worm will
provide ‘sport’.

The Benares State have some
nice tanks well stocked with Rohu,
but permission must be obtained.
There is also a very pretty Bunga-
low at the Reservoir at Naini 20
miles out, below the dam is a pool
full of elusive fish which is protec-
ted by the State. It would be
well worth a visit in October after
the water had cleared or after bait-
ing with gram.

All but the first named are pro-
tected for part of their length by
the D.D. Fishing Association from
whose books full details can be ob-
tained. The Ganges is best at
Lachmanjhoola, Rikkilkash, Taju-
wallah? and at Hardwar, but care
must be taken to avoid Temples
and Sacred ghats etc. in order to
avoid any chance of unpleasantness.

DISTRICTS.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER ~ ;

Rivers & TANKS.

~Dehra Dun—(contd.) Ganges Canal.

Delhi.

Gorakhpore.

- Wardwar.
Jhansi.

Jumna_ R.

Ganges Canal.

Roshnara Tank.

Gandak R.
Tanks.
Ganges
Betwa R.

REMARKS.

This information could be obtained
from the Collector of Dehra Dun
or the local Canal Authorities.

The falls below Hardwar are at
approximately 3-mile intervals, and
fish well at times, I have had ex-
cellent sport at Patri Falls. A key
for the road gates must be obtain-
ed from the R.E. in charge, who
is as often as not himself a fisher-
man and would be helpful if call-
ed upon.

The. falls used to fish well as
far as Delhi but the Hydro Elec-
tric grids have spoilt falls from an
Anglers point of view.

Jumna R. In the west of the
Doon is the Jumna, and with the
Asun affords good fishing. Full
details are obtainable locally and
through the Association.

Jumna R. At Okhla-14 miles
excellent fishing can be had with
Mahseer and the predacious fish,
when a fish run is on and the small
fish have collected. Silund if on
the feed will give grand sport. Some
good sport has been had at the
overflow. It is necessary to have
someone on the spot to send infor-
mation of the fish running, generally
just before and after the Monsoon.

Ganges Canal. The falls at
Dashna were good but are probably
spoilt, with those in the Meerut
District, by the many grids erected.

Roshnara Tank is well stocked
with Rohu and is well known.
There are besides a number of old
tanks in and around the old City.

This river borders on the East
of the District and although the
Malars at Tirbhani catch fish of
20 Ibs. and over, I have only heard
of small Mahseer being taken on
spinning bait. There are few ra-
pids and it has been little tried.

A poor station from the Anglers’
point of view, though there are a
few tanks which hold Labeo. But-
chwa can be had in the small
streams draining the District at
pontoon bridges, junctions ete.
while the large lakes hold Murrel
in large quantities.

See under Dehra Dun.

Betwa R. Mahseer and _ trout
(B. Bola) can be had down the
Nowgong Road. 74 miles from
Jhansi. Paricha 15 miles down the
Cawnpore road is probably the best
water near at hand. There are
other places but off the beaten track
and at greater distances. Other

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

DistRICTS,
Jhansi—(contd.)

Landsdowne.

Lucknow.

Meerut.

Naini Tal.

Philibhit.

Rivers & TANKS.
Betwa R.—(contd.)

Burwa Sagar Tank.

Nayar

Gomti

Ganges Canal.

Hinden R.

Tanks.

Gola, & Kosi. R.

Nandhaur
Lakes.
Sarda R.

REMARKS.

small streams worth a trial with
light tackle during or just after the
Monsoon are the Barbari, Pahuj,
and Dhurari Nallahas, all within
easy reach of the town and served
by good roads.

Burwa Sagar Tank 13 miles
out affords the tank angler with
all he desires.

Nayar R. A tributary of the
Ganges. Rail to Kotdwara and
make for Bang-Ghat 29 miles where
there is good water all the way
down to the junction, fish of 30 lbs.
have been taken.

Gomti R. Lucknow has no fish-
ing to write about except perhaps
a few butchwa in the Gomti and
Rohu in tanks dotted about, but it
is well situated, and one can get
to good water in a nights journey.—
The Sarda at, Tanakhpore, the
Girwa at Kauriala on O & T.
Railway, Betwa at Jhansi.

The canal has a number of falls
at easy distance from Cannt. (see
remarks under Delhi) Fishing with
atta paste at the cattle crossings
and drinking places sometimes
provides good sport.

Hinden River is very popu-
lar with Indian Anglers who get
good fish of the pariah types, but
details are lacking.

The only tank I know of is 73
miles out on the Hapur Road, it
holds Labeo.

The Gola at Ranibagh, and Kosi
at Kairhna and below both give
sport if hit off at the right time.

Nandhaur R. Runs through Re-
served Forest it is situated 12 miles
East of Haldwani on O & T. Ry.
It is connected by motor road, and
has F. R. Houses. The best fish-
ing is above, where fish of 10
pounds or more can be had on fly-
spoon. Camp at a chowki called
Selakul 5 miles from Chorgalia.
Best seasons are Feb/March and
after the rains.

The lakes at Sathtal Naukatia
and Bhimtal are well known, and
easy to get to from either Naini
Tal or Bhowali.

It is pretty fishing with fly, the
fish seldom run above two Ibs. and
are poor fighters. Kurpa Tal on the
Kaladungi Road is also worth a
trial, but Nainital is disappointing,
and the fish are dying off yearly.

Sarda R. Tanakhpore is within
easy reach, and has some good
water above and up to the Puni-

Saharanpore.

Tanakhpore.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 253

DISTRICTS. “Rivers & TANKS.

jJumna R.

Ladhya R.

JIREMARKS.

gari gorge above the Boom at Bar-
hamdfo. Opposite the Forest Rest
H. and down to Bombasa if fishes
well in the hot months and before
the snow water comes down.

The canal itself should hold fish
though I have no first hand infor-
mation of anyone fishing it or
catching anything.

Jumna R. There is good fishing
to be had in the North of the Dist-
rict, in the many streams that flow
into the Jumna, or Ganges. Notes
and Names of places are not avail-
able to include here.

Ladhya R. Though in the Al-
mora District, it is best approached
from Tanakpore, 7 miles up the
Loharghat Road, the Ladhya is
crossed at Chalti. From here to
its junction with the Sarda at
Chuka—a distance of 14 miles—is
all excellent water for B. Bola and
Mahseer up to 15 pounds. Best
season is Oct/Nov. or just after the
monsoon.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

PART XV,

(Continued from Vol. xlvi, p. 69.)

RHOPALOCERA.

PIERIDAE.

Delias berinda Moore, boyleae Btlr.

I can find no constant difference between the pupa of this sub-
species and that of the nominotypical one (1941, mihi, Journ. Bomb.

Hist. Soc., xlii, 748). A few had a broad white marginal

band on the wing cases, leaving only a submarginal olive-brown
blotch between it and the central white triangular mark.

Pupa usually found in small groups of seven or eight on the
upperside of twigs or leaves of medium height bushes. | Presumably
the larvae drop from their food-plant and spin up below.

Described from a number of pupae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Darjeeling District) 10-v-44, from one of which a male emerged
14-V-44. :

DANAIDAE.

Euploea mulciber Cr., mulciber.

Moore, Lep. Ind., i, 100, pl. 35, fig. 1. 1890-92.
Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, 45. 1905.

rst instar—Head black. Body greenish yellow with faint grey
transverse stripes. Legs and prolegs black. Tentaculae indicated
by raised blackish dots.

Half grown larva—Head black. ist somite with a subdorsal
black spot. Body white transversely banded with olive, anterior
and posterior somites and a lateral stripe yellow. 2nd, 3rd, 5th
and 11th somites with short subdorsal tentaculae. Legs and pro-
legs black.

Final instar—Head black with two white rings, the inner one
triangular. zst somite yellow with a purple black transverse band.
2nd to 11th somites white with two transverse black bands on each
somite ending above the spiracles, the posterior band edged behind
with purplish, which continues to the sublateral area, and two fine
black lines between each somite. An interrupted orange spiracular
stripe, below which is a series of triangular white spots. <A purple
black sublateral stripe. 12th somite tinged with orange posterioriy.
Venter purplish with a purple black lateral stripe. Legs black.
Prolegs black ringed with yellowish olive. Anal flap and clasp-
ers black. 2nd, 3rd, 5th and arth somites with subdorsal tenta-
culae, purple at base and blackish above, the anterior two pairs
longest.

Pupa suspended by the cremaster. Brilliantly gilded except a
ventral streak below the head, the antenna sheaths, a discal streak
and marginal band on the wing cases, the median portion of the
thorax, a dorsal band on the 4th abdominal somite and a subdorsal
and lateral stripe on the abdomen, which are purple buff. Anal
somite and cremaster black. Shape rounded, the thorax and ab-
domen domed. .

Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling
District), one of which pupated 18-vi-gq4 and a male emerged
30-Vi-44.

Bingham quotes the following description by Moore :—‘Larva
cylindrical, with four pairs of long fleshy subdorsal filaments which
have pink bases and black tips, three pairs being on the anterior
segments and the fourth pair on the 12th segment. Body pinkish
white with lateral yellow blotches, the segments each divided by
a black line and anteriorly bordered by a narrow transverse pink
band and purple-brown stripes; spiracles black; head with a dark
red stripe in front and one on each side; fore legs black, middle
and hind legs black ringed with pink. “(Larva of the Javan form,
FE. claudia.) Pupa short, thick across the middle; thorax concave
behind ; abdominal segments dorsally convex, metallic golden-brown
with darker brown anterior stripe.’

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN, LEPIDOPTERA 255-

SATYRIDAE,
~Lethe rohria F.,. rohria.

Ist instar—Head yellow green, slightly bifid above, with a few
black hairs. Body bluer green, the secondary segmental divisions
whitish, a few black hairs visible under a lens. Anal somite bifid.

2nd instar—Head green, rounded and surmounted above by two
points close together, and clothed with black pubescence. Body
green, under a lens covered with minute white points and colour-
less pubescence. Anal somite divided into two pink processes. —
3rd _instar—Similar. The cephalic points pink. Body bluer
green with a dark dorsal stripe and a white subdorsal line. Anal
somite produced into a triangular point, the apex bifid.

4th instar—Head green, heart-shaped, the apex pink and slight-
ly bifid, a yellowish line posteriorly joining the subdorsal body
stripe. Body blue green, a bluish dorsal stripe edged with whitish,
a yellow subdorsal line with prominent yellow spots on it on somites
5 to 9, those on 6 and 7 largest. A green lateral line, edged above
and below with white, and a white sublateral line. Anal somite
produced into a long triangular process, bifid at the tip. Venter,
legs and prolegs green. Clothed with short colourless pubescence.

5th (final) instar—Similar. In some examples the yellow sub-
dorsal spots centred with orange.

Pupa suspended by the cremaster. Greyish green, very finely
streaked with fuscous. ‘A fuscous dorsal stripe, abdomen with a
subdorsal and ventro-lateral fuscous stripe in addition, the subdor-
sal stripe enclosing white dots on 2nd to 6th abdominal somites.
Wing cases with a white line bordered above with fuscous along
the upper edge. Shape—head truncate, thorax slightly keeled, wing
cases not dilated.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling
District), one of which pupated 5-vii-g4 and a female emerged
‘12-vil-44.

Moore (Lep. Ind., i, 261, pl. 84, figs. 1, 1a-1d. 1890-92) figures
and describes the larva of the subspecies nilgiriensis Guer., and
also figures it, without a description, in Lep. Ceyl., iii, pl. 210,
fig. 4, 1880. Bingham (Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1, 81. 1905.)
quotes this description as follows:—‘Larva fusiform, elongated ;
head conical, the vertex being prolonged to an acute point project-
ing forward and anal segment also prolonged to a point projecting
backwards. Colour green, with darker dorsal and lateral stripes
and a slight ochreous subdorsal stripe.’

Lethe sidonts Hew., sidonis.

_-: Head green, produced above into two pink points with a white
line down the back joining the subdorsal body line. Body green,
a blue dorsal stripe edged with whitish, a white subdorsal and
whitish lateral line, both edged above with dark green, and a
white sublateral line. - Spiracles white. Venter, legs and prolegs
green.. Anal somite produced into a long triangular process, bifid
at the end. ater. §

250. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Pupa with the head truncate and expanded into two slight points
fronto-laterally. Thorax with an erect median point. Colour grass
green, a cream line along the upper edge of the wing cases and
continued round the head. The thoracic point cream. Thorax
with a subdorsal series of minute cream specks. Abdomen with
two dorsal, a subdorsal and lateral series of two cream specks per
somite, a slightly darker green line between the two dorsal series
and between the dorsal and subdorsal. Wuing cases streaked with
fuscous. Suspended by the cremaster.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 31-v-44, pupated 4-vi-44 and a male emerged
16-v1-44.

Lethe verma Koll., sintica Fruhs.

Ovum—Spherical, the base flattened. Very pale blue, almost
white. Surface unsculptured. Laid singly on blades of grass.

Ist instar—Head black, hairy, very slightly bifid above. Body
white on hatching, becoming green after feeding, with a few short
black hairs. Anal somite slightly bifid.

2nd instar—Head green, produced above into two points, with
a black lateral line from apex of points. Body green with traces
of a whitish subdorsal line and a darker dorsal stripe. Anal somite
produced into two points.

3rd instar—Similar, but the anal somite produced into a trian-
gular process, bifid at the tip.

4th instar—Similar to final.

5th (final) instar—Head green, produced above into two long
pink processes tipped with black, a double blackish lateral stripe
from the base of the processes and a white line down the back.
Body apple green, a blue-green dorsal stripe edged with yellow,
a zig-zag darker green subdorsal line edged below with yellow,
most marked on the 6th and 7th somites, a zig-zag green lateral
line and a straight white sublateral. Spiracles dark red. The
whole body minutely shagreened with yellow points. Legs, pro- |
legs and venter green. Anal somite produced into two long points
held close together, pale blue-green shagreened with white. One
example had dark red brown streaks above the yellow on the 6th
and 7th somites.

Pupa suspended by the cremaster. Head produced into two
large frontal points; thorax slightly keeled; abdomen rounded.
Colour yellow green, abdomen with a dorsal, subdorsal, lateral,
spiracular and sub-spiracular darker green line, most noticeable
intersegmentally, the subdorsal and the spiracular lines edged be-
low with yellow and a zig-zag yellowish line between the dorsal
and subdorsal lines. Wing cases with two indistinct fuscous
stripes.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from larvae bred from ova found at Tukdah (5,000

ft. Darjeeling District), one of which pupated 26-vi-44 and a female
emerged 6-vii-44.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 257

¥pthima sakra Moore, sakra.

Ovum—Greenish white, spherical, the base flattened. Surface
very minutely pebbled. Laid singly on blades of grass. Hatched
on ninth day.

Ist instar—Head pale olive brown. Body almost white when
first hatched, becoming greener after feeding, with a subdorsal
and lateral purple brown line. Clothed with colourless pubescence.

2nd instar—Head buff, divided above. Body greenish, a dark
dorsal, subdorsal and lateral line. Clothed with short blackish
hair.

grd instar—Similar. The points of the head proportionately
larger. The lateral line purple brown and with a lateral quadrate
dark brown spot on the 7th somite.

4th instar—Similar to final.

5th (final) instar—Head square, divided above into two points.
Pale buff, an inverted brown V outlining the clypeus, a dark buff
stripe down each cheek, and a dark brown stripe from apex of
the point to outside the jaws. Body very pale buff, a brown dor-
sal, a double buff subdorsal, a dark brown lateral and a brown sub-
lateral stripe, all bordered with darker. 3rd somite with a sub-
dorsal black speck, 7th somite with a lateral black spot. Legs,
prolegs and venter pinkish buff, the latter with a median brown
line. Spiracles black. Clothed with brown pubescence. Anal
somite produced into a pair of longish processes.

Pupa with the head truncate and produced into a slight trian-
gular projection fronto-laterally, the base of the wing cases ex-
panded slightly, thorax slightly keeled, abdomen slightly angled
at the 4th somite which bears a slightly raised ridge. Colour buff,
streaked and speckled with dark brown. Head, a dorsal stripe
on the thorax and first four abdominal somites a longitudinal stripe
along the upper edge of the wing cases and a transverse band
across the 4th abdominal somite dark brown. Wing cases with
the central half heavily suffused and streaked with dark brown, and
with a submarginal series of dark specks. 5th abdominal somite
backwards suffered laterally with dark brown. Suspended by the
cremaster from a dry blade of grass.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from larvae bred from ova laid by a female caught
at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling District), one of which pupated
13-vi-44 and a male emerged 26-vi-44.

NYMPHALIDAE.

Limenitis daraxa Dbl. & Hew.

Head green, shagreened with white points, and surrounded by
a series of twelve black-pointed spines, the spines largest dorsally
and decreasing in size laterally. Body green, shagreened with
yellow points, and with a sublateral series of small yellow spines.
A dark dorsal and a whitish lateral line. 2nd somite with a large,
black-spined, whitish, subdorsal scolus, which turns deep pink be-
fore pupation. Anal somite bifid. Legs, prolegs and venter whit-
ish green. nha pestt : :

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Pupa suspended by the cremaster. Eyes expanded into a late-
rally projecting spine. Thorax keeled, rising to a backward-direct-
ed point. Abdomen with a slight dorsal keel, expanded into a large
point on the 3rd and a smaller one on the 8th abdominal somite,
where the keel terminates. _Meso-thorax with a short black sub-
dorsal spine, 3rd to 5th abdominal somites each with a subdorsal
spine. A lateral spine at base of wing cases, the upper edge of
which is expanded laterally. Colour green. The dorsal keel and
points thereon purple brown, a purple brown subdorsal stripe on
the abdomen becoming lateral on the 4th somite. The lateral edge
of the wing cases, a line outlining the spine from the eye, and the
basal portion of the antenna sheath on the dorsum purple brown.
The antenna sheath ventrally yellowish white. A spot over the
eye, the pro-thorax, a stripe on the posterior edge of the meso-
thorax, the dorsal area, except for the keel on the meta-thorax
and abdomen, the expanded dorsal edge of the wing cases, and a
lateral blotch on the 3rd to 5th abdominal somites brilliantly gilded.
Two purple brown specks on the wing cases, two on the leg sheaths,
and a central streak at base of proboscis sheath.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 19-vi-44, pupated 22-vi-44 and a female emerged
2-Vil-44. :

Pareba vesta F., vesta.
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlii, 752. 1941.

Head shining black, hairy, with a pale inverted Y-shaped mark.
Body black, the intersegmental areas blotched with dirty whitish,
a whitish sublateral line and a cream medio-ventral stripe. Armed
with longish, black, branched spines, a subdorsal on the 1st somite,
a subdorsal and lateral on the 2nd and 3rd, a subdorsal, lateral
and sublateral on the 4th to 11th, and a subdorsal and sublateral
on the 12th somite. Legs black. Prolegs black, the feet pinkish.
This is a very much darker and dingier form than the one described
from Shillong. .

Food- -plant—Peile (1937, A Guide to Collecting Butterflies of
India) gives Debregeasia bicolor (Urticaceae).

Described from a number of full fed larvae found at Tukdah
(5,000 ft. Darjeeling District), one of which pupated 2-v-44 and a
male emerged 16-v-44. :

ERYCINIDAE.

_ Zemeros flegyas Cr., indicus Fruhs.

Dudgeon, Proc. A. S. Beng., 140. 1890. .
Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind, Butterflies, 1,499. 1905.

Ovum spherical, the base flattened. Yellow green... Under a
lens chothed with fine hairs. Laid singly on’ the underside of. a
leaf of the food-plant. Hatched on the eighth day. |

Young larva—Pale green, flattened. The termen scalloped | lat-
erally. Clothed with white pubescence.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN. LEPIDOPTERA 259

Adult larva—Head small, green. Body yellow green with a
cream dorsal stripe edged with darker green. The lateral area
speckled with yellow dots. Shape flattened, outline oval, the edges
scalloped and fringed. with colourless hair.

Pupa flattened, the head rounded with a central cleft, abdomi-
‘nal somites scalloped laterally. Colour pale green. Three longitu-
inal blue lines on the pro-thorax. Meso-thorax with a dorsal,
subdorsal and lateral blue line which diverge and then join again.
Abdomen with a dorsal series of blue spots, a subdorsal blue line
and a lateral series of oblique blue lines. Wing cases with a blue
line on the upper edge. Formed on a pad of white silk and sup-
ported by a girdle.

Food-plant—Maesa chisia Don.

Described from a larva bred from ova laid in Tukdah (5,000
ft. Darjeeling District), pupated 9-vi-44 and a female emerged
1Q-Vi-44. |

Bingham, quoting Dudgeon, gives the following description :—
‘Larva adult: length .75 of an inch. Ovate, extremely flattened,
inconspicuous. Colour pale green, head and anal segment slightly
lighter; all the segments laterally rounded, covered with whitish
down, especially at the sides; an indistinct double longitudinal dor-
sal darker-green line throughout, enclosing a minute orange spot
on seventh and eleventh segments; middle segments more than
twice as broad as they are long; legs pale green, set well beneath
the animal and rather close together. Full grown at the end of
March. Feeds on Maesa montana. Larva when about to change
into the pupal state attaches itself to a patch of silky web, by the
last segment, to the underside of a leaf of the food-plant, with the
head towards the apex, and is girt about the middle with another
web. Pupa length .55 to .7o of an inch. Fusiform, broadest in
the middle ... . anterior end truncate-rounded, distinctly broader
than the posterior; the whole pupa flattened and of very slight depth
even in the thickest part; the divisions between the segments well-
marked ; posterior segment bluntly rounded; head also rounded and
divided in the middle at.the apex into two lobes by a shallow notch
- .. . colour bright yellowish green throughout, marked above
with rich emerald-green narrow lines arranged in an arabesque-
like pattern on the two outer-thirds; a series of round spots along
the middle of the back.on the abdomen only, and a subdorsal line
on either side interrupted at the segmental constrictions. Under
surface pale yellowish green throughout, entirely unmarked... .
The whole surface of the pupa smooth, without any hairs or shag-
reening whatever.’ I did not notice the minute orange spot in any
of my larvae, and in my opinion the species ‘is continuous-brooded
throughout ‘She summer.

De dona Pana isores coulda.

Ovum—A truncated cone, rounded abov e, the micropyle a dark,
sunken spot.! Colour bright mauve. Laid in small, regular batches
on the underside‘ of ‘a Jeaf of the food- plant. The ovum is very
‘much more like that of a moth than that of a butterfly.

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Adult larva—Head yellow green with black hairs. Body with
the 1st somite yellow green, 2nd to 12th somites with an olive green
dorsal stripe edged with yellow green, followed by a wide blue, a
narrow blue green, a narrow greenish yellow, an olive green and
a greenish yellow stripe. Anal somite yellow green. Venter, legs
and prolegs pale green. Spiracles white. Subdorsal and sublate-
ral areas sparsely clothed with erect black bristles. Gregarious. —
Some colonies of larvae are more tinged with green, others more
tinged with blue.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Round-
ed, the thorax slightly domed, the head rounded in front and divid-
ed by a central cleft into two rounded lobes. Colour yellow green,
the lobes of the head yellow. A blue dorsal and subdorsal line,
the latter terminating on the 4th abdominal somite and continuing
as four blue tubercles. Three blue lines on the wing cases. A
lateral series of blue spots on the abdomen and traces of a series
of blue spots between the dorsal and subdorsal lines.

The larva is very like that of Abisara fylla Dbl., described be-
low, and the pupa similar in shape though not in colour. Both
larva and pupa differ widely from those of Dodona adonira Hew.,
also described below, and also from the published description of
those of Dodona eugenes Bates, the only previously published des-
cription of the early stages of a Dodona that I know.

Food-plant—Maesa chisia Don.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 25-v-44, pupated i1-vi-4q4 and a male emerged
15-vi-44.

Dodona adonira Hew., adonira.

Head and body rich green, clothed with short colourless pub-
escence. Shape tapering to the rear, the anal flap ending in a
point. Somites slightly scalloped sublaterally with a fringe of
rather longer colourless hair.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Shape
unangled, the head divided into two slight triangular fronto-lateral
processes. Colour pale green, the cephalic processes and apex of
the abdomen yellow.

Food-plant—Maesa chisia Don.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District), 24-v-44, pupated 28-v-44 and a female emerged
IO-VI-44.

Abisara fylla Dbl.

Head yellow green with a few black bristly hairs. Body green,
1st somite pale blue with a subdorsal blue black spot. A blue dor-
sal line, a pale blue spiracular stripe with a darker blue line in
it and with a whitish stripe below. 12th somite backwards green
throughout. A subdorsal series: of groups of four black bristles
per somite and a sublateral series of groups of colourless hairs
with one or two black ones among them arising from slight tuber-

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 261

cles. Venter, legs and prolegs whitish. Spiracles yellow green
ringed with black.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Head
rounded, with a slight median cleft dividing it into two frontal
lobes. Thorax domed. Abdomen stout and slightly humped.
Colour deep lemon yellow thickly speckled with rusty red, ventral
surface greenish. <A: dorsal series of six purple spots on the abdo-
minal somites. Spiracles bright blue.

As mentioned above the larva and pupa of this species are very
like those of Dodona ouida Moore, they differ widely from the
published description of the early stages of Abisara echerius Stoll.

Food-plant—Maesa chisia Don.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 14-vi-44, pupated 22-vi-44 and a male emerged
4-Vil-44.

LYCAENIDAE.

Heliophorus brahma Moore, brahma.

Head brown, retractile. Body bright apple green, a darker
green dorsal line, a slightly darker green subdorsal and a double
lateral line. Clothed with very short colourless pubescence. The
usual Lycaenid wood-louse shape.

Pupa yellow green. Abdomen with a purple brown dorsal line
and traces of a subdorsal line, a purple brown dorsal blotch on
the waist and another on the posterior somites. The thorax and
outer margin of the wing cases slightly suffused with purple brown.
The purple brown markings vary greatly in extent and intensity.
Shape rather stout, the thorax and abdomen domed as usual in Lyc-
aenid pupae, abdomen with a double series of very minute dorsal
humps. Slightly pubescent. Formed on a slight mat of white
silk on a leaf of the food-plant and held in place by a girdle.

Food-plant—Rumex sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) r11-v-44, pupated 15-v-44 and a male emerged
2Q-V-44.

GRYPOCERA.
CELAENORRHINAE.

Celaenorrhinus plagifera DeN.

Head very dark purple brown, very large and square, the upper
edge slightly indented in the centre. Body dark brownish olive
with a black median line. The secondary segmental divisions with
lines of very minute yellow dots. Spiracles very pale pink. Vent-
er, legs, prolegs and anal flap pale olive. 1st somite constricted
to form a neck. Lives in a silk-lined leaf cell.

Pupa in a silk-lined leaf cell, attached by the cremaster only.
Very moth-like in shape, the head with a minute forward-projecting
central point. Colour buff, abdomen and thorax minutely .speckl-
ed with dark brown, intersegmental areas unspeckled.

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Food-plant—Impatiens sp.
Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (yous ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 13-v-44, pupated 25-v-44 and a male emerged

9-V1-44.
HETEROPTERINAE.

Aervomachus stigmata Moore.

Head yellow green. Body blue green, a darker dorsal line, a
white subdorsal stripe and a very fine white sublateral line edged
above .with olive green. Venter, legs and prolegs pale green.
Spiracles white.

Pupa supported by a girdle and tail pad of white silk spun on
a blade of grass folded slightly by cross threads. Colour grass
green, a darker dorsal line on the abdominal somites, hordered
with enite. a white subdorsal and a very fine white sublateral line.
Shape slender, the head produced frontally into a sharp point, thor-
ax very slightly keeled, body and wing cases unangiled,

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 5-v-44, pupated 9-v-44 and a male emerged 25-v-44.

Notocrypta feisthamelii Bsd., alysos Moore.

Head longish, the sides straight, the upper edge slightly cleft.
Black with a greenish yellow stripe on each lobe extending from
just below the vertex to the sides of the jaws, the clypeus with a
greenish yellow bar. Body greyish green minutely speckled with
dark green. A white spiracular line. Spiracles white. Venter,
legs and prolegs greyish. 1st somite constricted forming a neck.
Anal flap broad and flat, and fringed with short white hairs. Lives
in a silk-lined leaf cell.

Pupa in a leaf cell, well covered with a waxy powder, and sup-
ported by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Pale watery blue-
green with traces of a darker dorsal line on the abdominal somites
and a white spiracular line. Shape unangled, the body long, head
produced frontally into a point. Proboscis sheath very long and
reaching to beyond the end of the. abdomen.

Food- plant—Zinziberaceae Sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 12-v-44, pupated 21-v-44 and a male emerged

5-V1-44.
PAMPHILINAE.

Baoris eltola Hew.

Pupa in a slightly folded leaf, lined with white silk, and sup-
ported by a girdle and tail» pad. Colour pale watery green, a
double white dorsal line on thorax: and abdomen, anda subdorsal
line on the abdomen only. A fine white. spiracular line. Shape
long, unangled, head truncate and produced centrally into a long
point. | ee

THE. EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 263
Described from a pupa found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling
District) 22-v-44, from which a male emerged 28-v-44.

HETEROCERA.
ZYGAENIDAE.

Eterusia pulchella Koll., pulchella.
Jordan, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, ix, 32. 1908.

Head. brown, retractile. Ist somite olive brown, retractile.
Body olive brown tinged with golden with a black dorsal and sub-
lateral line. 2nd to 11th somites with a subdorsal series of small
tubercles, a lateral series with the tubercles on the 2nd and 3rd
somites double, the tubercles of both these series olive brown,
and a sublateral series of orange yellow tubercles, those on the 2nd
and 3rd somites smaller. 12th somite with a transverse series
of four olive brown tubercles. All the tubercles bearing one or
two short colourless hairs. Venter, legs and prolegs orange pink.

Cocoon of papery white silk spun in a fold of a leaf. Pupa
brownish yellow. |

Food-plant—Melastoma normale Don., Rubus sp. In captivity
ate ‘Lagerstroemia indica L. Jordan gives Rose, Tea, Polygonum.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 10-vi-44, spun 13-Vi-44 and a male emerged
5-Vil-44.

Jordan’s description in Seitz reads:—‘Larva yellowish brown,
with black longitudinal lines on the back and sides.’

ARCTIIDAE.
Diacrisia casigneta Koll.

Head black. Body black, a white lateral dot between the 3rd
and 4th somites and a dotted white lateral line from the 5th somite
backwards. Clothed with tufts of long black hair, except on the
5th and 6th somites where the hairs are rufous, with a few long-
er white hairs intermixed on the anterior and posterior somites.
Spiracles white. Legs honey colour. Venter and prolegs black,
the latter with honey coloured feet.

Cocoon of dark brown silk mixed with larval hair. Pupa bright
reddish chestnut. Cremaster two bunches of brown spines.

Described from a full fed Jarva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 28-v-44, spun 3-vi-44 and a male emerged 21-vi-44.

LYMANTRIIDAE.

Dasychira g o rotei ‘Moore.

Btlr., Ill. Het., vii, 124, pl. CxxXviil, fig, 7. 1880.
Gardner, Indian Forest Records, il, 197.. 1938.

Head bright yellow. Body yellow, ere tinged with grey-
ish, with a large yelvety black patch, almost. circular when “fully
exposed, between the 4th and sth somites dorsally. 3st somite

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

with a subdorsal tubercle tufted with long canary yellow hair. A
subdorsal, lateral and sublateral series of yellow warts on somites
2 to 11, 2nd to 3rd and 8th to 11th somites with paired dorsal
warts in addition. 12th somite with a transverse series of four
warts with a fringe of long yellow hair. 4th to 7th somites each
with a triangular dorsal brush of yellow hair, 11th somite with
a long dorsal pencil of canary yellow hair. Venter yellow with
a blackish lateral stripe. Legs pinkish banded with yellow. Pro-
legs yellow, the feet purple. Dorsal’ glands greyish. Some ex-
amples have the undertint more greenish than greyish. Others
have a greyish dorsal and subdorsal line on the thoracic somites
and a broad grey dorsal stripe from 6th to roth somites, and with
a few black hairs mixed with the yellow ones.

Immature larvae lack the dorsal brush on the 6th and 7th somi-
tes.

Cocoon large, of loosely-woven yellow silk mixed with larval
hair. Pupa dark olive brown. Head, thorax and the lateral area
of the first four abdominal somites clothed with rufous hair, the
rest of the abdomen, except ventrally, clothed with long: silly
whitish hair. 2nd to 4th abdominal somites each with a large,
raised, yellow-brown, dorsal scar. Spiracles with a noticeable pale
brown ring.

Food-plant—Rubus sp., Quercus sp., Apple, Acacia dealbata.
Butler gives rose and willow, and Gardner Shorea robusta, Lager-_
stroemia flos-reginae, Tectona grandis and Psidium guava. It 1s
presumably a fairly general tree and shrub feeder.

Described from a full grown larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 25-v-44, spun 2-vi-44 and a female emerged
16-vi-44.

Euproctis inconcisa WIk.

Head very dark olive brown, almost black. Body black, the
intersegmental areas frosted with white. 1st somite with a white
dorsal line, and a lateral line composed of white dots on the 7th to
roth somites. 3rd to 7th somites thickly clothed on the dorsum
with erect, grey, fluffy hair.. 4th somite with a velvety black,
double, dorsal hump. 8th to t1ith somites with subdorsal tufts of
dark brown urticating spicules. 1st somite with a subdorsal black
tubercle bearing a few dark hairs. ‘A lateral series of brown warts
bearing golden brown tufts of short hair. Dorsal glands purple.
Venter black streaked transversely with grey. Legs brown. Pro-
legs black.

Pupa in a cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hair. Pale
yellow brown with traces of a blackish dorsal and subdorsal line.
A few colourless hairs. Spiracles black.

Food-plant—Melastoma normale Don. nae

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 16-v-44, spun r9-v-44 and a female emerged 4-vi-44.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 265

Euproctis divisa Wk.

Head brown, shining. Body black, the thoracic somites with
subdorsal red streaks and with an interrupted pinkish subdorsal
line on the 6th to 11th somite. Ist somite with a subdorsal tubercle
bearing a long pencil of white-tipped black hair and a brown dou-
ble dorsal wart with a few short brown hairs. 2nd and 3rd somites
with a small subdorsal, a small lateral and a larger sublateral brown
wart with a few short brown hairs. 4th somite with a large double
dorsal, a lateral and a sublateral brown wart with short brown
hairs. 5th to 7th somites each with a subdorsal, lateral and sub-

jJateral brown wart with brown hairs. 8th to 11th somites with

similar warts but greyish brown in colour. 12th somite with a
transverse series of four brown warts. Dorsal glands red. Venter
black with a lateral stripe of pinkish streaks. Legs and prolegs
pinkish.

Pupa in a cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hair. Olive
brown, the head, thorax and wing cases olive. Spiracles black.
Clothed sparsely with short rufous pubescence.

Food-plant—Rose, Apple, Engelhardtia acerifolia Bl.

Described from a full grown larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 24-v-44, spun 2-vi-44 and a female emerged
16-Vi-44.

Euproctis digramma Guer.

Head black. Body black, a white dorsal line on the 1st somite
becoming subdorsal thereafter, and a white sublateral line. 1st
somite with a subdorsal tubercle bearing a few greyish hairs and
a dorsal fringe. 2nd and 3rd somites with a double dorsal, a sub-

dorsal, a lateral and a sublateral wart with a few greyish hairs. 4th

and 5th somites with a double dorsal hump clothed with dark brown
pubescence, and a lateral and sublateral wart with a few grey hairs.
6th and 7th somites similar but the dorsal humps not so prominent
and clothed with longer brownish hair. 8th to 11th somites with
paired dorsal and lateral patches of urticating black spicules ringed
with rust-colour, and with sublateral warts bearing greyish hair.

12th somite with four transverse warts with grey hair. Dorsal

glands white. Venter, legs and prolegs black.

Cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hair. Pupa pale yellow
brown, the dorsum rather darker, with the thorax, wing and ant-
enna cases very dark olive. The intersegmental areas blackish.
Clothed sparsely with longish, colourless hairs.

Food-plant—Melastoma normale Don.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 26-v-44, spun 30-v-44 and a male emerged 18-vi-44.

Euproctis flavinata Wk.

Head orange. Body black, a rust-red dorsal, subdorsal end
lateral stripe, the intersegmental areas transversely streaked with
rusty red. 1st somite with a subdorsal tubercle with a few black
hairs. 2nd and 3rd somites with paired dorsal warts with a few
white hairs. 4th to 6th somites with dorsal brushes of short grey

266, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

hair. 7th to roth somites with a double dorsal and a subdorsal
brown wart clothed with very short dark brown hair. 11th somite
similar but the dorsal warts larger and closer together. rath
somite with a transverse series of four warts bearing short dark
brown hair. A lateral series of red warts bearing a few white
hairs. Dorsal glands brown. Venter black transversely streaked
with yellowish. Legs and prolegs black.

Cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hair. Pupa orange
brown, the venter paler. Wing cases pale olive. Spiracles black.
Except for the wing cases clothed with fine colourless hair.

Food-plant—Melastoma normale Don.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 27-v-44, spun 28-v-44 and a female emerged 16-vi-44.

LASIOCAMPIDAE,

Paralebeda plagifera WI1k.

Head pale brown, minutely streaked with darker. Body pale
brown minutely streaked and speckled with darker, the thoracic
somites with traces of a paler dorsal and subdorsal stripe, the
abdominal each with a shield-shaped dorsal mark filled in with red
brown streaks and minute blue spots. 2nd and 3rd somites each
with a transverse black dorsal fold filled with purple brown bristies.
t1th somite darker dorsally, humped, the hump clothed with erect
black bristles. Each somite with a large sublateral tubercle bear-
ing a fan-shaped tuft composed of long, pale brown, simple hairs
interspersed with a few shorter spatulate hairs, the tubercles on
the thoracic somites, of which the first is double, with a dark blue
spot on the anterior face. A few short black bristles dorsally.
Anal claspers clothed with longish black hair. Venter black, the
lateral area pinkish minutely streaked with black. Legs entich
banded with white. Prolegs purple-brown with a double pale line.
The younger larvae are more brightly coloured.

Pupa in a cocoon of yellowish silk, spun among leaves and
studded with larval hairs point outwards. Colour dark mahogany,
abdomen, head and thorax clothed with short, pale brown pubes-
cence. The intersegmental areas paler in colour and naked. Apex
of abdomen blunt.

Food-plant—Maesa chisia Don.

Described from a full grown larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 4-v-44, spun 9-v-44 and a male emerged 31-v-44.

Arguda bheroba Moore.

Head blue-black with a white inverted Y-shaped mark, hairy.
ist somite black with a double dorsal, a subdorsal and a lateral
longitudinal orange streak. A thin lateral pencil of long white
hair. 2nd and 3rd somites with the dorsum clothed with short.
_rufous, silky hair, a thin erect. subdorsal pencil of white hair on
each somite, and the skin between dorsally bright orange pink, the
lateral area blackish with a white lateral and orange sublateral
line.. 4th somite backwards with the dorsum slate-grey. and the
lateral area blackish, a dull black dorsal stripe and subdorsal line

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 267

composed of reddish and white streaks, the area between the dor-
sal stripe and subdorsal line minutely streaked with white. An
orange sublateral line, the lateral area with an erect white streak
on each of the abdominal somites. The posterior portion of. the.
7th and anterior of the 8th somite with a blackish dorsal patch
edged behind with pink subdorsally.. 11th somite with an orange
brown dorsal hump clothed with fine black hair and with a thin
pencil of long white hair arising subdorsally. 4th to roth somites
each with a few white subdorsal hairs. 12th somite with a trans-
verse orange dorsal band. Venter black, minutely streaked witii
whitish, and with a white lateral stripe. Legs brown. Prolegs
blackish brown with a double pale line externally. Anal flap and
claspers coal black.

Cocoon of whitish silk impregnated with a yellowish powder
and with the larval hairs protruding. Pupa olive brown, the wing
cases, head and thorax almost black. Thorax slightly pubescent.
Spiracles raised. A deep subdorsal pit between the thorax and
abdomen. The apex of the abdomen blunt.

Food-plant—Rubus sp., Melastoma sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 6-v-44, spun 30-v-44 and a female emerged 20-vi-44.

Trabala vishnu Lef.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 314. 1930.
Gardner, Indian Forest Records, vi, 305. 1941.

Larvae collected at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling District) in
May 1944 were much darker than Calcutta larvae with a distinct
smoky tint.

The cocoons were of dark coffee-brown. silk instead of the yel-
low silk of Calcutta cocoons.

Cosmotriche pyriformis Moore.
Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 427. 1892.

Ovum keg shaped, the ends rounded. Very pale blue grey, a
darker spot surrounded by a white ring on either side. Micropyie
a dark speck. Laid in twos and threes on blades of grass.

Head pale brown striped longitudinally with darker, clothed
with longish hair. Ground colour of body dark slate blue, a dark
brown dorsal line edged with paler, a pale brown subdorsal stripe
speckled with darker brown and a lateral series of oblique pale
brown stripes speckled with darker brown. 1st somite with two
subdorsal tufts of pale brown hair directed forwards and two pen-
cils of longer hair arising from a lateral and a sublateral tubercle.
2nd somite with a dorsal tuft of black hair posteriorly and 3rd with
an orange brown dorsal tuft anteriorly. 11th somite with a dor-
sal pencil of black hair. 4th to roth somites with very short sub-
dorsal tufts of black hair. A sublateral fringe of tufts of short,
buff, woolly hair, the 5th somite with the tufts longer and white,
the base of the prolegs clothed with longer pale brown hair. Spir-
acles whitish Venter black with a lateral stripe of yellowish frec-
kles. Legs pinkish. Prolegs brown with a paler median stripe.

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Pupa in a long spindle-shaped cocoon of brownish yellow silk,
spun along a grass stem, and with the larval hairs protruding.
Pupa dark mahogany, the intersegmental areas paler, smooth. Anal
end rounded.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 1-v-44, spun, 3-v-44 and a male emerged
23-V-44. pte

Hampson’s description reads as follows:—‘Dorsum black;
lateral area brown; a scarlet lateral line and strigae, grey and
black subdorsal tufts on 2nd-11th somites; dorsal red-brown tufts
on Ist somite and lateral tufts on each somite.’

BOMBYCIDAE.
Mustilia falcipennis Wk.

Head dark brown with short, sparse, colourless pubescence.
Body dark brown minutely speckled with yellow dots each-of which
gives rise to a short colourless bristle. The 1st to 5th somites
darker than the rest of the body and with a dark dorsal stripe
extending from 6th to 8th somite, this stripe the full width of the
dorsum on the anterior edge of the 6th somite but narrowing con-
siderably to the posterior edge, on the 7th somite of equal width
throughout and then tapering to a point in the centre of the 8th
somite. Thoracic somites with a blackish dorsal line. An ex-
tensile sublateral flap of skin on the 3rd, 4th and anterior part
of the 5th somite, below which on the forepart of the 3rd somite
is a small, black-ringed, orange, inflatable. organ. 1oth somite
slightly humped dorsally. 11th somite with a long, down-turned,
fleshy horn. Venter rather paler brown with a median black Ine
as far as the 6th somite. Legs and prolegs dark brown. When
the larva is disturbed, the head and first two somites are retracted,
the flap of skin on the 3rd and 4th somites is extended, the organ
on the 3rd somite is everted looking like a protuberant eye, and
the tail is lashed from side to side.

Cocoon of tough brown silk, small, and spun among leaves.
Pupa purple-brown, the wing cases and intersegmental area slightly
paler. 4th to 7th abdominal somites each with a transverse black-
ish stripe from just above the spiracle to the ventral area. Cuticle
punctate. Thorax with a slight dorsal ridge. Cremaster a spread-
ing bunch of short hooked spines.

Food-plant—Symplocos sp.

Described from a full grown larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 21-v-44, spun 4-vi-44 and a male emerged
2-Vil-44.

Andraca bipunctata Wk.

(N.B.—The larva described under this name in Part 3 of this
paper, 1939, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 76, belongs to the
Bombycid species Prismosticta fenestrata Btlr.)

Head dull black, small and slightly hairy. Body with the
thoracic somites tapered. Pubescent. Ground colour black, mark-

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 269

ed with brownish intersegmentally.. A double dorsal, a subdorsal,
lateral and sublateral white line, the dorsal lines joined on the
ist and 2nd somites and the joined portion orange brown in colour.
A sublateral orange brown blotch on each somite anteriorly. Vent-
er black with a white median and yellowish lateral line. Legs
yellowish. Prolegs black with an external white line. The larva
is much more like a Notodontid than a Bombycid.

The larvae are gregarious and suffer severely from the attacks
of parasites. The resting attitude is contorted, the larva gripping
the support with the last three pairs of prolegs only, and holding
the anterior and posterior portions of the body erect, the head and
first two somites usually curved right back.

Pupa in a thin cocoon of brown silk spun among leaves. Colour
dark purple brown, the wing cases slightly paler. Cuticle minuieiy
wrinkled and punctate. Last somite blunt and clothed with sliort
golden brown pubescence.

Food-plant—Symplocos sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Dar-
jeeling District) 3-v-44, pupated 8-v-44 and a female emerged
Smear

(To be continued.)

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM.

BY
ale: (Gish Lalo ahy

(Continued from page 118 of this Volume.)
Part V.

Rewak, in the centre of the Hills, is a delightful spot. The
first time I went there two rogue elephants had been proscribed;
one was a tusker the other a makna. We tracked them into very
heavy, dense jungle where it would have been folly to attack them,
especially as the evening was closing in apace. I gave up the
idea, and having unloaded my rifle handed it to a Garo who took it
up to the village where the people were drinking rice beer. My
servants got in with this crowd and I and a Turwa orderly walk-
ed on. We were nearing a very large tree when the orderly said,
‘I can see the rogue elephant!’ and immediately bolted. Going
up to the tree I searched with my eyes in every direction but
could not make out the animal when, as I was peering round the
trunk, a heavy blow struck me on the shoulder. I thought this
was from the trunk of the elephant and got a terrific shock! It
was the head Garo of the village who had felt uneasy about me
and followed after. ‘Come’, he said, ‘come at once, for one of
the rogues is above us and the other below.’ He took me back
to the village by a path and then said, ‘It is too late and too dan-
gerous to attempt to return to the bungalow to-night, so you must

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

sleep at the village.’ I lit a pipe and let them drink on, and then
told them that I must return as my wife would be very alarmed
if I did not do so. After some more potations they were persuad-
ed to accompany me and procured a number of blazing torches.
We were passing a clearing a little further on than the aforesaid
large tree when there was a shout of, ‘Here comes the rogue’
and they quickly formed a ring and set fire to the jungle, hold-
ing their torches on high. One elephant came right up to the
edge of the jungle and was clearly seen. It was the tusker, and
I should have fired at it, for had the shot not killed it it would
have frightened it away. However, it remained close by. There
were now many Garos and they formed a double ring round me.
The outer ring went on their knees, holding their spears at an
angle, and the inner ring stood with spears held high. They ad-
vanced in this formation, burning jungle going ahead, until we
reached some boats on the river bank. Into these we all got,
torches still burning, and soon gained the centre of the river
from where we saw the two elephants following us along the
bank. Fortunately they did not cross the river, so we landed on
the other side and went up hill to the bungalow as fast as it
could be done. The Garos stayed all night near the bungalow
and by morning the elephants had gone; there was no trace of
them. So ended a very exciting experience.

Stx TIGERS IN ONE Hour.

Mention has been made of six tigers killed in one hour, and it
will be conceded that was good hunting. It was when G’s camp
was not far from the Grass Reserve at the foot of the Bhutan
Hills. Some tigers had already been bagged, but on that mem-
orable day it was decided to try for buffalo. The difficulty was
to get a shot at the desired animal, which had been seen to have out-
standing horns, before it could escape into the sanctuary of the
Grass Reserve. After we had failed to get a shot, the Rajah said
he would take some beating elephants and try to drive the animal
towards us, and placed us so that we could command a clearing
in the jungle. ‘Now that you four sportsmen command _ this
clearing you may perhaps secure this buffalo having an except-
ional head’ said G as he moved off towards the edge of the
Grass Reserve. We four, the two Ms, the Raj Kumar and I
were so placed that we could see any animal coming into the
clearing without it seeing us, high up as we were on our ele-
phants and looking over the tall grass. Suddenly a tiger ran
across the clearing, taking us all by surprise so that not one of
us fired. No buffaloes had been moving and we were not watch-
ing the clearing as we should have been. When G came up he
scolded us, ‘You are a nice lot of shikaris; muddled the buffalo
shoot, and now the four of you allowed a tiger to go past with-
out firing at it. Disgraceful.’ ‘Now’, said the Kumar Saheb, ‘we
must go and get the tiger or father will be very angry indeed.’
So off we went with beating elephants, ringed the tiger as they
do in Nepal, and drove it towards G. It was a big tigress and

§8OME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM ahi

he killed it. We then apologized to him for our disgraceful be-
haviour as shikaris, and got him to again take an interest in the
shoot. He went on ahead and we four were talking, our elephants
close to one another, when we saw three tame buffaloes pass into
some jungle. This patch of heavy jungle was narrow and the
buffaloes had only just gone into it when one of them was killed
by a tiger. This was in broad daylight, midday, and some
villagers on their house tops called out to tell us of the kill having
been made. In such manner do the inhabitants of some parts of
Assam live close to savage wild life.

Some beating elephants were at once put in. Where I was
stationed the Rajah was just behind me. Suddenly someone called
out that the tiger was in the open, behind other guns who were ad-
vancing. Two of them swung round and fired, and the tiger
dropped dead. Both were using 12 gauge Paradox guns, and
that evening had to toss for the claim. It was M who won the
trophy. This was a heavy ro ft. tiger. G always emphasized
this point, “Never be certain what a tiger will do.’

The tiger having been padded we pushed on to where there
were said to be four more tigers. The beating elephants went
into position, the Raj Kumar with them. I was placed by G
where I would be certain to get a shot, and warned by him that
I would be charged. Soon the beating elephants signed there
were four tigers in the beat. Three came along into the light
jungle and were seen by the guns on the right but not fired at.
They wanted to see the fun when I would be spotted by the tigers.
They had their ‘tamasha’, for two of the animals charged me.
I turned the leading one head over heels with a bullet from my
.475 rifle, but the'other one pulled up and rejoined the third animal.
One of these was killed by G, and the other by M. The Raj
Kumar shot the fourth as it was trying to get out of the beat.
The Rajah was now very pleased with the bag-—six tigers within
one short hour, and said we were all very fine shikaris. On arrival
at camp we chaired G and carried him round to the accompaniment
of ‘He’s a Jolly Good Fellow’. That red-letter day was the
Rajah’s birthday anniversary, and no more suitable present could
have been given to him than six tigers all shot in a space of one
hour.

TIGRESS AND CUBS.

One day when roaming about in the jungles I came across two
tiger cubs, and as soon as the elephants got close to them they
began to growl. They were in some cane jungle near a village.
In Assam a tigress frequently has her cubs near a human _habit-
ation, and you will find female tigers near to a village even
though there are no cubs. It is well known that the male tiger
may kill, and even eat, the cubs on occasion, and that perhaps is
why the tigress has her cubs near a village and keeps them there.
We passed along, and shortly a mahout signalled there was a
‘hullee’ in front of me; this kept moving in a circle. It was the
mother trying to guide the elephants away from where the cubs
were. There was a sea of grass and she could have gone right

jy, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

away; but although she kept on giving the idea that was her in-
tention, she would before long circle round in the direction of the
cane brake. The elephants were trampling the jungle down, as they
circled around following the tigress’s movements, and I knew that
she would eventually appear in one of the lanes so made. Sud-'
denly she presented me a view of her broad back just to the right
of my elephant, a mark I could not have missed, but unfortu-
nately, though the striker indented the cap, the cartridge did not
go off. Opening the rifle I extracted the cartridge, thinking the
fault lay with it, put it in my pocket without examining it, and
placed another in the breech. After a time I again saw the
tigress’s back, again presented the 280 rifle and pulled the trigger
with the same result as before. I now realized the striker must be
at fault, and when I eventually got another chance and fired the
left barrel there was a rush away and I was sure she was killed.
Darkness was fast approaching so I thought it best to make for
camp. In the morning the tigress was recovered and the cubs
were caught.

SHOOT AT KOCHUGAON.

In April 1924 Mr. H.P.S., who was Forest Officer at Goal-
para, invited my wife and me to a tiger shoot at IKochugaon. Sever-
al things happened at that shoot which are interesting.

I was asked to bring along solid bullet ammunition as_ the
Assam Government had ordered a male elephant named Urthum-
persad to be destroyed. He was a fine tusker but an unreliable
animal, and had killed many attendants, mahouts as well as grass-
cutters. I knew him well, and as a shikar elephant he was dan-
gerous so could not be used for howdah work. I remembered
that he had screecheé and bolted when men were trying to put a
shot jungle fowl on his back. He was a timid and a terrible coward.
On our way we picked up the Rajah of G who had been also asked
to the shoot and to assist by taking charge of the arrangements and
giving use of his elephants to supplement the animals of the
Forest Department.

While we were at tea at Kochugaon G, who did not drink tea,
sat quietly listening and then declared, ‘It would be a shame to
shoot the animal, for perhaps with care he could be trained to
become useful, as a beater if nothing else. The mahout is pro-
bably to blame.’ C, who had just arrived from England and
taken charge of the District as Forest Officer from S remarked
to G, ‘You could never train that animal, nearly all the forest
officers in the Province have at some time had the elephant in their
charge and it has invariably been the opinion that he should be
destroyed.” G said, ‘I would like to try and reform him, for
mahouts are often to blame—they are themselves frightened and
make the elephant useless. If you will sell him to me I will give
you the price of his tusks.’ C agreed, and Urthumpersad was
taken to G’s elephant lines. Two years afterwards I saw the
elephant at a shoot and used for howdah work. He was _ per-
fectly steady even when he knew there was a tiger in front of
him, and tigers were shot from his back. What G could not

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 273

drive out of him was his uncertain temper, for I know he killed
erass-cutters while with him, and he eventually had to shoot him
as hopeless in that respect, the culminating incident being that he
was loaned to the Forest Department, along with other animals,
and while there, as seen by B, another forest officer, seized an
attendant with his trunk, carried the unfortunate man across a
stream and killed him.

One day we went to a far away grass jungle and beat a large
piece of it with all the elephants in line. In places the grass was
so high that even howdah elephants on either side could not be
seen. I was on the extreme right on Mylo, an elephant which
later on proved to be one of G’s best howdah animals. On this
occasion he killed a small hog deer with his trunk as the animal
ran across him. Mylo is a small ‘mukna’ and I have many times
seen him stand the charge of a tiger. Suddenly the Rajah beck-
oned to me to come to him, and in a fairly large clearing I saw
a small beating elephant being chased round and round by a fe-
male rhinoceros with its half grown young one following after.
It was a fine and unusual sight. After chasing around some of the
other elephants she went off with her young one. This affair had
caused a great dispersal of the beating elephants and most of the
Forest Department animals were missing, including the mounts of
C and S$ which completely disappeared. G said that it was because
the Forest mahouts feared the rhino and so got their animals out
of the arena as quickly as possible.

On a Saturday morning a kill was reported a long way off so
an early start was made. On arrival at the ground G inspected
the kill and turning to me said, ‘Now, Sir, where is the tiger?’
Thanks to his tuition I was at that time fairly learned in the habit
of tigers, so I pointed to the ‘nakul’ jungle. Nakul is a broad
leafed plant growing very thickly and in it a tiger finds plenty of
shade during the hot hours of the day. ‘Yes, and you are to
drive him out and not shoot unless he attacks you.’ He then pro-
ceeded to arrange the beat and place the guns. C was placed on
the ground below and when the beat commenced I pushed on to
a thick part of the nakul jungle. When I arrived the tiger show-
ed his very plain displeasure and growled continually, but never
showed himself. Mylo, perhaps wisely, refused to walk on top
of the tiger although urged by the mahout. I was in a difficult
position for had the tiger attacked I could not have stopped him.
Had he made a move to do so I would have fired off both barrels
to try and save the elephant from a mauling, for if hit or not the
noise can have the effect of halting a charge. Some beating ele-
phants came up, and shouting together the mahouts forced the
tiger on, and he broke cover towards C. Soon I heard a shot and
then saw C’s elephant bolting out of the fray. G came up and
asked why C had not shot the tiger, and where is he? ‘There’
said the mahouts, ‘there he goes. Wo jata hat....Wo gaia!’ and
his elephant was not stopped for a long. distance. C later ex-
plained that he was helpless as his elephant danced a polka as
soon as she discovered the tiger coming.

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Next day, Sunday, early report arrived that the tiger was back
in the same place. It being Sunday I said I would not go out
and of course was ragged, and told I had a slave mentality and
so on. However, the others went off after breakfast. G located
the tiger and arranged the beat, again putting C in the best
position. He told C that the tiger would come along on the top
of the nala bank and not along the nala bed, but C, being of
opinion that a tiger always comes along that way considered that
he knew better than G so took up position in the bed of the nala.
The tiger, of course, came along the top as predicted by G and C
was too late to get his elephant up the rise to meet him; worse,
he disturbed a nest of hornets which attacked the elephant and its
riders. The elephant, maddened with stings, ran all over the
country and did not get to camp until after dark. C had two
stings high up on the neck near the spine and could scarcely
stand. I assisted him to a chair, gave him a stiff peg of whisky,
and went off to the dispensary to obtain medicines and a hypo-
dermic syringe. Mrs. C, not knowing I had given him a stiif
peg gave him another and put him to bed. He was socn asleep!
During the maddened elephant’s rampagings in the jungle C lost
his spectacles, camera, thermos flask, none of which were ever
recovered. After this experience he said he would not again joke
about Sunday shooting, and would not shoot on Sundays. This
is another instance of how tiger shooting off elephants can be
dangerous.

Bees and hornets may be disturbed during a beat, or at any
time, even when going to or returning from the jungle, so one
must not forget always to have a blanket with one when on an
elephant. The placing of the blanket over the elephant’s eyes
may also have the effect of stopping the running away of a
‘musth’ elephant.

On Monday morning news was received of a number of tigers
giving trouble a long way off. When we got to the place, we, S
and I, C had not come out as he felt helpless without his glasses,
thought the place looked very unlikely and we were disappointed. G
was cheerful and said he had bagged tigers in more unlikely
places. There was a small stream and the grass. jungle about it
was not extensive, neither was it dense, moreover there were fields
all round and people working in them all day.

G placed himself on the bank of the stream with S on the
other side and I on his right. The beat had barely advanced
300 yards when it was signalled there were three tigers, and G
passed word to us to be prepared for a charge as we were barring
the way to the thick jungles the animals had come from. Soon
the Rajah told us to move towards the beating elephants. <A tiger
charged G, and staunch as was Rung-Bahadur he jinked, so caus-
ine G to miss it in the air as he came; the explosion baulked
the tiger so he failed to get on the élephant. Again G was charged
by the same or another animal, but this time he killed it in the
air and I saw it fall in a heap. We had scarcely advanced a
hundred yards when I was charged by a tiger which came at me
oyer an open field. I had a fine view of it, and when I fired it

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 275

sat up like a great cat and sort of stretched itself. I fired again
and it jumped sideways into some cover. When we looked we
found it dead. G now stopped the beat until S could get across
the stream to our side and have his chance. Presently we saw
S put his rifle to his shoulder and two tigers sprang across the
opening he was guarding. He wounded one which went across
the stream. It lay down in full view and he fired shot after shot
at it with his 500 black powder rifle. We could see the bullets
hit and cause wounds, but these were only surface wounds. We
crossed the stream and finished it..

We thought the fourth tiger had gone right away and S and I
had got down from our howdahs, G also, when a mahout report-
ed he had seen the tiger not far away. G hastily mounted, and
before the tiger could reach the dense cover he shot it. It was
barely an hour since we commenced to beat this unpromising
place and we had killed four tigers! Two were males and two
females. Back at camp C cursed his luck and was fully convinced
of the wrongness of Sunday shikar.

The cartridges of the .500 black powder rifle S was _ using
were loaded with the light .340 grain bullet having a long hollow
and small base; the .440 grain heavy based bullet is the proper
one to use with that rifle.

Next morning a tiger was reported within half a mile of the
camp and G sent word asking us to turn out. C could not go
without glasses and S was too tired. I went with G and got on
to Mylo, and we took our positions. I knew G had directed the
tiger should be driven to me but made up my mind to let it pass
on to him. It came from in front of the beating line into some
scrub jungle and was passing along towards G when a beating’ ele-
phant came out and turned it back; I could not see where it was
when it suddenly stood up on its hind legs before Mylo. As it
went down again I threw up my rifle (.280) without taking aim
and by a mere fluke hit it in the side of the head. The skull was
broken into several pieces and the animal was instantly killed. The
distance was close, about 15 yards. The mahouts saw the tiger
go over and cheered; and an Indian Forest Ranger remarked,
‘That is the man to go out with for he can kill a fighting
tiger with one shot.’ I told the Rajah that the tiger was not fight-
ing and was killed by mere chance. He put his finger to his lips,
‘Hush’, he said, ‘you must never own to a fluke to the mahouts.
You have greatly enhanced your reputation with them so any of
them will be prepared to keep his elephant still, depending entirely
on your shooting. A person who has missed several times, though
he be a first class shot, will not be trusted by the mahouts and
he can talk and tell them what he likes, they will pretend to agree,
but will hold to their own opinion saying among themselves that
the man who has fired three shots and not hit once can’t be any
good; and whenever possible they will make the elephant bolt be-
fore the tiger gets near, or will make some excuse to get the ele-
phant out of the way and into some position where no tiger is
likely to come. They well know the habits of a tiger and will be
able to arrange that you do not get a shot,

276. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

How A TIGER CHARGES.

Viewed from an elephant a tiger’s charge is nothing like what
it is popularly thought to be, a roaring and coming at you with
leaps and bounds. It is absolutely silent except for the first warn-
ing’ grunt as it breaks cover, and it comes along very fast with
its belly almost touching the ground, no bounds. When within
springing distance, about 15 to 20 feet from the elephant, it springs
to land on his trunk. I have seen the charge time, and time again,
it is always the same. What the charge against the man on foot
is like I do not know for I have not seen such a performance,
but I think it must be similar.

A tiger’s back as viewed from an elephant is fairly broad, and
if the bead is placed in front of the on-coming beast, and moved
towards it, and the trigger pulled as soon as the bead touches the
centre of what is really the head, the bullet will probably get the
chest through the back. A charging tiger, seen from an elephant’s
back, may be described as having the shape of a gigantic tadpole.

WILDFOWL AND WILD PEOPLE IN MANIPUR.

Manipur is famous for its duck shooting. The jheel is seven
miles long and affords fine sport. The shooting is conducted quite
differently to shoots on jheels in other parts of India. In Manipur
platforms of wood and bamboo are erected in various parts of the
expanse of water, and in the grass. They are quite hidden as they
are maintained all the year round, and the grass grows all round
them thus entirely hiding them, and as the birds have been all
about and around these machans in the water without being scared,
when a shoot is in. actual progress easy shots are obtained, at any
rate, at first. When the sportsmen have taken up their positions
a number of boats, with a gun in each, go around the jheel putting
up the birds and then the fun begins. Round each platform is
usually some clear water so that birds shot can be easily retrieved.
After a time boats come round and pick up the dead birds. While
this is being done the birds settle down again, and after they have
rested a while the whole proceeding is re-enacted.

Enormous bags have been made in this way. I think Colonel

G. of an Assam Battalion stationed at Imphal held the record of
300 to his own gun; and he once shot 90 geese in one day. On
the last time I did a shoot at Manipur I was stationed at Kohima
and we used often to go into Imphal to play cricket, about which
the then Maharajah was very keen. On those occasions we would
also put in a day or two of duck shooting. Very large bags of
snipe have also been made there, Colonel G. again holding the
record in those parts for a single gun.

When great celebrities, Viceroy, Governor, and other High
Officials visited Kohima there would be extensive security arrange-
ments. The Naga hillmen used to undertake to guard the road
from Dimapur to Kohima, and again from Kohima to the bound-
ary of the Naga Hills. They lined both sides of the road and were
dressed in full war regalia. They of course searched in the jun-
ele on both sides of the road and any evilly disposed man would

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 277

have received the shortest of shrifts, for his head would have
been instantly lopped off in skilled headhunter fashion! From
the Naga Boundary to Imphbal in Manipur the roads were lined
on both sides by armed men of the Assam Rifles.

Naga dances arranged in honour of these official visitors were
very special entertainments for eight tribes dressed in their colour-
ful tribal costumes danced their very best. It is a very gorgeous,
spectacular affair and there is a certain amount of danger, for most
of those taking part are more or less drunk on their homemade
rice spirit, and it would not take much provocation for one tribe
to use spears or other weapons on another. At the present day
(1944) the Nagas will not be as they were in earlier days for the
improvement of road and the military traffic and other activities
have brought many aspects of civilization to the originally simple
tribes.

One evening we heard a barking deer call, on the hill above the
bungalow. I asked my wife if she would like to try for it and
as she said she would I told her to go up the fields by the regular
path and I would go by another way which would probably cause
the deer to move in her direction. As I got to the fields, which were
not in use at the time, and in them were a lot of logs lying about
some trees having been cut, I saw an animal which I took in the
failing light to be a reddish calf, for a little higher up the hill
there were cattle kept by a Garo. I thought the calf was a strag-
gler going up to the byre, and it never entered my mind that the
animal might be a tiger.

As my wife came on to these deserted fields she saw the tiger:
it was only twenty-five yards from her and looking in her direction.
Rakal Singh was with her and kept his head and did not do any-
thing silly. The tiger was perhaps a little closer to me than
twenty-five yards. My wife called out to me that to my left is a
tiger. I knelt behind a log and covered his chest but. had sufficient
experience to know that if I fired and the animal was not killed
outright he would spring in the direction he was looking, and that
was in direction of my wife, so it would have been madness for
me to fire. The tiger turned and was soon out of sight. My wife
showed no panic or fright at all and looked at the tiger with no
attempt to get away in the other direction. Few women have
been so close to a wild tiger in its natural jungles.

PyTHON AT MOHENDRAGUNJ.

While I was staying at the Inspection Bungalow, Garos came
and told me that a herd of mithun were destroying their fields
and one of them had very fine horns. For various reasons the
search for the animal with the big horns failed. On the largest of
several small hills there was a pathway leading right round it. A
Garo tracker and I were following the spoor of the mithun and
the shikari went on ahead to spy round the corner. I remained be-
hind and, not knowing it, was actually standing six or seven paces
from a python lying in the grass with its head protruding from a
bush. I beckoned to the shikari to come back and he was talking
to me when, why I did’ I cannot say, but I looked to his left and

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

above on the hill I saw the thick body of a large python lying in
an upward direction along the hill. Now, following the snake’s
body downwards I found it ended in a bush by which the shikari
was standing. Walking towards him I saw the creature’s head—
it was almost touching his toes (a matter of inches). I drew the
man gently away and as soon as he was clear of the bush drew
his attention to the snake by means of signs. He pointed to my
rifle but I shook my head. He then took a large knife I was wear-
ing and cut a thick branch, as thick as my wrist, and having
trimmed it went towards the snake and, taking aim at its head
very deliberately killed it. As soon as the head was hit and com-
pletely crushed the body moved about until it rolled down the hill.
It was 13 feet long and was not gorged for it had nothing in its
body. Was the shikari in any danger when his toes were within
inches of the python’s nose? Pythons watch game paths to seize
deer and other animals passing along and it is strange that it did
not attack the man.

ANOTHER PANTHER STorRY.

My wife and I arrived at Kirapara about midday and the
watchman reported that a panther had killed a cow that morning
and dragged it into a near-by ravine. After having had some-
thing to eat [ went with Rakal Singh, shikari, to view the ‘kill’,
and we decided to sit up straight away. By his tracks we learnt
that the panther had gone up the hill opposite to where we were
concealing ourselves. He could not but return the same way he
had gone. I had with me a .280 straight-pull magazine rifle, and
a 12 gauge gun loaded with buckshot cartridges, the best weapon
to use at close quarters against panther.

It was exactly 4 o’clock when Rakal Singh kept on kicking at
me from behind. He was trying to tell me that the panther had
arrived. I knew what he meant but could not see the animal,
though I searched every inch of ground around the kill. I tried
to slowly turn round but the beast instantly detected the move-
ment and bolted, making such a noise that it was at once apparent
where he had been—a good distance above the carcase, on the hill-
side. The shikari said in a very disgusted way, “Had you only
looked above the kill you would have seen the panther sitting up
like a dog and looking at us. You could have easily shot him,
He had been there five minutes and I hadn’t seen him.’ ‘Now,’
said Rakal Singh, ‘he is hungry, and we will get him. I will fetch
some Garos to drag the kil) to just below the bungalow where you

can sit up for him.’ I said he would not follow the drag. ‘Oh |

yes,’ said the shikari, ‘he will follow by scent.” When the carcase
had been dragged to where wanted I had dinner, and Rakal Singh
tied a lantern to a bush close by, so lighting the carcase very well.
I doubted whether the panther would put in an appearance but all
the Garos said, ‘He is very hungry and has never been shot at,
he is certain to come back.’ I got into a small tree at the edge
of the bungalow compound but could not see my rifle sights. My
wife suggested that if he was thought not to mind a light near the

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 279

kill, he would not object to one up the tree. So a man climbed
up, tied a rope to a higher branch and lowered the lantern until I
could see my sights.

In about half an hour I saw a grey object rising from the back
of the kill, and it appeared to get taller; it was only a grey thing
I could see and I could not say it was the panther. However, I
fired a shot at it and it disappeared. After a time the same grey
object started to again appear and I fired another round at it.
Then there was a rush towards ‘the tree on which I was perched,
then a sudden turn to the right, and a rush into the jungle follow-
ed by several groans. The men said the beast was dead, but I re-
fused to let them search in the dark. Though I had warned them
not to go in the morning until I was with them, the waterman did
go. He climbed several trees until he. descried the dead panther.
{It was a forest-dwelling, game-hunting panther in good condition,
and not the kind which frequents the vicinity of the villages, so
had no experience of men and their ways.

One -280 bullet had hit it in the back and run along close to the
spine without injuring it; the other had also hit the back, but at
a different angle, and entered into the chest severely damaging a
lung. This was the shot that killed it. The first bullet had come
out near the tail and then burst in the ground. The interesting
part of this affair is that the panther was not put off his prospective
dinner by the first explosion of the rifle and the bullet passing
under his skin for the length of his body, a wound which must
have felt to him like the lightning thrust of a red-hot skewer !

THE LAST SHOOT.

The latest shoot I was or my wife and daughter were of the
party. It was a long journey from Bangalore to Calcutta. I had
not attended those big shoots for five or six years and there were
some gaps among the well remembered attendants. The old cook
was dead, so also the schoolmaster and the head shikari. Among
the elephants Rang Bahadur, Sibjee, and others were absent but
Jang Bahadur and Mylo still working. Our old friend, the Rajah
of G. was as pleased to see us as we were to see him, and we
had much to talk about.

It was reported that a large tiger had killed in a certain jungle
so we all set out, my daughter in my howdah. The tiger was to
be shot by an Indian guest so M Senior was stationed next to him
to see that matters went as intended. The tiger was found, and
the beating elephants swung round to push him towards the lighter
jungle when it was suddenly seen that a party of women and child-
ren had entered the grass and got ahead of the tiger. They, of
course, did not know that a beat was in progress, and as it had
taken a little time to diagnose this new ‘hullee’ it was realized
they were in great danger.. The beat was spoilt as the mahouts
had to shout to the people to clear out of the jungle, and the result
of all this was that the tiger went left instead of right. It could
be seen by his ‘hullee’ that he was in front of me and I prepared
to fire but he did not show; for after about a minute—evidently
turning over in his mind what he would do, he moyed towards M,

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Junior who gave him a mortal wound with a heavy conical bullet
from his 12 bore Paradox. The wounded beast then passed
through a clear space, going slowly, and Dorothy got her first
view of a wild tiger, and a big one too. I fired and he rolled over
into the grass. <A fine beast measuring ten feet over the curves.

I have always considered skin measurements over the curves to
be the better method, as it is then possible to compare lengths of
animals with those shot in the years before the peg-to-peg measure-
ments began to be considered correct. The difference between
curve and peg measurement, if each are properly taken, is some
six to eight inches. The twelve feet tigers of former days were
the result of wet skin measurements, skins after removal from the
animals being pulled out as far as they would go thus giving the
appearance of a striped python on the ground. A friend has re-
cently told me that he himself read the original report of a
sportsman who wrote, not twenty years ago, to the Civil Officer
of the District that he had just shot three tigers 13 ft. 9 in., 12 ft.
7 in. and 11 ft. ro in. in length! That was the method employed;
so the foolish practice seems to still exist.

‘One day four tigers were obtained, one of them being shot by
me with the .280. My daughter now begged to be allowed to
shoot a tiger, and the Rajah said he knew this request was coming
as he had received a letter from her husband saying ‘she is a very
good shot at a target’. ‘So’, said G. ‘your girl may have her
chance provided you take charge of her and see she makes no
mistake’. To this I of course agreed and the beat next day was
arranged for her benefit, but so that she could only fire in one
direction, the elephants of the brothers M. being on either side of
ours. G. lent D., which will stand for either Dorothy or ‘Diana’,
his D.B. .450 black powder rifle. The tiger was pressed forward,
but seeing our elephant waiting for him growled and went back
into heavy cover where he demonstrated against some of the ele-
phants causing them to scare. G. then went to the beating line
and brought it along very silently.

Being over anxious that nothing untoward should happen I
loaded D’s rifle in the left barrel only, telling her to pull the ieft
trigger. The tiger jumped out with a grunt, and in her excite-
ment D. pulled the right and not the left trigger. She had a good
view of the tiger, and it can be said that the loss of her opportunity
was my fault as the right barrel should have been loaded. G.
realized that I, her father, had too great a responsibility so, with
his usual kindness and generosity, took her next day in his own
howdah. Two three-quarter cubs appeared in the first beat. In
a second beat one of these two beasts was brought to D’s gun
and killed by her, her first tiger and one of three killed that day.

% % % * * *

The author of this series read the almost completed compilation,
culled from his several Note Books, before he became ill early
this year (1944).

Major H. G. H. Munrowd was not, unfortunately, a member
of the Bombay Natural History Society. His death took place at
Bangalore on the 21st March 1944. All members will be at one

vere) (eT

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THE RIDDLE OF THE BEARDED PIG 281

with the Committee in expressing regret to his family that he
should have passed away before seeing his experiences in print
and contributing, as he had hoped to do, some more of his in-
teresting Assam Reminiscences.—Eds,

(The end.)

THE RIDDLE OF THE BEARDED PIG.
A PROBLEM OF DISTRIBUTION,

BY
J. HK. Kempe

(School of Oriental and African Studies, London University)
(With 4 plates)

Three distinct species of wild swine have for long been recog-
nized in the western portion of the Malaysian sub-region, that is
the area (excluding Celebes and the Philippines), lying south and
east of Burma, together with a number of somewhat disputable
local forms. These are Sus cristatug (local representative of Sus
scrofa of HWurope and western Asia including India and Burma),
S. barbaius of Sumatra, Borneo and the Riau Archipelago and S.
verrucosus of Java, The last is not of interest in this discussion
and may be dismissed. S. cristatus and 8S. barbatus overlap and
occur together e.g. in Sumatra. But that the only wild pig of
the Malay Peninsula was S. cristatus was never in question until
1918, when Dr. W, 8S. Leicester of the Malayan medical service,
stationed at Pekan in the State of Pahang on the east coast of the
peninsula some 160 miles directly north of Singapore, shot the
sow of a species new to him. Dr. Leicester kept a pack of mongrel
dogs and for some years hunted that remote country as a regular
pastime. He apparently shot several half grown young pigs as
well about the same time, and in December of that year sent the
sow’s skull to the Director of Museums at Kuala Lumpur (the late
Mr. H. C. Robinson). The latter, in his own words, found ‘the
occurrence so remarkable and so at variance with preconceived ideas
of geographical distribution, that, pending further evidence, it was
not considered advisable to place the occurrence on record’,

There the matter rested till September 1921 when the writer,
stationed at Pekan as District Officer and quite unaware of the fore-
going, was shown the skull of a pig shot by an old Chinese
named Lee Chu’ah with whom he frequently hunted. Chu’ah shot
the animal at Sungei Genoh a week before, a mile or two out of
the town. It was an old solitary boar and much emaciated.
What impressed the man was its great height and length of
leg, the length of its skull, a pallid skin, the tufts of hair under
its eyes and above all its whiskery beard. It weighed 244 pounds
and he thought that in condition, it should have scaled well over
300—and a Chinese is no mean judge of pig-flesh. Chu’ah had
hunted that coast for nearly forty years and never before saw such

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

a monstrous pig in all the thousands killed by him. (The old man,
a great comrade in a lonely place, died two months later.) I at
once sent the skull which he gave me to Major Moulton,
the Director of Raffles Museum, Singapore. To me it was
an astonishing object, and comparative drawings of it and
the common SS, cristatus made the difference more remark-
able. It was not I think a very big specimen judging from the
measurements of the skull. Chu’ah who combined business with
pleasure and a genuine interest in his quarry, had for years kept
careful records of his kills. The heaviest recorded pig of the com-
mon type was he told me 286 pounds (he showed me a grubby
notebook full of Chinese characters and ill-formed English figures,
for he was by way of being a scholar), but his pack was probably
unequal to stopping any thing much heavier. ‘The tushes of the
strange pig were nine inches round the curve and 4/5 inch across.
The Director of Museums identified the skull at once as that of
Sus barbatus of Sumatra and Borneo and Riau, and retained it
as ‘the first authentic record of this species in the Malay penin-
sula’. In March 1922 there appeared an article in the Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society (Straits Branch) No. 85, under the
hands of Major Moulton and Mr. H. C. Robinson. The species
was accepted as a member of the Peninsula fauna though they
thought its presence ‘is really due to some extraordinary chance
resulting in the landing of a herd from Borneo, the home of the
true S. barbatus, or from the Riau archipelago’. If, as the writers
pointed out, it is a Peninsula species, the geographical position is
difficult to explain, but under very favourable circumstances in-
dividuals might come over from the islands and establish them-
selves in small numbers for a noticeable period. The verdict
was ‘not indigenous’, that it was probably the last survivor of a
herd that had gained access to Malay peninsula. The matter
rested for a time but the question seemed to me, in face of the
facts, to be by no means settled.

Seventeen years later, in March 1939, I wrote to the then
Director of Museums in Singapore (the late Mr. I’. N. Chasen) and
enquired whether the Bearded Pig had turned up again since, and
if so, what was the present view of the matter. In April of that
year he replied that the pig had turned up on several occasions
in small numbers on the east coast of the peninsula but not on
the west. The latest example was a fine boar from Kota Tinggi,
near the southern tip of the peninsula. This specimen was re-
trieved by Sir Richard Winsted from an Italian who expressed
the intention of sending it to Signor Mussolini. He was easily
persuaded to hand it over by the suggestion that the head of a
seladang or any other head would please the Duce just as much,
and it was placed in the Raffles Museum. ‘The Director went on
to a ‘possible’ (but most surprising) solution of the presence of
the pig in Malaya—it was evident that the Museum authori-
ties were uneasy about it! He stated that the Chief Minis-
ter of Johor was certain that ‘our barbatus pigs are the remains
of some introduced by the old Sultan many years ago—for sporting
purposes—and may be he is right’. (This aspect ig referred
to at greater length later).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec. Piate Il.

Sus cristatus.

Sus barbatus.

Sus cristatus with S. barbatus,

Map of the western part of the Malaysian Sub-Region showing the known
distribution of Sus on the larger land areas.
The species themselves are divided into several.

The Javanese species is S. verrucosus.
local sub-species,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

J KELANTAN:

Ortave :

SOOIOU IGS. OG
* .
Ont ere n, Pe OOO

-e3eee
oe

SUMATRA

Re 2g) 709 430
A2.6CES
MALAYA

Pate Ill.

Nore.—A mountain backbone runs down the middle of the Peninsula, altitude up to

7,000 ft.

THE RIDDLE OF THE BEARDED PIG 283

But this is not the end of the story. In 1939-40 a series of
excavations were carried out in deposits in the limestone caves
of Kelantan in the north of the veninsula by the ethnological
branch of the Museums Department. At Goa Madu the list of:
maminalian remains of Neolithic (recent) date includes the bones
of both Sus cristatus and S. barbaius. As the Director wrote
in August 1940 (vide Journ., Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xviii, Pt. 2
page /)—the remains prove that the Bearded Pig is truly in-
digenous in the Malay peninsula. He adds that ‘the species was
only recently discovered in the Malay States . . . it had been
suggested that the few known specimens are the remains of a
herd imported by a former Sultan of Johor’.

A year or two later Singapore fell. So the riddle remains for
the time unanswered.

Part II

So the known facts are that the Bearded Pig did inhabit the
Peninsula, (certainly the northern part of it near the present Thai-
land frontier), in a Neolithic age which corresponded here proba-
bly to the early Christian era, and that it has in recent years
reappeared in the south and east in small numbers. In the inter-
val there is no record of it, though Malay lore has a semi-legendary
monster, a lone boar of heroic dimensions existing in the forests,
a travellers’ tale. In Johor there ave stories of a ‘great white’
pig seen by few. But nothing substantial is to be discovered.
There is no record at all of any occurrence of this animal on the
western seaboard.

The questions that arise are, is it, by its presence today, io
be regarded as indigenous in the sense of being either a still estab-
lished survivor of Sundaland, or as possibly re-establishing itself after
a period of extinction?

The question of Survival_—What has happened to barbatus
during the long period since it was hunted in Neolithic times, not
so long ago? The wild pig is not an animal that readily conceals
its presence. Most common and usually to be found on the fringes
of cultivation, it is both a pest to be slaughtered at any time and
_ the ordinary quarry of the hunter with his dog pack which exists in
most villages for sporting and protective purposes. Old Chu’ah was
one of scores of semi-professional hunters. Many hundreds or per-
haps thousands are killed annually. It seems almost inconceivable
that a race of wild swine such as the Bearded Pig with its signal
characteristics could have escaped notice. When it has turned up it
has provoked astonishment. Its habits do not seem to differ from
those of the common Sus cristatus nor its natural terrain. Barbatus
lives side by side in Sumatra with cristatus—and in the islands of the
Raiu Archipelago—and it is not clear why it should have given way
on the Peninsula. It has to be remembered that uniil quite lately,
about fifty years ago, the ecological state of the Peninsula was
still primeval, the population very small indeed and confined to
the rivers and coasts. Nothing happened then or has since with
the opening of the country that could affect its status.

There is, it is true, a large area in Pahang where the interior,
covering a country about as big as Yorkshire, is mainly unexplored

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

owing to its swampy and valueless nature, that may contain more
specimens of this great pig but there is no known record of it
whatever. Chu’ah who lived on the edge of it all hig lite never
heard of it.

The question of Re-establishment. If it is not a survival, then
the pigs presence in the past quarter of a century is due either to
deliberate introduction or to that series of “favourable circumstances
leading to its establishment in small numbers’ postulated by
Moulton.

Introduction attributable to human agency may be considered
first. It is well known that the distribution of the ‘rusa’ (the
Malayan sambhar—Cervus equinus) has been affected over the
archipelago by its planned introduction onto a number of islands,
at one time slightly to the embarrassment of the zoographers of
that tangled sub-region. But that there should be a similar dis-
semination by human agency of a detested and generally untouch-
able pest in numbers sufficient to found a colony is a _ very
indigestible supposition. As regards the Johor story, historically,
there have been two Sultans only in the past seventy years and
the present ruler’s predecessor ‘was the Sultan Abubakar well known
to law students in a leading case. He spent much time at the
court of St. James and was a pious and erudite Mohammedan.
It is difficult to beleve that he or any other Sultan—Mohammedans
all—would have taken the trouble to catch up and import a consign-
ment of pigs which are regarded by Malays as nothing but foul
and destructive vermin, for their specific difference. It is a pest
too near home! Such an importation, it is considered, would have
to be on a fairly big scale to form the nucleus of a population that
in a short time spread 170 miles to the north. A few menagerie
specimens for example, would seem inadequate. The Bearded Pig
has, according to Shelford, some reputation as a migrant and in
Borneo large numbers periodically move across country to fresh
ground, due perhaps to pressure of local populations. The journey
to Pekan where it was first shot by Dr. Leicester and Chu’ah,
would involve a great deal more than 170 miles of direct travel
and entail the crossing of more than one stretch of mountain coun-
try and several considerable rivers.

Still the story should be further investigated, though incre-—

dulity is felt as to its value.

What then is the likelihood of reintroduction by natural means
—by the occurrence of those favourable conditions envisaged by
Moulton ?

The nearest islands to the southern tip of Johor (Cape Rou-
mania) are those of the Riau Archipelago with Pulau Batam lying
some ten miles to the southward. Between lies the ocean passage
from Singapore for China bound traftic—a stretch of tide rips and
fast currents. Yet given the right conditions wild animals do cross
wide intervals. Many, including the wild pig are excellent swim-
mers. After the great floods of 1927 when the rivers in Pahang
rose over sixty feet and inundated huge tracts of country, many
wild animals were washed out to sea, pigs among them, and a
tiger too, (one was found swimming five miles offshore), One pig
of the cristatus species arrived on the island of Pulau Tinggi ten

‘Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV.

Sus cristatus xX}

Sus barbatus Xz

Comparative dimensions of skulls of s. cristatus and S. barbatus (average adult male).

Upper length, Basal lengih. Least intraorbital Zygomatic breadth.
+ Sus barbatus. breadth,
447 mm. 428 mm, 75 mm. 182 mm,
Sus cristatus. 3601 mm, 323 mm. 74 mm. 155 mm,

fy
The specimen sent by J. E. Kempe to the Raffles Museum in September 1921.

Nahe |

\ My 4h ee
At Gaal
catoie ts |

SR ny ae sage
‘Awa

AS a aba! hd Liat, ot
AT ata he Pian am
ft ly ‘ s

web yg

‘ ae ao
Desc behiout by ot:

lit

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te i]

by ete TERIA Wea at ect
| He NE a SRR ER TA
it Bit ~ A \ .) ‘f

THE RIDDLE OF THE BEARDED PIG 285

miles off the Johor coast where it is not usually an inhabitant,
either by swimming or on drift wood. Such events are phenomena
—gso rare as to become almost historical, and need abnormal circum-
stances such as a great flood to produce. Such favourable condi-
tions as this could not occur on the small islands of the archipelago.
Still the swimming ability of the pig is not to be taken lightly,
and they are known to cross from one adjacent island to another in
the Riau group.

The floating ‘islands’ of vegetation which are such features
of the Straits of Malacca at certain times (but not, is be noted, of
the Eastern sea-board,) are also suggested vehicles of distribution.
These have as their nucleus as a rule the nipah palm (Nipa fruticans)
which grows in brackish water and is not securely rooted. Given
floods or abnormal tides, fringes break off and drift out to sea.
Sometimes they are a rood or two in area. That they sometimes
carry such animal life in their wanderings as tree shrews and rats
is undoubted. As vehicles for anything greater and heavier, these
‘islands’ have limitations and the transport of anything as big as
a pig (or as sagacious) must be exceedingly rare. It is to be
doubted if even the crab-eating monkey of the mangrove swamps
(Macacus cynomogus) is often a passenger. The islands, become
waterlogged at sea, float half sumberged for a time and eventually
break up into fragments. It would be interesting to know what
evidence there is, if any, of the larger mammals being found on
one of these rafts.

As a potential agency in natural distribution, it is felt that
this and the other phenomena referred to can be very easily over-
rated. ‘The conclusion drawn is that the presence of barbatus on
the Peninsula is unlikely to be due to a fortuitous supply from out-
side, (leaving aside the possibility of a few individuals having been
introduced by the abnormal agency referred to before), even by a
series of most favourable but not easily imaginable circumstances.

It follows that this pig has been with us all the time and that
-for some as yet unknown reason, it has only revealed itself on a
very few occasions. That it must be low in numbers and very
local is unquestioned though why, it is not understood.

That again leaves the major problem of its position so far out
of its accepted frame still unexplained. According to the east and
west ‘drift’ theory of Indo-Chinese (Himalayan) species which
entered Sundaland from the north, suggested by Chasen in his
foreword to the list of Malayasian mammals (Bulletin Raffles
Museum: Vol. 15: 1940), some reached Sumatra and turned north
whereby the Peninsula fauna from the western drift received ad-
‘ditions Sus barbatus may easily have been amongest their number.
In which case some explanation is needed why it should have
lingered on in such obscurity as it is thought to have done, to be
rediscovered in isolated and far separated localities after long
‘intervals.

The facts as at present known are incomplete and further care-
ful search may yet reveal small colonies surviving, while a closer
study of the Bearded Pig’s habits and environment in Borneo and
Sumatra may help to elucidate the reasons why it has virtually
disappeared as a common feature of Peninsula fauna.

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE TO LAKE
MANASAROWAR AND MOUNT KAILAS.

BY
SAuim ALr

(With a map and 7 plates).

The hallowed region of the freshwater lakes of Manasaroéwar
and Rakhas Tal, and of Mount Kail§s in Western Tibet is virtually
forbidden ground to Europeans. It is perhaps for this reason more
than another that practically nothing has so far been recorded
about its birds. The time-honoured legend about “hansa’; (Swans’
according to pilgrims’ guide books) living on Manasardwar some-
how persists, and in the popular mind these birds have become
inseparable from the sacred lake. But reliable published infor-
mation concerning the general ornithology of this region is lacking,
although some excellent papers have appeared within the last
20 years or so on Ladakh as well as on Eastern Tibet by Osmastcon,
Meinertzhagen, Ludlow and others.

Mr. Frank Ludlow, who probably knows more about Tibetan
birds than any other ornithologist living, made a small collection
in Western Tibet in September-October 1932. The late Hugh
Whistler pronounced it to consist of typical Tibetan Plateau forms,
not differing from those occurring in Ladakh on the one hand or in
the neighbourhood of Lhasa on the other. Ludlow never published _
any report of this trip, but has now been good enough to let me
see his MS notes and to permit me to incorporate them in the
present account. I consider it fortunate to be able to do so for
2 reasons: firstly because up to a point his itinerary coincided
with my own, and secondly because his notes cover a period which
is almost exactly complementary. Ludlow’s trek was much more
extended than mine, but I have here utilised only such of his:
notes as relate specifically to the region visited by me. While
there is nothing novel or unexpected in the list that follows, it
seems desirable to put this precise data on record for the benefit
of future visitors.

What primarily attracted me to Manasardwar was the oppor-
tunity to study the natural conditions under which birds live on
the Roof of the World, to ascertain at first hand what species
breed in that area, and to determine if possible some of the
ecological factors that foster their doing so. Although not interested
in birds purely from what may be called the ‘subspecific’ point
of view, I nevertheless feel it a great pity that practically no
collecting could be done in an area that is so seldom visited by
an ornithologist. I was advised by those who administered our
External Affairs not to carry a gun to shoot birds with. Pre-
sumably it offends the religious scruples of the Tibetans to see
birds killed by other people. None of these scruples were detected
in the case of animals killed by themselves, and in a manner

PLATE I

JouRN., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

background

Bal

las

th
(showing Shore or Beach zone

anasarowar Ww

shore of M

Western

)

7
l

Sa
d

im.

oun

in foregr

untry

th typical Kyang co

s Tal w

akha

Pe)

aoe.

#Tarchan

7
ine. @ fs tt

f : s\s SAS g ; eo Barkha ne

*. - 3 ? : SES Yt te ke Ce
we ¥3 as ‘ é f ees >
Sc ‘Sy BES 2 =

(md (Khg tho)

TAKLAK
acetal

KOR th

(After Heim &

The Kailas-Manasarowar Region of Western Tibet
Scale 1” = ca 20 miles
FROUCE ys peace ehe

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 287

that would make shooting seem a kindness. However, that is.
another story. But in the absence of skins for verification, some
of my identifications may have to be taken with reserve, parti-
cularly in cases where they are at variance with Ludlow’s.

I must confess that I have seldom felt sorrier for being so
law-abiding and following official advice. Not only was much
valuable scientific material lost without a gun; not only would
an occasional roast goose have provided welcome change from
the eternal dal and rice; but also the couple or ugly encounters
with local bandits that infest the Manasarowar environs could have
been faced with far greater self-composure and dignity! As it
was, either of these might well have ended in disaster had the
bandits suspected the astonishing truth (for those parts) that the
party was completely unarmed.

To enable me to be there in time for the nesting, a start had
to be made as early in the season as the snow on the Lipu Pass
would permit. The pilgrim season proper does not commence
until about August. My trek began at Almora on 14 May 1945
‘and ended at the same place on 22 July. Up to the Tibetan
frontier, crossed on this route by the Lipu Lekh Pass at 16,750 ft.,
it is a matter of about 16 marches—nearly 160 miles. Baggage
over the first 14 marches travelled cooly-back. The regular trace
takes a north-easterly direction from Almora and passes through
some picturesque Himalayan scenery with superb views from
various places along the route of Nanda Devi, Nanda Kot and
the Panch Chuli peaks. For more than half its latter length it
follows the right bank of the torrential Kali River which forms
the boundary between the Kumaon district of Almora and the
kingdom of Nepal. At Lipu Lekh the Kali is run to its source.
The trek, commencing at about 5,200 ft. altitude (Almora) goes
through an unending series of steep ups and downs. The lowest
point ever touched in the course of the 160 odd miles is 2,200 ft.
where the path crosses the Gauri Ganga River. Thus it furnishes
a cross-section through an altitudinal range of some 14,000 ft.—
from the warm subtropical jungles of the Himalayan foothills
through various climatic and vegetational zones, up to above the
limit of tree growth. The accompanying changes in the bird life
as one crosses from one altitudinal zone or stratum to another
are often so clear-cut that using them as indicators one . soon
learns to hazard a fair guess of the approximate elevation even
without the help of the aneroid. It is this constant change of
levels and the meetings and partings with new or familiar birds
that to my mind makes trekking in the Himalayas so particularly
delightful.

On 8 June the Lipu Lekh Pass was still under fresh and fairly
deep snow. It had to be crossed in the unearthly hours of the
morning while the surface was still hard and passable for the
baggage ponies which had replaced the porters at Garbyang.
After groping our way uncomfortably over boulders in pitch dark-
ness with the dubious help of 2 miserable electric torches, the
summit of the pass was reached at 6.15 hours just as the sun
peeped out from over the barrier of mountains to the east. Here,
among the cairns or piles of Mani stones, contributed laboriously

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

one by one by grateful pilgrims and wayfarers (such as mark the
head of every mountain pass in Tibet) was my first meeting of
the trip with the Robin Accentor (Prunella rubeculoides). The
birds—two or three—were delightfully tame; they hopped uncon-
cernedly on the snow within 4 feet of our cavalcade, picking up
food. This was also my first introduction to the amazing con-
fidence and complete lack of fear that was henceforth to be
experienced from almost every species of bird in Tibet. Such be-
haviour came strangest of all from the Bar-headed Geese and
Brahminy Duck which, as every shikari knows, are amongst the
wariest and most wide-awake of our waterfowl in their winter
quarters in India.

Immediately across the pass the character of the country, now
Tibet, changed abruptly. Trees of course are non-existent here,
but other vegetation was also exceedingly scanty wherever the
dry stony slopes were free from snow. Only small patches of low
shrubs of Doma or Tibetan Furze (Caragana spinosa) clung here
and there to the mountainsides, otherwise completely bare and
scree covered. The route from Lipu to Taklakot rung all down
the right bank of the river—the opposite number of the Kali, as
it were—which rises on the Tibet side of the pass, the latter being
the watershed. This river descends in a gently winding course
for about 4,000 ft. in the 12 odd miles to Taklakot where it joins
the Mapcha or Karnali. The latter, after flowing a great part of
its length through Nepal territory in a N-S direction joins the
Gogra in the Khéri District of the U.P. just south of the Nepal
boundary.

Taklakot or Purang (ca 18,000 ft.), the first village of any size
to be encountered, is a large and important mandi during the sum-
mer months. Traders from all parts of Tibet as well as from
British India foregather here between June and November to
barter wool, furs, borax and other indigenous produce with cloth
and other articles of civilisation which appear to have a growing
demand. Among these I noted as part of the standard stock-in-
trade of Indian shops: cheap electric torches, new and second-
hand army boots and plimosles, packets of tea from Lhasa and
Berenag, sugar (misri), pots of highly scented vaseline pomade,
safety pins and a miscellaneous assortment of tawdry nick-nacks
requiring a high degree of imagination on the part of the shop-
keepers.

One of the first indications that one has left Indian soil and
is now in a different ornithological region is provided by the pigeons,
which here suddenly change over to the Turkestan Rock Pigeon
(Columba rupestris). This species is easily distinguished from
our familiar Blue Rock by its whitish underparts and a _ broad
white bar across its tail. Flocks of these birds were to be seen”
sleaning in the fields of young barley and gram surrounding the
village. A few often visited our camp to pick up what grain
they could round the kitchen tent. They were as tame and trust-
ing as their pampered relations in the midst of Bhuléshwar (Bom-
bay) for example, and other centres of Hindu benevolence.

The Tibetan Raven (Corvus corax tibetanus) takes the place of
Jungle and House Crows as the village scavenger, though it is seen

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 289

in smaller muumbers. Skylarks—apparently Alauda gulgula
lhamarum—were soaring and singing plentifully above the culti-
vation, while Red-billed Choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) grub-
bed away merrily on the outskirts. The House-Sparrow—
presumably P. d, bactrianus—was here in some numbers, but not as.
abundant as I was to find:it on the return visit a month later.

At Taklakot the 6 baggage ponies were exchanged for 4 yaks. And
here a short digression may be permissible. The yak is an extra-
ordinary beast. From infront it looks like an overgrown bear;
from behind like a very shaggy hill pony. It possesses boundless
energy, and seems impossible to tire out except when the weather
is hot. It is highly sensitive to and impatient of the heat which
seems to be the only element that will ever lower its spirits. At
the end of a long fatiguing all-day march, carrying on their backs
2 maunds (160 lbs.) of often the most angular and uncomfortable
load, and with just a few mouthfuls of scanty grass snatched while
we halted for the mid-day meal, our yaks would frisk and romp
obviously feeling ‘as fresh as a daisy’. It was disconcerting
when ebullience of spirits prompted one to buck and _ throw
your baggage—boxes containing delicate and precious meteoro-
logical instruments that, moreover, didn’t belong to you!
A bridge is anathema to the yak. It is not every animal that
will walk over it. Neither is it every day that even the same
yak will consent to walk over one. There may be some justifica-
tion for its preferring to leap into an icy cold torrent and swim
across rather than use the highly unconvincing ricketty wooden
structure swaying perilously above it. One is frequently tempted
to do so oneself. But the soaking is not always beneficial for
your baggage, particularly when this happens to be your bedding
or warm clothes. Luckily bridges are few in Tibet. The yak has
an unpredictable temperament, and you never know beforehand
how one is going to react to any given set of circumstances.

The mountains here are chiefly composed of conglomerates—
large quantities of rounded water-worn shingle cemented together
with clay through age and pressure. Large detached blocks littered
on the hillsides that look like enormous boulders in the distance
are also composed of the same conglomerated clay and shingle,
reminding one of chunks of almond rock. All the way from
Taklakot to Manasarowar the country is flat stony desert, the
ground surface being chiefly covered with smooth water-worn
stones, shingle or gravel—partly disintegrated from the mountains.
Broadly speaking it is a titanic undulating steppe mostly between
14 and 15 thousand feet above sea level, extending miles in
every direction and fringed on the near or distant horizon by snowy
ranges: and peaks. The enormous flat or gently sloping areas
from the foot of the Girla Mandhata Range to northward bear
evidences of becoming vast snow-fields in winter. The stones,
gravel and shingle on them are flattened down as by a steam
roller. A curiously similar formation was noticed by me on the
hills around Chaduva in Kutch (1943) but the stones there were
all flat like paving slabs. What can that be due to?

From time to time flat-sided trough-like valleys are encountered
as of glacial origin running down from the flanking hills. Through

299 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

these meander rivulets from the melting snows higher up. About
the banks of these rivulets, where the snow has melted, there is
usually some scant herbage—a narrow strip of it on either side.
This is the only green to break the drab and endless monotony of
the stony landscape. The few birds that there are, concentrate
in such places. Occasional low dense bushes of Doma or Tibetan
Furze on the plateau, either isolated or scattered in patches, pro-
vide the only relief to the eye. They are sprawling and round-
topped, like large hedgehogs, streamlined on their periphery near
the ground. Dotted about on a gentle slope in the distance, they
often look lke a flock of grazing sheep.

A very characteristic facies of this region is that which occurs
in the flat open valleys sloping so imperceptibly as to impede
drainage and cause water-logging. At the season of my visit
(first half of June) these showed traces of having been enormous
snow-fields till recently, and extensive patches of snow were still
lying about here and there. Where the snow has melted is often
exposed a varying extent of semifloating spongy uneven humps, —
up to 12 inches high, covered with what looks like close-cropped
lush grass. Such areas become tundra-like bogs. In portions
the humps though green and refreshing are comparitively dry.
In other parts the ground is completely soggy and water-logged,
and they are in effect an archipelago of miniature islands or alts.

Almost everywhere around such tundra bogs the Lesser
Pamirs Sand-Plover (Charadrius mongolus atrifrons)—familiar to
us In winter on the western seaboard in flocks and now in his
handsome summer dress—was sure to be met with. Surrounding
these bogs there is usually a luxuriant growth of furze ‘hedgehogs’
which afford some protection from the violent winds and are much
patronised for nesting in by Robin Accentors, Rubythroats and
Tickell’s Willow-Wiarblers. Everywhere on the stony gravelly
plateau, even in the barest and most featureless spots, the Horned
Lark (Hremophila alpestris elwesi) was breeding in great abun-
dance. It has remained a puzzle to me why this bird chose
the bleakest spots for its nest and what considerations decided
the selection of a site. It seemed completely unperturbed by the
wind and its nests were usually in the most exposed places.
Occasionally they were near a tiny stone, it is true, but I am
inclined to think that, if anything, this served more as a landmark
to the bird than as an effective wind-break.

Immediately on crossing the summit of Girla Pass (16,500 ft.)—
wide and flat enough I imagine, for 200 Churchill tanks abreast-—
the first view is obtained, glorious and breath-taking, of the twin
lakes of Mandsardwar and Rakhas Tal with the ice-covered dome of
Mt. Kailas towering in the distant background to the north. The
lakes are separated by a ridge of low hills forming an isthmus,
3 or 4 miles at its widest. Along this lies the route to Barkha
Plain and the holy mountain.

My first camp on Manasardwar was pitched at Ngayezé (ca
15,200 ft.) on the S-W shore of the lake. The water surface
of Manasarowar is 14,950 ft. above sea level. It is 54 miles
in circumference and surrounded on all sides by mountains, many
of them well over 20,000 ft. high with snow-covered tops. The

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 291

greatest depth sounded by Sven Hedin in 1907 was 269 ft.
The colours on the lake, changing not only with time of day
but with every fleeting mood of the sky are a thing undescribable,
and not likely ever to be forgotten. From almost snow-white,
may be, at one end, it ranges to every imaginable shade of
green and blue—and from the deepest jade and the purest em-
erald to intense ultramarine blue and purplish-black.

A scrutiny of the terrain on the southern and south-western
shores of the lake reveals an interesting range of successions. There
are no reedbeds at all about the margins of Manasarowar or Rakhas
Tal, or indeed of any of the other lakes visited.

At the water’s edge is a flat Shore or Beach zone of sand
and shingle; higher up this gives place to a wider zone (in places
2 to 800 yards wide) of ‘tundra’ bog as described—spongy water-
eirt humps interspersed with small pools. Above the tundra zone
follows another wide belt, of dense furze hedgehogs formed by
a windblown accumulation of debris caught up in the bushes re-
sulting in raised mounds at their core. These sprawling hedgehogs
are 18 to 24 inches high and sometimes cover the ground so thickly
as to hinder one’s progress. Beyond the furze zone the flat bare
ground is covered with loose stones and shingle, flattened down to
evenness by the weight of the overlying winter snow. It stretches
upward in a gentle sweep for 1 to 14 miles, to the base of the Girla
Mandhata Range. The Shore and “Tundra’ zones, particularly
where they meet, are riddled into a sieve with holes and galleries
of voles and mouse-hares. As can be imagined, these four zones
are not clear-cut or sharply demarcated along their boundaries
and frequently dovetail into their neighbours, but they are dis-
tinct enough to be perceived without difficulty. With the ex-
ception perhaps of the Beach zone—a speciality of Manasarowar
and Rakhas Tal—the same order of succession with minor local
variations is met with also on the smaller lakes: Ding Tso,
Tseti Tso, Gyanima Tso, and others.

Adam’s Mountain Finch (Montifringilla nivalis adamsi) as well
as its two cousins M. blanfordi and M.. ruficollis were everywhere
taking full advantage of the rat holes as nest sites, and quite a
few were observed carrying food into them. The tundra around
the lakes seemed to be breeding ground par excellence of the
Large Calandra Lark (Calandra maxima). Hundreds of these birds
were busy courting, chasing one another, singing and nest-building
round Manasarowar, Tseti Tso, Ding Tso and Gyanima Tso. Short-
toed Larks (Calandrella acutirostiris) were also present in the tundra
zone at Manasarowar in large numbers. This was somewhat puzzl-
ing at first, but it was soon discovered that they visited the
bog merely for collecting insects for their young, and flew off
with beakfuls long distances to the bare stony country above the
furze belt where they were nesting.

The principal inhabitants of the Furze zone were the Ruby-
throat (Calliope), Robin Accentor (Prunella rubeculoides) and
Tickell’s Willow-Warbler (Phylloscopus affinis). Higher up, on
the stony and gravelly plain, Horned Larks and Short-toed Larks
were nesting abundantly, and the jolly little Hume’s Ground
Chough frequently seen. |

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

At the time of my visit to ManasarOwar and Rakhas Tal the
snow had not been gone long, and it was as yet too early in the
season for the lush grass which is said to spring up luxuriantly
on the moist areas later—mid July or August. Great herds of
goats, sheep and yaks are then brought here for pasture from
distant parts.

Curiously enough, except for an occasional sand-plover or two,
no waders at all were to be seen at the water’s edge in the Shore
or Beach zone of Manasardwar. Their place appeared to be
filled by Brandt’s Mountain Finches (Fringillauda brandi
haematopyga). Hundreds of these birds ran about the water-
line looking very like stints, busily picking seeds washed up by
the ripples. Sometimes the birds were in ones and twos, but
mostly in flocks of 50 or more. They had evidently not com-
menced to breed ag yet. |

Of the waterfowl Bar-headed Geese, Brahminy Duck and
Goosander were the most prominent representatives, the first two
in considerable numbers. The geese, it seemed fairly certain
were not breeding in the immediate neighbourhood. ‘Their favourite
nesting ground is on two boggy islands in the Rakhas Tal, but
without a boat it was not possible to explore these. A mixed
flock of over 50 duck was observed on the water as they flew
over, but it was difficult to tell with certainty what they were
besides the few Gadwal and Pintail which were unmistakable.
They were evidently not meaning to breed here either. Crested
Grebes were abundant and numbers of their floating nests dotted
the water some distance from the shore, particularly on a small lagoon
by the side of the main lake. Brown-headed Gulls, Tibetan Terns
and a couple of Pallas’s Fishing Eagles practically complete the
list of birds seen about the southern end of Manasarowar Lake.

The Barkha or Parkha Plain which separates the Manasarowar
and Rakhas Lakes from the Kailas Range to the north, extends for
many miles in an E-W direction. It is a gigantic highland
steppe or flat valley covered for the most part with gravel and
scanty scraggy grass at present. It is said to afford rich pasture
later in the season, especially along the banks of the many streams
that leisurely meander across it on their way from the Kailas
Range to Rakhas Tél. Along the northern edge of the Barkha
Plain the ground slopes gently southwards in a gigantic sweep
from the base of the Kailas Range. This sloping zone, several
miles in width, is covered more or less densely with bushes of
Doma or Tibetan Furze. Its surface consists of soft lose sand in
places, and in others of coarse river sand with stones and shingle
intermixed. It is cut up here and there by deep or shallow ravines
of streams coming down from the Kailas Range. The sandy
Doma-facies is strongly reminiscent of bits of the Indian Desert
in Sind or Kutch, only the Capparis of the latter being here re-
placed by furze. The windblown sand is arrested in the same way
by the furze bushes and forms compact mounds, but seldom
higher than 12 or 18 inches. This facies, particularly in the
environs of Rakhas Tal, is the favoured habitat of the Kyang
(Hquus) which flourishes in large herds of up to 100 or more.
The Barkha Plain can be differentiated into several other facies:

fOURN., BomBay Nav. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Barkha Plain
Dry bogland and gravel facies

Sandy Doma facies

JourN., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ding Tso

Breeding place of Brown-headed Gulls, Tibetan Terns, Redshanks,
Black-necked Cranes, Eared Grebes, etc.

A typical ‘ tundra’ bog—Gyanima Tso
Breeding ground of Bar-headed Geese, Large Calandra Larks, etc.

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 293.

besides: Loose-sand covered with sparse grass; coarse, roughly
waterworn gravel and stone; and dry bogland. The last consists.
of uneven dips and mounds of crumbly earth reminding one of
old worn-down flamingo nests.

Marching over the plain, one is constantly crossing from one
into another of these facies. Wherever near a stream or its flat
overflow, i.e. ground actually moist or till recently water-logged,
it is honeyeombed by mouse-hares to such an extent that one of
the baggage yaks suddenly sank down to its belly. Montifringilla
blanfordi, M. ruficollis and M. nivalis are invariably present 1m
such facies to take advantage of the potential nest-sites. The birds.
and rodents evidently live together amicably. I observed a finch
go down a burrow with food for young, followed soon after by a
mouse-hare- Young finches when fledged, but while as yet unable
to fly, come out of the tunnels and sit about and hop among the
mounds where the parents feed them. On alarm they holt down
the nearest rat-hole and are evidently not molested by the occupant
within.

In the flats formed by what may be ealled the deltas of the
streams before they discharge into the Manasarowar and Rakhas
lakes, the Doma gives place to extensive patches of a greyish-
green bush about 12 inches high, known in Tibetan as Tarwa and
in Kumaoni as Chookoo. These bushes apparently die down in
winter and were just beginning to come up again (in June) on
the melting of the snows.

The official pilgrimage of Mount Kailas begins at Tarchan or
Darchan (alt. 15,500 ft.), a ramshackle village of a few hovels.
of piled-up loose stones, with a Gompa or monastery and attendant
filth as its centre-piece. It also boasts of a smali mandi open
in summer but now lying derelict. The circuit of the holy moun-
tain is 28 miles round and involves the crossing of a pass (Dolma
La) 18,600 ft. high. Furze growth peters out at about 16,000 ft.
and above this elevation perennial vegetation is practically non-
existent. Bird-life along the entire circuit—-in fact above 15,000 ft.
altitude—was poor, but this may partly be due to the fact that
I was much too early in the season. Places that had been re-
commended to us as rich alpine pastures and flower meadows
were as yet little more than bleak and desolate snowfields dotted
with recently melted patches here and there where the first hesitant
spring herbage was beginning to peep out.

Exeept for Redstarts which were particularly abundant and
nesting among the scree fans near Diraphuk or Diripu, a few
pigeons and ravens about the Gompa there, a Robin Accentor
with nest and eggs on the edge of a partly frozen stream, several
Red-billed Choughs, and a couple of Himalayan Griffons and
Lammergeiers beating majestically over the hillsides behind the
monastery, practically no birds were seen. A couple of pigeons
Were encountered on the very summit of Dolma La, attracted
there by the grain sprinkled according to custom by pious jatris
in thanksgiving for the culmination of the arduous climb.

The Lha Chhu and other part-frozen streams on the holy cir-
cuit looked ideal for White-capped and Plumbeous Redstarts, but
these familiar Himalayan species were completely absent. On

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the Tibet side of Lipu Lekh Pass I also failed to come
across the Whistling Thrush, so common along the Kali River
on the Himalayan side, almost right up to its source.

Horned Larks nest on the Barkha Plain in great profusion,
both m completely barren and desolate spots as well as where ~
there is a scanty growth of stunted furze. Short-toed Larks are
more partial to the latter facies. Ground Choughs, Tickell’s
Willow-Warbles and Redstarts evidently prefer the side valleys
where earth banks for nest-holes are readily available, and where
there is more protection from the ferocity of the regular diurnal
winds. ‘

The Ding Tso lake proved a particularly fruitful place for birds.
From the cosy comfort of the sleeping bag, and without raising
my head from the pillow, could be watched through the open fly
of the tent almost any time of day, numbers of geese, cranes and
Brahminies as they sauntered about and grazed complacently on
the grassy margins of the lake and in the surrounding marsh,
within easy shot-gun range. My diary records: “Delightful, but
oh for a .22 and roast goose on the menu!’ Along its eastern
and northern shores is an extensive tundra belt 3 or 4 miles long
and in places fully + to 4 mile broad. Many of the uneven
spongy humps here are actually floating, and separated from each

other by a good long jump over deepish water. One had to be ©

nippy and constantly on guard lest the hump underfoot should dis-
appear below the surface before one had time to jump across
to the next. It was an uncomfortable and flustering feeling to
find oneself suddenly down to the waist in ice-cold water and
sinking steadily. It was necessary to plan out several jumps in
advance, and decide quickly. And the possibility of quicksands _
here and there—against which I had been warned—added to the
excitement of the game. However it was fascinating work, and
the exploration of this marshy belt proved well worthwhile. I
found breeding here not only Bar-headed Geese and Black-necked
Cranes, but also Brown-headed Gulls, Tibetan Terns, Redshanks,
Crested Grebes and Large Calandra Larks.

METEOROLOGY

To this sketchy and imperfect account of the country might
perhaps be added with advantage a few notes on the meteorological
conditions experienced in June.

Temperature: The minimum night temperatures varied between
28° and 88°F. insids the tent, being mostly in the neighbourhood
of freezing (82°F). The maximum day temperature registered
was 89° in the shade (once). Normally it ranged between 70°
and 75°. In the sun it was often uncomfortably hot even without
a woollen vest or jersey on, but lable to become chilly with great
suddenness as soon as a cloud obscured the sun. ‘These violent
fluctuations, from roasting one moment to freezing the next, always
made it difficult to decide how one should be clad for a march.
Pull-overs had to be handy in the rucksac, and quick changes by
the wayside (sometimes several in the course of a day) were not
uncommon. Practically every day of the month the sky was

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 295

party to heavily overcast for some part of the 24 hours, and
light drizzle or hail (snowfall on one or two occasions) were frequent.

Barometric Pressure: This showed appreciable variation at
the same place, and was frequently as much as 4 millibars higher
in the morning than in the evening.

Wind: Except on a few memorable occasions when the blowing
away of the tent from above our heads was all but imminent, the
nights were comparatively windless. But except for a few com-
paratively windless days which could probably be counted on the
fingers of one hand, the wind sprang up with great regularity soon
after about 10.00 hours each day—occasionally after 14.00 or later
—and raged and howled until 19.00 to 21.00 hours when it as
suddenly died down. And what a wind it was too! Visitor after ~
visitor to Tibet has execrated the fury of the diurnal gales, and
with good justification. My weather diary records the normal
velocity as No. 5 or 6 of the Beaufort Scale (i.e. between 17 and
27 miles per hour) and occasionally even No. 7 (28-33 miles) the
latter causing considerable inconvenience in walking against.

Observations of humidity were also taken with a revolving Hygro-—
meter, the lowest and highest figures recorded in Tibet during the
entire trek being 26 and 89. All the data, meagre as it is, has
been forwarded to the Government of India Meteorological Office
in Poona, to whom I wish to express my thanks for their co-opera-
tion in loaning out the necessary apparatus.

Itinerary :

8-6-45.
9-65-45.

Lipu Lekh Pass (16,750') to Taklakot.
Taklakot or Purang (ca 12,700’).

10-6-45. Ranging (ca 14,300’).

11-6-45. Sekang (ca 15,800’).

12-6-45. Sekang.

13-6-45. Neayézé (ca 15,300/)—S-W shore of Lake Manasarowar.

14-6-45. Halt at Ngayézé

15-6-45. Chheting or Tsering Madang (15.000’—8 miles up W
shore of Manasarowar. Camp by Tseti Tso.

16-6-45. Jiu Gompa (15,000/) North end of Manasardwar. Camp
by Ganga Chhu—the channel connecting Manasarowar
with Rakhas Tal.

17-6-45. Barkha (ca 15,100’).

18-6-45. Tarchan (ca 15,500’) 8 of Mt. Kailas.

19-6-45. . Diripu or Diraphik (ca 16,700/)—N of Mt. Kailas.

19-6-45. Halt at Diraphuk.

20-6-45. Zianthilphak (16,000/)—E of Mt. Kailas, beyond Dolma

La Pass 18,600’.

22-6-45. Halt at Zanthualphik.

23-6-45. Pelang Yoma (ca 16,000/)—side valley on N edge of
Barkha Plain.

24-6-45. Ding Tso Lake (ca 15,200")—at N-E corner of Manasaro-
wat.

25-6-45. Halt at Ding Tso.

26-6-45. Kyangma (ca 15,200/)-—near 8 edge of Barkha Plain.

27-6-45. ha Chhu (ca 15,200’)—Barkha Plain west of Barkha.

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

28-6-45. Léjandak (ca 15,000’) also pronounced Lalenthak. On
: S edge of Barkha Plain with a sprawling arm of
Rakhas Tal along the base of the low bare hills,
and with tundra belt bordering it.
29-6-45. Chhimersila (ca 15,000’—pronounced Chhut-mi-shila).
30-6-45. Gemoshisa (ca 15,100/)—-overlooking Gyanima Tso (lake)
ca 3 miles to 5.
1-7-45. Gyanima Mandi or Kharkho (14,900')—with many square
miles of tundra bog around Gyanima Tso.
2-7-45. Gyanima Chhakra (14,900’).
8-7-45. Sheélékhookar—across Chhakra La or Chuppu la (ca
15,000/) N to 8.
4-7-45. Mapcha Chhtngo (ca 14,400’)—source of Mapcha or
Karnali River.
5-7-45. Ronam (ca 138,400/)—on left bank of Karnali River.
Down the Harkang ‘lambo’ (or river valley) luxuriant
Doma on both banks of stream. Rubythroats nesting
here in such abundance that I named it Calliope
Valley. Also P. affinis. About 5 miles above its junc-
tion with the Karnali, i.e. from about 18,800’ down-
wards, Saxicola torquata re-appeared, now mostly
accompanied by squamated young ex-nest.
6-7-45. Taklakot. Route N to S all down the left bank of the
Karnali.

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED IN THE MANASAROWAR-KAILAS
REGION OF W. TIBET 8 JUNE TO 8 JULY 1945

The Tibetan Raven. Corvus corax tibetanus Hodgs.

In small numbers—sporadic solos and pairs—scavenging in the precincts of
monasteries or shepherds’ encampments and ‘goat-train’ halting stations. Higli-
est met: 16,700 ft. (Diraphuk, north of Kailas). In overhead flight the remiges
look slate coloured, boldly set off by the jet black underwing coverts. Has a
high-pitched voice. Its caws sound very like the call of the Tibetan Tern
—Kreeuk—and they are varied by a soft Pruk-pruk ete. like a wooden cattle
bell. Altogether quite an elegant performance for one of the tribe!

[Taklakot, Barkha, Darchan. September 1932 I’. Ludlow. j{

The Yellow-billed Chough. Pyrrhocorax graculus.

The only examples seen were a couple at 16,000 ft. just across the Lipn
Lekh Pass, in the main Himalayan range. In the mountain ranges further
north, e.g. Mandhata and Kailas, it appears to be completely replaced by the
next species.

[Not seen in W. Tibet. September 1932 F. Ludlow.]

The Red-bilted Chough. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax.

Not uncommon but sporadic. Mostly pairs in early June, family parties
early July. Young birds have brownish-red bill and pinkish gape. On cliffs,
about cultivation and monasteries, by shepherds’ encampments and goat-train
bivouacs. Highest met: 18,000 ft. (near Dolma La, Kailas). Once a flock of
over 60 attending large herd of Kyang miles out on the bare Barkha Plain.
Call: a shrill cawing Chiaow, chiaow etc. An adult pair with two full-fledged
juveniles observed retiring to roost in crevice of cliff—evidently nest-site--at
sunset while still very light.

[Lipu Lekh, Taklakot, Darchan. September 1932 F. Tindlow.]

ysnoyD punosry s,ounyy ySnoy) punory s,owmyy jo O}IS JSON
Mv Ups 14 stn Gog

UIACY ULOCIT

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AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 267

Hume’s Ground Chough. Pseudopodoces humilis Hume.

Quite common, generally in pairs or family parties of 4 or 5. Certainly one.
of the commonest birds in the Manasardwar-Barkha area. Highest met: ca
16,000 ft.—i.e. the limit of furze growth. Evidently commencing to breed early.
Frequents screes or stone littered gentle hummocks and lower hillsides in pre-
ference to the bare open plain. Partial to the side valleys opening on the
Barkha Plain, and here to dry watercourses with steep outscoured earth banks.
Hops about amongst loose littered stones, pulling them over with its curved bill
or digging vigorously for insects. Mounts a stone every little while, or occa-
sionally a furze hedgehog, to bob violently a couple of times like a chat, but
standing upright and not ducking its head. General appearance very like the
Mountain Finch (Montifringilla n. adamsi) with the same colour pattern of tail
—white outside feathers, brown middle ones—but no white wing bar. ‘Twitches
tail open laterally every now and again, and also shivers wings, especially while
bobbing. ‘The flicker of the white tail feathers in the distance is often the only
indication of the bird’s presence in its obliterating environment. Progresses
on the ground with an upright carriage in long hops, bouncing like a rubber
ball. When rummaging or digging among the stones, and also in flight (when
the tail is spread exhibiting the white-and-brown pattern,) the bird reminded
me strongly on the Large Grey Babbler (Argya malcolmi). The likeness is
heightened by the slightly curved bill and the darkish lores. In other ways the
bird is reminiscent of the Wood Shrike (Tephrodornis pondiceriana). Calls:
The Chip-cheep cheep cheep cheep commonly uttered, is very like call of the
Yellow-eyed Babbler (Chrysomma sinensis). 'There is a slight pause after the
initial chip; the rest of the notes are quick-repeated. It also has a feeble
whistling note like that of the Spotted Munia, but more prolonged.

Nesting: Nests in holes in earth banks, self excavated. One nest (22 June)
was at the end of a horizontal straight tunnel in a steep earth bank 4 ft. long,
and 3 in. in diameter. The tunnel ended in a widened chamber 9 to 10 in.
across. The nest itself was an enormous pad of sheep’s wool on a foundation
of green moss and weighed over 14 lb. It contained a clutch of 6 eggs, slightly
incubated, immaculate white with translucent pinkiness, longish ovals only
slightly narrower at one end. They measured: 23.5x17, 23x17, 24x17,
2416.5, 24x16, 23.5x17 mm. At another nest containing young (24 June)
both parents were observed entering with food and removing packets of faeces.

The bird does not alight outside the nest-hole before entering but ‘helicopters’
into it directly, vibrating its wings rapidly as it approaches the hole. For
photographs the hole had to be temporarily blocked with a stone.

From much in its general get-up, habits and behaviour I should not be
greatly surprised if a proper anatomical study revealed the correct taxonomical
position of this bird to be in the Family Timaludae (Babblers).

[Darchan, Diraphuk. September 1932. F. Ludlow. ]

The Rock Nuthatch. Sitta neumayer.

I had a distant fleeting glimpse of a bird at 18,000 ft.—below Dolma La
Pass—which may have been either this or Tichodroma. I set down the record
here for what it is worth.

The Wall Creeper. Tichodroma muraria.

A pair observed on steep conglomerate crags flanking the river at Taklakot
(13,000 ft.). The flight consists of flap—pause (with wings closed)—flap—pause,
and so on; very butterfly like. In the distance, in uncertain light, general
appearance confusingly like Rock Nut-hatch, both when creeping up a rock-
face and on the wing.

The Brown Dipper. Cinclus pallasii. :
A single bird on Karnali River at Ronam, 6-7-45.

The White-breasted Tipper. Cinclus cinclus.

A solo on the partly frozen Lha Chhu at Diraphuk (16,700 ft.), and a pair
in copula at Zinthilphtk (16,000 ft.)—both in the Kailas Range.

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The Collared Bush Chat. Sazicola torquata.

, Observed at Ngayezé (ca 15,300 ft.—S.W. shore of Manasarowar), in the
Harkang Valley (between 138 and 14,000 ft.) and a Rkonam. Numerous in
Harkang Valley. Chiefly on and about water-logged ground. With squamated
wobbly flying young in first week of July.

[Specimen from ‘Rugong’ (? Rangung) 5 September. S.t. przewalski F.
Ludlow. ]

The Tibetan Desert Chat. Cinanthe deserti [oreophila (Oberholser) ].

Observed at Taklakot, Toyo, Gurla Pass, Gossul Gompa, (W_ shore of
Manasar6war), Lejandak, Ding Tso, Kharkho, Gyanima Chhakra. Highest ca
16,500 ft.
Not noted at all on Kumaon side of Lipu Lekh, from Almora.

Solos and pairs. Sporadic but frequent. Keeps to stony hummocks and
hillsides covered with sparse furze bushes. Male has a pretty little song:
Teee-ti-ti-ti repeated monotonously all day long in the vicinity of the nest, from
a stone or on the wing. Occasionally hovers about 50 ft. up for over 5 seconds,
and sings. Particularly favoured nest sites are in among the cairns of Mani
stones and in the old piled-up clods of earth and turf which compose the walls
of the seasonal mandis or market places, e.g. at Kharkho, and Gyanima
Chhakra. Nest: a cup of mosses and goat hair etc. neatly lined with sheep’s
wool, ca 3) in. in diam. Several broods of woobbly-flying, stub-tailed
juveniles—3 in each case—fed and fussed over by parents in last week of June
and first week of July. When a nest with young was approached the female
kept flitting about excitedly, wagging her tail up and down and uttering Chuck-
chrr presumably in warning to the young. She repeatedly attacked and drove
off the male from the proximity when the nest was being searched for, as if
apprehensive of his giving away the position.

[Often seen between Manasarowar and Gartok. Sept. 1982 F, Ludlow]

The Eastern Indian Redstart. Phoenicurus ochruros [rufiventris (Vieillot) ? ].

Observed at Darchan, Diraphukh, Zutnthilphik, Péling Yoma, Chhimer-
sila, Gyanima Chhakra, Shélékhookar. Highest 18,600 ft. Pairs. Scattered,
but locally numerous. Nesting in stone and boulder littered country at the
base of mountains in Lha Chhu Valley and elsewhere’ in Kailas range. Nests:
cups of goat and yak hair—in holes in steep outscoured conglomerate or crumb-
ling earth banks in side valleys opening on Barkha Plain. Found many nests.
with eggs or young—mostly 8. Wobbly, stub-tailed juveniles about in first
week of July. One nest on ground among exposed roots of furze bush over-
hanging steep eroded earth bank of stream. Two nests at Zunthilphik within
10 yards of each other watched for over an hour and a curious state of affairs
noted. Both nests contained young but in one only a female was feeding, in
the other only a male. Although these nests were in such close proximity and
the birds frequently within a few feet of each other outside the nest—sometimes
with food in bill, sometimes without—there was no rivalry of any sort observed.
May it be that both the nests belonged to one and the same pair and that the
male had taken over incubation in the first nest while the female laid again
in the second? JI cannot think of another explanation.

The race here is evidently rufiventris with practically no grey fringes to the
black feathers of the upper parts. However, a specimen obtained by Ludlow
at Rakhas Tal, Sept. 1932, is identified as P.d. phoenicuroides. Phoenicurus
erythrogaster grandis (Gould). Guldenstadt’s Redstart.

‘Common on the Kailas circuit between 16,900 and 18,000 ft.’ September
1932. F. Ludlow.

The Rubythroat. Calliope pectoralis

Observed at Sékang, Ngayézé, Shelékhookar, Mapcha Chhtingo, Ronam.
Nowhere in the Kailas circuit or north of the Barkha Plain.

Commonly nesting in furze bushes in the envirous of lakes, streams and
‘tundra’ bogs. Numerous globular or dome-shaped nests of grass with lateral
entrance, low down within furze hedgehogs, with eggs or newly hatched young
(normally 8), in first half of June. Wobbly stub-tailed juveniles in 1st week
of July. Hggs very handsome bluish-green or deep sea-green. Both sexes feed |

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 299

the young. All the birds I met were very shy and circumspect when approach-
ing nest with eggs or young. The male sings constantly from the top of a
furze bush in the proximity of the nest. The song is very similar to that of
the Pied Bush-chat, and of 8 or 4 seconds’ duration. It is repeated almost
without a break—to the point of monotony—for half to one hour at a time. The
singing stance is also as in that bird: tail loosely depressed, wings partly droop-
ing at the sides. In one instance the singing day commenced at 04.10 and
ended 20.30 hours, when the condition of the light was about the same as at
start—almost dark. ‘While singing, the brilliant ruby throat-patch scintillates
catching the light at different angles in a remarkable way.

My notes make no mention of the white moustachial streak that distinguishes
the Tibetan species tschebaiewt. I hardly think that such a prominent feature
if present could have been overlooked, especially with binoculars and at close
range. ‘Therefore I feel that the birds I met were not tschebaiewi although
this is the form recorded from Ladakh and the Gyantse neighbourhood. It is
unfortunate that no specimens could be secured. A og and @ obtained by
- Ludlow at Menga (14,300 ft.) further west, on) Sept. 16, 1932 were identified
as tschebaewt.

The Blue Rock Thrush. Monticola solitaria.

Observed at Taklakot, Toyo, Gemoshisa.

Uncommon. Only 3 or 4 solos and 2 or 38 pairs sporadically during entire
trek. One carrying food for young to rocky hillside, 30-6-45. The song of the
male is rather like the Rubythroat’s but longer and richer—with more of the
thrush quality. In the breeding season it has a habit of singing as it volplanes
gracefully along the contours of a cliff, very like a child’s paper aeroplane.

The Robin Hedge-Sparrow. Prunella rubeculoides.

Observed at Lipu Lekh Pass, Sékang, Ranging, Tarchan, Diraphik,
Zunthilphuk. Highest 17,000 ft. Pairs in and about furze patches in the
neighbourhood of snow-fed streams and tundra bogs. Tame and confiding.
Hops about on ground like House-Sparrow, picking up food. Call: a feeble
Tilalil.

Breeding general in first half of June. Nest: a grass-lined hollow on the
mound forming the core of a furze ‘hedgehog’, well concealed within the bush.
This appeared to be the most usual site. One nest was placed in a hollow in
the bank of a partially frozen stream. C/3 was the norm, the eggs being of
the typical hedgesparrow blue, unmarked and very handsome.

The Garhwal Hedge-Sparrow. Laiscopus collaris whympert. Stuart Baker.
Specimens obtained on Lipu Lekh by F. Ludlow, 2 Sept. 1932.

Tickell’s Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell).

Observed at Sékang, Ngayézé, Tarchan, Zinthilphik, Péling Yoma,
Shelékhookar, Mapcha Chhingo, Ronam. Highest 16,000 ft.

Abundant in dense furze facies especially on gentle lower slopes of hills.
flanking stream valleys, e.g. Harkang ‘limbo’ and Mapcha Chhungo. In
pairs, and breeding freely everywhere throughout June and first week of July
(after which I left Tibet.).

Males sing constantly from bush tops: a loud Pick—pick (or only a single
pick) whiw-whiw-whiw-whiw. Nest a ball of grass ca 6in.x4in. with lateral
opening near top, lined with soft feathers. Placed up to 2ft. up in a furze
bush. Norm c/4. Eggs of 2 types: (1) Pure immaculate white, (2) white
sparsely stippled with rust-red especially at broad end. Average measurements
of 6 eggs 16xX12.5 mm. Numerous nests contained eggs in second week of
June, and newly hatched chicks in first week of July. During the latter period
also many wobbly juveniles were on the wing.

Both parents feed the young, and are circumspect when approaching the
nest. In one case feeding continued till 20.30 hrs.—when almost dark.

[‘Obtained on the Lipu Lekh at 12,500 ft. and noted at Darchan’ F. Ludlow
Sept. 1932.]

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The Rosy Pastor. Pastor roseus Linn.

A solitary straggler—adult in perfect summer dress—was observed among
grazing ponies on lush grassland in the Karnal: river valley, between Toyo
village and Taklakot, 6-7-1945. This was the only example met with durmg
the entire trip.

The Great Rose-Finch. Carpodacus rubicilla.

Observed at Pala (ca 14,000 ft.) near Lipu Lekh Pass.

Quite common. Singly or in pairs on stone littered open ground.

{Ludlow obtained a specimen of severtzovi on Lipu Lekh and noted it as
common at Taklakot and Darchan. Sept. 1932]

The Red-breasted Rose-Finch. Pyrrhospiza punicea.

Observed at Tarchan, Lejandak, Pala. Highest ca 15,500 ft.
Occasional pairs on bare rugged hillsides. Not common.

The Pink-brow ed Rose-Finch. Propasser rhodochrous.
Observed only at Pala, ca 14,000 ft.—A flock.

The Goldfinch. Carduelis caniceps.

Observed only on the return journey from Gyanima, 6 to 8 July, between
Harkang (18,500 ft.) and Taklakot (138,000 ft.). In pairs, and fairly common.
The period of its appearance and its varying local abundance seemed to be
closely correlated with the sprouting after winter and varying local flowering
of the Thistle on the seeds of which it was constantly feeding.

Ludlow observed Goldfinches at \Taklakot in Sept. 1932, but took no speci-
mens. |

The Twite. Acanthis flavirostris.

Observed at Sékang, Chhimersila, Shélékhookar, Ronam. Highest ca
15,000 ft.

In parties of 6 to 8 on screes and stony hillsides. Between 13 and 14
thousand feet appeared to be its optimum zone. Hasily distinguished from
other similar finches by its slender build and bill, pale pink rump (especially in
the male), distinctly forked tail, and the twite-twite uttered in flight.

Ludlow found the race ladacensis common about Taklakét in Sept. 1982.:

The Gold-fronted Finch. Metaponia pusilla.

Observed only at Taklakot both when I passed through in the first week of
June and on my return visit in the lst week of July. Parties in June, pairs in
July, on open shingle screes. Utters a feeble but sharp tree-tree and also a
musical chiririri.

[Noted at Taklakot, Sept. 19382. F. Ludlow.}

The House-Sparrow. Passer domesticus.

Observed only at Taklakot (18,000 ft.) and Toyo village, which might be
called its suburb. None in the gompas or monasteries in the Manasardwar-
Kailas circuit.

A number are said to spend the winter in the Taklakdt monastery situated
on a hilltop about 500 ft. above the mandi. In early June while the mandi was
still largely deserted I found fair numbers of sparrows occupying holes in the
thatching of the monastery buildings. In July when the mandi was more or
less tenanted by traders, sparrows were in much greater abundance here.
Some of the birds had doubtless come down from the monastery, but the large
numbers suggested that others had immigrated from elsewhere. They were
nesting freely in the shop buildings in early July. Also noted in Sept. 19382 by
Ludlow. Race parkini (=bactrianus.)

The Tree Sparrow. Passer montanus.

One very doubtful and unconfirmed sight record from the monastery at
Tarchan (15,500 ft.) on a stony treeless hillside !

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 301

The (Tibetan) Mountain Finch. Pringillauda brandti haematopyga (Gould).

Observed at Ngayezé, Diraphuk, Chhumersila, Gyanima Mandi, Pala.
Highest ca 17,000 ft. Frequent flocks on scree fans and stony hillsides all
along the Kailas parikrama, Large numbers at water’s edge on the S-W
shore of Manasarowar lake and on adjacent bogs, hopping or running about—
looking very like stints in the distance—picking up seeds (presumably) washed
up. by the. ripples. Sometimes only one or two individuals, at others dense
flocks of 50 or more. No sign of breeding activity noted up to 2nd. week of
July. Ludlow collected specimens on the Lipu Lekh and at Rakhas Tal, and
observed it on the Kailas circuit. Sept. 1982.

Stoliczka’s Mountain Finch. fringillauda nemoricola [altaica (Eversm.) |

Observed only at Pala (ca 14,000 ft.—near Lipu Lekh Pass). Fairly common.
Small parties on bare stony hillsides and scree fans.
An ad. and juv. were collected by Ludlow on the Lipu Lekh in Sept. 1932.

The Tibet Snow-Finch. Montifringilla nivalis adamsi Adains.

Observed at Pala, Taklakot, Ngayézé, Nyandi, Diraphuk and all along the
Kailas circuit; Mapcha Chhungo. Highest 17,000 ft.

Fairly common. Pairs, on open scree fans, stony ground about base of hills
and snow patches. Breeding in June and July. Many entering or leaving
holes in clay cliffs or burrows of voles and mouse-hares. Commonly seen flying
with beakfuls of insects collected mostly at edge of water.

Ludlow obtained specimens—l ad., 1 juv.—near Taklakot. Sept. 1982.

The Red-necked Snow-Finch. Montifringilla ruficollis Blanford.

Observed at Kyangma (Barkha Plain), Lejandak, Gyanima Mandi—all at
ca 15,000 ft. Fairly common locally. In pairs on open gravel plain. Nesting
in numbers in burrows of mouse-hares (Ochotona). Many part-fledged non-
flying young sitting about outside burrows on hole-riddled ground, being fed by
parents, in the last week of June. Other adults still collecting feathers for
nest-lining at end of June. The birds apparently live on terms of amicable
‘Co-prosperity. with the rats. A juvenile male caught outside a rat hole with
rectrices and remiges in quill, had pale rose-pink undertail coverts. Iris grey-
brown, bill ivory yellow, legs and feet slaty black.

Blanford’s Snow-Finch. Montifringilla blanfordi Hume.

Observed at Ding Tso (N.E. of Manasarowar) ca 15,000’.

Frequent. In pairs and evidently breeding. Seen by If. Ludlow at
Barkha, 8 Sept. 1932.

The House Martin. Martula dasypus.

Observed at R6nam and Toyo, ca 13,500 ft. A few hawking in Harkang
‘jumbo’ (river valley) and over Karnali river near Toyo village, 5 & 6 July.

Not met with anywhere in June.
Ludlow also saw it at Taklakot in Sept. 1932, but did not collect specimens.

Sand Martin. Riparia riparia.

“Observed at Jiu Gompa, Barkha, Lejandak-—all ca 15,000 ft.

Uncommon. Sporadic pairs near streams or small pools flanked by earth
banks where presumably nesting. White or almost white on lower abdomen.
Identity uncertain.

The Crag Martin. [iparia rupestris (Scop.).

Observed at Lejandak (S edge of Barkha Plain) ca 15,000 {t. and Toyo
(near Taklakot) 13,000. Uneommon. Pairs about cliffs flanking streams. On
6 July a pair were collecting mud at the edge of Karnali River: near Toyo and
building about a hundred feet up on a rock face.

Taklakot, Sept. 1932. F. Ludlow!

302- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba alboides Hodgs.

Observed only at Talakot (13,000 ft.). Ludlow collected a specimen near
Zorawar Singhs tomb at Rugong» in Sept. 1939. “Apparently the

breeding bird on the plateau.” A pair, - both with. grey backs in

stead of black, was also observed a month later in the same locality on the

fKarnali River and put down in my notes as M.a. personata. This, however,-

must be accepted with reserve in view of Meinertzhagen’s categorical statement
in the Ibis (1927) that Osmaston’s record of personata in Ladakh must ‘with-

out doubt’ refer to alboides. Osmaston’s list (from sight) omits alboides, and

Meinertzhagen who collected specimens never came across personata there !
Ludlow obtained a specimen of personata at Gartok, farther west in this
area, on 24 Sept. 1982, presumably a migrant according to him. 3

The Yellow -headed Wagtail. Motacilla citreola.

Observed at Sékang, Ngayézé, Gyanima Chhakra, Ronam. Highest ca
15,300 ft.

Not common, but pairs frequent on water meadows and bogland. Males
yellow-headed, black-backed; females grey-backed, with yeliow forehead and
supercilium. Evidently breeding.

Anthus sp: Pipit.

Ludlow obtained a specimen on the shores of Rakhas Lake on 6 September
1932, regarding which Whistler remarks ‘I do not feel quite happy about this;

bird—it seems to be either campestris or thermophiius, and I should have said
the latter only the hind claws are so short’. udlow had put this down in
his field note book as Anthus richardi. He obtained:.specimens of this same
pipit in Sept. and Oct. 1933 on the Phari-Gyantse road (Ibis 1937, p. 481) and
also in S.E. Tibet in the autumn of 1936 and 1938 (Ibis 1944, p. 363). All these
birds were fat and appeared to be on migration. ;

Elwes’s Horned Lark. Hremophila alpestris elwesi (Blanford).

Observed everywhere except at Diraphik (N. of Kailas).

Without doubt the most characteristic and abundant bird species on the-

bare, stony plateau at about 15,000 ft. altitude. In pairs, and breeding plenti-
fully in June. Numerous nests with eggs or young seen, normally c/2 or c/8.

The eggs are brownish pale grey or greyish-stone colour, heavily but finely
splashed all over with brown, more densely at the broad end. They measure
24-26 mm. X 17-18 mm. The hatchlings are covered with sparse yeilowish-
White down.

The nest is a round cup-like depression anywhere on the open featureless
plain, neatly lined with soft grass and sheep’s wool, measuring about 8 in.
across by 1.5 to 1.75 in. deep. ;

The male has a feeble squeaky song of disjointed strophes, usually uttered

from a stone, rather of the volume and quality of some Willow-Warbler’s song.

Both parents feed the young and attend to the nest sanitation, but what part
if any the male takes in incubation I was unable to determine.

The Long-billed Calandra Lark. Melanocorypha maxima Blyth.

ATA ate ‘ aR ino - Te LV aN] : arte

| Observed at Sekang, Ngayézé, Ding Tso, Gyanima T'so—all ca 15,000 ft.
I airly common and abundant on tundra bogs on the edge of lakes and snow-
fed streams. Breeding was in progress during June. Birds carrying nest
material or constantly chasing one another around were noted at Manasarowar
When pursuing a rival the bird flies low with a slow, deliberate flapping of its
wings. When alighting after the intruder has been driven off the wings are

~ . . ° a wa rl 3 4 ’ ON :

2 Ss 7 , ay ele S - a Pi eae tiesto RS

held motionless in a wide V above the back and-the tail spread out exhibiting

the white outer feathers prominently. The song, usually uttered from a ‘hunip..

in a bog, is a series of broken or disjointed strophes in which imitations of. the

calls of other birds e.g. the tew-tew-tew of the Redshank and the tec-lee-tec.

of the going-away Green Sandpiper are skilfully interlarded.” In the latter case

it would be interesting to know where the bird picked up the notes, since the

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 303

Green Sandpiper does not occur in these parts." While singing the wings are
drooped and excitedly twitched open and closed, the tail partially cocked and
the bird turns lightly from side to side. Occasionaliy a few bars are also sung
on the wing.

The nest is a cup-like depression on a water-girt or partialiy spongy ‘hump’
in a bog, lned with green grass. ge 38—are olive-cream. in
colour densely blotched with brown aimost concealing ‘the ground colour. ‘Iwo
measured 28 x 20 and 28 x 21 mm. One nest (on 27 Junie) contained 3 chicks
about 8 days old partly in down and partly buff-tipped black feathers, with
wings and tail in quill. Gape yellow. Inside mouth bright reddish-orange,
with 3 black tongue-spots, one at apex and one each on either side of it. Mouth
very conspicuous “when chicks lying doggo with bill open. Warning pattern?

The Tibetan Skylark. Alauda gulgula Ihamarum Meimertzh.

Observed at Taklakot and environs, including Toyo—between 13,000 and
18,500 ft. local. Fairly plentiful in the barley and gram cultivation around
villages. Soaring, singing and chasing rivals during June. Frequently a
dozen or more up in the air and singing simultaneously. On completion of the
song it descends steeply in spirals or in ‘falling leaf’ style, wings motionless
and often held in a wide V above the back in a manner reminiscent of our
Red-winged Bush Lark (Mirafra erythroptera). Many birds were feeding
young in the first week of July.

Ludlow found it common near Taklakot in Sept. 1932 and obtained a speci-
men at Rugong.

The Rufous Short-toed Lark. Calandrella. brachydactyla dukhunensis.

Ludlow obtained specimens at Rakhas Tal in Sept. 1932, and found it
abundant between Rakhas Tal and Gartok, in flocks.

The Short-toed Lark. Calandrella acutirostris.

Observed throughout except about Diraphik (N or Kailas). The second
commonest and most abundant bird species in this part of Tibet. It loves
open stony and shingly wastes and was most plentiful, in pairs, on the Barkha
Plain where breeding was in full swing during June. Although it nests on the
same sort of gravelly flat ground as the Horned Lark, I noted the nests to be
as a rule less distant from water than in that species. The adults resort re-
gularly to bogs and the water’s edge e.g. at Manasarowar, Ding Tso, Gyanima
Tso, to collect insects for their young. ;

Its usual note is a sharp trr. The male occasionally soars wanderingly and
sings an insipid song consisting for the most part of its own trri notes strung
out disjointedly. The nest is very similar to that of the Horned Lark but
smaller, measuring about 2.5 in. in diameter x 1.25 in. to 1.75 in. deep. Some-
times it is quite unprotected and in the open, at others under a diminutive’
bush. c/3 is the norm. The eggs are greyish-white faintly stippled or
splashed with pale brown somewhat more densely at the broad end where the
markings sometimes coalesce to form a distinct. ring. Several measured were
22-23 x 15-16 mm. Many birds were feeding young in the first week of July.

Ludlow obtained specimens at Rugong, and found it common everywhere in
September 1982.

The Hoopoe. Upupa epops subsp.

I did not come across it at all in June-July, but in September Ludlow
found it common every where from the Lipu Lekh to Darchan, on the Kailas
circuit and elsewhere in Western- Tibet. -

The Swift. Wicropus apus.

Observed only at Toyo, 13,000 ft., 6-7-45: Several birds hawking about the
conglomerate cliffs flanking the Karnali River.

—_ —__ —

1 Ludlow records it in his* notes.

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEIY, Violm40

The Horned Owl. Bubo bubo.

_ Observed only near Jiu Gompa ca 15,000 it. (N. of Mdnasarowat). A sclo
sleeping in an outscoured hollow in a steep clay bank of the Ganga Chuu near
the hot springs, 16-6-45.

The Littie Owl. Athene noctua subsp.
Ludlow saw a little owlet, ‘probably Judlowi’ at Darchan in September 1932.

The Himalayan Griffon Vulture. Gyps himalayensis Hume.

Observed only at Nyandi Gompa ca 16,000 ft., (W. of Kailas) a solo soaring
high above the monastery, 19-6-45.

The Lammergeier or Bearded Vulture. Gypactus barbatus.

Observed at Taklakot, Tarchan, Diraphuk.

Uncommon. Occasional solos sailing round contours of cliffs ete.
‘Seen between Lipu Lekh and Darchan’ F. Ludlow, Sept. 1932.

The Kestrel. Falco tinnaunculus.

Observed at Ngayézé, Gossul Gompa (W. shore of Manasarowar), Ding Tso,
Gyanima Mandi. Sporadic solos.

The Cherrug Fatcon. 2 Falco cherrug.

Observed at Léjandak, ca 15,000 ft. (S. edge of Barkha Plain). A solo on
the wing at long range, 27-6-45. Identity not verified.

Eagle. Aquila rapax.
Observed only at Kharkho, ca 15,000 ft., 2-7-45. ‘
A solo in tundra bog by Gyanima Tso, chivvied and chased about by a pair

of Brahminy Duck. General colouration blackish. Cere grey. No pale har
in tail.

The Taway Eagle. Aquila rapax.

Observed only near Jiu Gompa ca 15,000 ft (N. shore of Mdanasarowar)
16-6-45. Solo. Identity doubtful.

Pallas’s Fishing Eagle. Haliaétus leucoryphus (Pall.).

Observed at Ngayézé, Gossul Gompa, Zinthilphtik, Ding Tso, Lha Chhu,
Gyanima T'so, Rakhas Tal. Highest 16,000 ft. Quite common and plentiful in
the neighbourhood of the lakes. Usually seen singly perched inert on mounds
around or in the midst of the adjacent marshes. At the N.E. end of Ding Tso
over 20 birds were counted on an area of perhaps as many acres, and 15 on
another small tundra bog along the southern edge of Nal Ugro (the name of
the northern section of Barkha Plain which extends eastward to Ding Tso).
They all seemed to be well gorged most of the time. Except for a single in-
stance I never saw any of the birds making the least effort to obtain food. On
that occasion a bird caught a fish about 12 in. long.

This eagle is doubtless only a summer visitor to these high elevation lakes.
There are no trees here for it to nest in, and during winter food must be un-
obtainable since all the waters become frozen.

Ludlow only saw a single pair on the Ganga Chhu at Jiu on 7th Sept. (1932)
which suggests that southward emigration may already have begun.

The Buzzard. Buteo sp.?

Observed on Barkha Plain below ‘Tarchan, ca 15,000 ft.

A pair on ground by shepherds’ encampment. General colouration chestnut.
Head and neck pale—almost buffy cream. Tail buffy cream colour, as also a
large round patch near tip of open wings, on the underside.

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AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 305

The Turkestan Hill Pigeon. Columba rupestris turkestanica Buturlin.

Observed at Taklakot, Toyo, Ngayézé, Gossul Gompa (W. shore of Mana-
sarowar), Diraphak, Délma La, Gyanima Mandi, Pala. Highest 18,600 ft.

Common locally about villages, cultivation and monasteries. living in
colonies on cliffs. Numbers were usually met with at all goat-train halting
stations, feeding on the grain dropped out of the pannier packs. Also at the
summit of well-used mountain passes where grain is springled in thanksgiving
by pious pilgrims. Its call is a high-pitched ‘cheeky’ quick-repeated Gut-gut-
gut-gut, reminiscent of Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon (Ducuia b. cuprea) of
Southern India.

This pigeon, easily distinguished from our familiar Blue Rock (C. livia) by
its whitish underparts and the broad white bar across its tail, completely re-
places livia trans-Himalaya.

Ludlow noted it as common at Taklakot, and between Tarchan and Gartok.
Sept. 1932.

The Snow Pigeon. Columba leuconota.

Only observed at Pala ca 14,200 ft. (near Lipu Pass) 8-7-45—a pair.
This species was otherwise completely absent trans-Himalaya. Ludlow did
not meet with it in Sept. (1982).

The Tibetan Sandgrouse. Syrrhaptes tibetanus Gould.

Observed at Ranging, Sékang, Gemoshisa. Highest ca 15,000 ft.

Not uncommon. In pairs or parties of 6 to 15 on bare gravelly plains and
drinking at tundra-girt streams etc. Surprisingly tame, allowing approach
within easy catapult range. Call: typical Sandgrouse but deeper and more
musical—a pleasant loud koonk-koonk etc. in slightly varying keys, reminiscent
of the Demoiselle Crane (Anthropoides virgo). Usually uttered on the wing.
Ludlow found them in flocks of 20-80 and very tame, between Rakhas Tal and
Gartok—Sept. 1932. On 1 July a flock was come upon including a pair with
3 (or 4?) juveniles in mixed down and feather plumage, about the size of Grey
Quail. Swift runners. When approached, the parents and young isolated
themselves and walked away from the rest of the flock. After submitting to
encirclement by 8 people for over 5 minutes for photographs, the female sudden-
ly apprehended danger and commenced doing the ‘broken wing’ trick, fluttering
piteously along the ground for over 20 yards away from the chicks. Upon this
the chicks immediately lay doggo and ‘froze’, becoming completely obliterated
from view among the gravel though only a few feet away. They would have
been quite easily lost if only one pair of eyes had been watching and_ that
momentarily distracted by the adult’s antics.

The Chakor. Alectoris graeca chukar.

Ludlow obtained specimens near Taklakot in the first week of September
(1932).

The Snow Cock. Tetraogallus sp?

Heard in the Kailas Range near Diraphtk at ca 17,000 ft. (19-6-45) and on
the rugged crags above Shélékhookar ca 16,000 ft. (4-7-45).

4 birds shot by Ludlow in the Sazi La, farther to the west, in Sept. (1932)
are T. t. tibetanus.

The Black-necked Crane. Grus nigricollis Przewalski.

Observed at Ding Tso, Lejandak Tso, Gyaénima Tso (Kharkho)—all ca
15,000 ft. Frequents tundra bogs around’ the margin of lakes. In pairs during
June and early July, and breeding. Pairs prancing and leaping widely and
bowing to each other exactly as in the Sarus Crane. Voice and trumpeting
calls also very similar to that bird’s, only somewhat higher pitched.

A nest consisting of a few reeds spread out, with a single fresh egg, was
found on 25 June on a spongy grass-covered hump—floating islet—in the broad
belt of bog on the N. edge of Ding Tso lake. The egg is greenish-grey or olive-
grey in colour with rough splodges of faint reddish-brown all over, more densely

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

at the broad end. It measures 107X66 mm. Its contents, equal to about 6

fowl’s eggs, were delicious scrambled and provided a welcome change from
the eternal dal and rice!

The Brown-headed Guil. Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon.

Observed at Ngayézé, Tseti Tso (W. shore of Manasarowar), Ganga Chhu
(near Jiu Gompa), Barkha, Ding Tso, Lha Chhu, Gyanima Tso (Kharko)—all
between 15,000 and 15,300 ft.

Fairly common and in full brown-headed summer plumage. About 50 pairs
nesting in an inaccessible part of bog along the eastern shore of Ding Tso Lake,
25-6-45. Hach nest was a separate raised mound of grass etc. above water level
and a few feet away from its neighbour. Now mostly with eggs. Several
pairs .were also nesting in a similar marsh about Gyanima Tso, 2 July.

On Tseti Tso I noted a single example of a smaller gull without brown
head which looked exceedingly like the Black-headed (L. ridibundus) and had
the colour pattern of that species in the wing. ;

Seen on Rakhas Tal in Sept. (1982) by Ludlow.

The Tibetan Tern. Sterna hirundo tibetana Saunders.

Observed at Rangtung, Ngayézé, Tseti Tso, Barkha, Ding Tso, Gyanima T'so
(Kharko), Taklakot.

In small numbers at all waters and marshes on the plateau. beating up and
down and occasionally plunging in for food. Pairs chivvying Black-necked
Cranes and a man approaching a particular islet in Ding Tso, 25-6-45. Un-
doubtedly breeding, but no nest discovered. Its call is a harsh krecak or SHAC
very like the croak of the Tibetan Raven.

Manasarowar and Rakhas Tal in Sept.! F. Ludlow.

The Oystercatcher. Haematopus ostralegus.

‘I saw, to my surprise, an Oystercatcher at Kugong on 6 September’ (1932)
F. Ludlow.

The Pamirs Lesser Sand-Plover. Charadrius mongolus (atrifrons Wagler).

Observed at Sékang, Ngiiyézé, Tseti Tso, Ganga Chhu (near Jiu Gompa),
Barkha, Pélung Yoma, Ding Tso, Gyanima Tso (Kharkho and Chhakra),
Shélékhookar—all between 14,500 and 15,500 ft. Common. Pairs on and about
tundra bogs everywhere. Now in handsome breeding plumage with rust coloured
breast, hind head and upper neck—very different from the prosaic sandy brown
garb in which we see it on the western seaboard in winter. Territorial rivalry
and pre-nuptial chasing in progress. In this the birds fly close above the ground
on rapidly vibrating wings, uttering a peculiar hard Th-tatrr-tatrrwhee. Some-
times the ‘war cry’ is Tit-tit-trr-trrweet of the same quality as the call of the
Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus asiaticus),

Several nests with c/3 found in June on dry stony ground beyond the fringe
of marshes. The nest is merely an unlined scrape. Eegs pale ereen to dark
biscuit colour or khaki, stippled fairly evenly ail over with reddish- brown (dry
blood colour). The ‘broken wing’ trick appears to be very popular with this
species.

Observed on the southern shores of Rakhas Tal, 6 Sept. (1932) by Ludlow.
The Curlew. Numenius arquata subsp.

‘Seen near Rugong on 6 September’ (1932) F. Ludlow.

The Green Sandpiper. Tringa ochropus.

Jiu, 7 Sept. 1982! F. Ludlow.

The Redshank. Tringa totanus.

Observed at Ding 'l'so, Gyanima Tso (Kharkho)—ca 15,000 ft.

15 to 20 pairs on the former and at least 2 pairs on the latter, all evidently
breeding on the tundra bog along the margins of the lakes. A nest (25 June)
was a deepish ‘scrape lined with grass on a flat grassy islet in Ding Tso, and

AN ORNITHOLOGICAL PILGRIMAGE 307

contained c/4. The eggs were drab-coloured with purplish-brown markings,
They were surprisingly large for the size of the bird, being bigger than those
of the Red-wattled Lapwing.

Temminck’s Stint. Hrolia temmincehit.

Ludlow obtained a specimen at Rugong, 5 September (1932 2),

The Bar-headed Goose. Anser indicus Latham.

Observed at Taklakot, Ngayézé, Tseti Tso, Ding Tso, Lha Chhu, Gyanima
Tso (Kharkho)—13 to 15,000 ft.

Common, in fair numbers, at all lakes, large and small, frequenting the pools
and shallows in and about the tundra bogs around their margins. Nesting was
general in June, and several pairs leading downy goslings. Breeding evidently
commences early as by 30 June many full-fledged young of the year were already
about in family parties. ‘The nests are pads of down and feathers individually
or several together a few yards apart, in a depression on the spongy semi-
floating ‘humps’ , usually in an inaccessible part of a marsh. The normal clutch
was of 3 to 5, the eggs being ivory white in colour and thick-shelled. Two —
measured 81 x57, 87x57 mm.

The Bar-head was reported by the locals to breed regularly in very large
numbers on the islets known as Lachato and Topserma in the §. and W. of
Rakhas Tal, but without a boat it was impossible for me to visit these places.
in contrast to their well-known wariness in their winter quarters, the birds
were amazingly tame and confiding here. At Tseti Tso 10 to 15 pairs with
perhaps as many Brahminy Ducks grazed unconcernedly on the grassy margin
of the lake at sunset within 50 yards of our tents! The local Tibetans have
a legend that the geese, having gorged themselves on rice during the winter
months in the plains, have lost their voice (some say even sight) when they
first arrive here in spring. Only after eating the salt in the vicinity of the
sacred lake do they regain these senses and resume their normal aang-aang
calls. They say that the birds come flying in so thickly wing to wing, that if
one of their number is shot dead he is borne along on the wings of “his com-
panions. The fatality is only discovered when the birds. are alighting on
Manasarowar !

Rakhas Tal, Jiu and Barkha! Sept. 1932. F. Ludlow.

The Gadwall. Anas acuta Linn.

The Pintail. Anas strepera Linn.

Observed only at Ngayézé, 13-6-45. Several. among a mixed flock of about
50 duck keeping to a lagoon and mudspit on the 8.W. shere of Manasardwar.
Apparently not interested in breeding here.

The Brahminy Duck. Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg).

Observed at Sékang, Ngayézé, Tseti Tso, Ganga Chhu (near Jiu Gompa),
Lha Chhu (near Diraptikh and on Barkha Plain), Ding Tso, Lejandak Tso and
‘lumbo’ (stream valley), Gemoshisa, Gyanima Tso (Kharkho), Shélékhookar—
15-17,000 ft.

Common at all lakes. Also in flat boggy stream valleys flanked by high
clifis. Breeding in full swing during June, and many pairs leading downy
young. Many breeding high up in holes in precipitous crags, in one case at least
1,500 ft. above the level of the marshy valley bottom. How the fluffy hatch-
lings would be brought down to the water from this great height remained an
“intriguing question. It was a curious sight to see these ducks “flying along the
rugged contours and alighting on rock pinnacles high up on the mountainside~
behaving in fact very like rock- -pigeons.

On a shingle bank by Manasarowar lake a party were observed in some sort
of communal * (prenuptial 2) ceremonies on 13-6-45. Individuals seemed to be
chasing individuals on the ground, and pairs pairs. The aggressive attitude was
very vulture-like: neck craned forward stitfly bill to ground, wings drooped at
sides, and tail spread open and depressed almost scraping the eround. These
antics were accompanied by- angry notes. They. had obviously something to

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

do with pair formation and approximated to the ‘Incitement Displays’ des-
cribed by Heinroth (Die Végel mitteleuropas, Vol. IiI p. 163)
In September (1932) Ludlow found it common everywhere.

The Goosander. Mergus merganser (orientalis Gould).

Observed at Ngayézé, Lha Chhu (at Nyandi W. of Mt. Kailas, and on
Barkha Plain), Zinthilpikh. Occasional solos or pairs on lakes and streams.
No sign of breeding activity.

The Great Crested Grebe. Podiceps cristatus.

Observed at Ngayézé (Manasarowar), Ding T'so, Gyanima Tso (Kharkho).

Quite common. Nesting plentifully in June. Eggs. On a lagoon (S.W.
shore of Manasarowar) counted 8 nests with birds brooding in an area of less
than 10 acres; 40 to 50 nests in another smaller area on the E. shore of Ding
T'so adjoining the breeding colony of Brown-headed Gulls. The nest is a
collection of grass etc. on a floating or anchored mound of rubbish and weeds.
In almost every case the sitting bird covered up the eggs with nest materia!
before swimming away on my approach.

BIRDS NOTED IN THE MAHASU-NARKANDA-BAGHI AREA
OR Ess SIVIEAREINIEIES:

BY
INfg 18a TRONS) Csidn4 “Del Coy WESGs, DMIBOnt:

A trek to Narkanda and Baghi, the latter some 50 miles further
into the hills north-east of Simla, is nowadays quite popular with
visitors to the Simla hills. Having had the opportunity during two
successive years of making this enjoyable trip during the first fort-
night of June, when on each journey detailed records of the birds
seen were kept, an account of the species noted may be some value
to others who visit Narkanda and Baghi just before the rains.

The list given hereafter (which is by no means comprehensive
but contains, it is believed, most of the commoner birds to be seen)
refers only to the area from Mahasu (8,300 feet) six miles from
Simla, to Narkanda (9,100 feet) on the main Hindustan-Tibet road
and along the mule track to Baghi (8,850 feet) and Kadrala (8,900
feet) 10 and 17 miles, respectively, further east of Narkunda. From
Mahasu the first stage of 6 miles to Fagu (8,200 feet) is mostly in
forest ; the second stage of 5 miles to Theog (7,400 feet) traverses
open scree covered hillsides and cultivated tracts; coniferous forest,
steep hillsides and cultivation occur on the next 11 miles to Mattiana
(7,700 feet). At Mattiana which is at the head of a long valley
leading to the Giri watershed more ‘foothills’ species seem to occur
than elsewhere on the route. The 11-mile stage from Mattiana to
Narkanda contains cliffs, ravines and stretches of denser forest.
Between Narkanda and Baghi both the main Hindustan-Tibet road,
continuing to Rampur in the Sutlej valley, and the branch path to
Baghi skirt Mount Hathu through heavy pine and spruce forest
with immense trees and precipitous hillsides. From Baghi to Kad-
rala forest alternates with open hillsides and rocky ravines. As.
would be expected, therefore, a variety of tree and forest haunting
birds as well as those which favour more open and cultivated hill

BIRDS NOTED IN THE MAHASU-NARKANDA-BAGHI AREA 309

country may be seen. Of interest is the extent to which nominally
‘plains’ species such as the House Sparrow, Common Mynah and
Common Pariah Kite have penetrated the Simla Hills.

An indication of the commonness of the various species in late
May and early June in accordance with the frequency with which
observed in the two successive years is included in the notes.
Incidentally, throughout the area it was found that the best time
to see and hear birds is as elsewhere, from just before sunrise
until about r1.0 a.m. and after that time late in the evening.

Corvus macrorhynches. The Jungle Crow.

Common throughout the whole area in all types of country. Seen up to
10,000 feet. Even in secluded forest tracts, one or two of these birds soon
appear to investigate the intruder’s food producing possibilities !

Urocissa melanocephala, The Red-billed Blue Magpie.

Fairly common en route and common in the Narkanda and Baghi area where
its ‘kik-kik-kik kuk-kuk-kuk’ call is frequently heard as well as a variety of
other metallic alarm notes and calls.

Urocissa flavirostris. The Yellow-billed Blue Magpie.

Uncommon

seen only on two occasions in the Mahasu-Kufri ridge forest.

Garrulus lanceolatus. The Black-throated Jay.

Not common—seen once near Mattiana.

Garrulus bispecularis, The Himalayan Jay.

Grating calls are fairly often heard, but this bird needs to be looked for,
when it may be seen in the forests up to Baghi usually slipping from bough to
bough of a tree close to the trunk.

Nucifraga caryocatactes. The Himalayan Nutcracker.

Occasionally heard and seen en route; its noisy harsh calls and mewing
cries commenting on every happening within its ken are especially evident in
the Narkanda, Baghi and Kadrala forests where it is very common.

Parus monticoius. The Green-backed Tit.

Fairly common and occurs at Narkanda, Baghi and Kadrala. Call ;—‘tea-
chey’—frequently heard.

Lophophanes melanolophus. The Crested Black Tit.

Common in forests everywhere—in early June usually to be seen collecting
food for young.

Lophophanes rufosuchalis. The Simla Blaclx Tit.

Fairly common in the Baghi forests—a larger and darker edition of the
Crested Black Tit.

Lophophanes dichrous, The Brown Crested Tit.

Noted only in the Narkanda-Baghi forest and at Kadrala. It appears to be
uncommon.

Aegithaliscus concinnus. The Red-headed Tit.

Not particularly common but noted at Mahasu, Theog, Mattiana and Baghi
in the usual cheeping little parties.

Sitta himalayensis. The White-tailed Nuthatch.

Fairly common in the forest around Mahasu—not observed elsewhere.

BLO) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

Garrulax albogularis, The White-throated Laughing Thrush.

Not very common. Seen on Charabra hill near Mahasu.

Trochalopteron erythrocephalum. The Red-headed Laughing Thrush.

Noted only on the Mahasu-Kufri ridge. A confirmed skullker.

Trochalopteron variegatum. The Variegated Laughing Thrush.

Common especially around Mahasu, Narkanda and Baghi. This bird also
has the habit of ascending trees from bough to bough making itself evident
with its loud whistle ‘pitt-we-whee-eer’.

Trochalopteron lineatum. The Streaked Laughing Thrush.

Common. Occurs in low scrub jungle throughout the whole area—seen up
to 9,500 feet. Whistles ‘pit-weer’ as well as having other squeaking and mur-
muring notes.

Grammatoptila striata. The Striated Laughing Thrush.

Uncommon. <A small party seen only on two occasions on the Mahasu-Kufri
ridge. Harsh alarm note ‘oick oick oick oick . . .’ and a whistling call which
may be expressed ‘oh see saw oh whitey—oh white’.

Leioptila capistrata. The Black-headed Sibia.

Fairly common in forest everywhere where its loud ringing whistle ‘ti-ree-ree
ti-ree-ree-ree’ is frequently heard. Occurs at Baghi.

Pteruthius erythropterus. The Red-winged Shrike Babbler.

Uncommon. Seen on one or two occasions only in the Mahasu area,

‘Molpastes leucogenys. The White-cheeked Bulbul.

Fairly common—seen at Fagu, Theog, Mattiana, Narkanda and Baghi but
not in the abundance of the Simla foothills.

Certhia himalayana. The Himalayan Tree-Creeper.

Common in forests up to 10,000 feet. Usually brings itself to notice by its
thin piping note.

Luscinia brunnea. The Indian Blue -Chat.

Noted at Mahasu and frequently seen and heard in undergrowth in the
Baghi forests. Precedes its song of a varying number of loud notes with three
or four high pitched squeaky whistles.

Saxicola torquata. The Indian Stonechat.

Common on the open hillsides from Fagu to Narkanda, usually perched on
top of a bush or stone.

Rhodophila ferrea. The Darl Grey Bush-Chat.

Common throughout the whole area around cultivation and scrub—the male
may often be heard singing his soft little song.

Enicurus maculatus. The Western Spotted Forlktail.

A pair of these graceful birds were seen on a stream near the Mattiana dak
bungalow.

Turdus albocincta. The White-collared Blackbird.
Fairly common in the Narkanda-Baghi forests. Shy.

Turdus boulboul, ‘The Grey-winged Blackbird,
Common around Mahasu but not observed elsewhere en route.

BIRDS NOTED IN THE MAHASU-NARKANDA-BAGHI AREA 311

Arceuthornis viscivorus. The Himalayan Missel Thrush.

Fairly common in pairs in the Mahasu area, the Narkanda-Rampur road
forest and around Baghi—usually seen on the ground: when undisturbed. <A fine
songster. Is notably common at Kadrala.

Monticola rufiventris. The Chestnut-bellied Rock-Thrush.

Common in pairs around Mahasu and seen near Theog—the harsh scolding
note and ‘piping’ of these birds attract attention.

Monticoia cinclorhyncha, The Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.

Not very common—noted only at Baghi where it was seen and heard sing-
ing from the tree tops in the early morning and late evening.

Myophonus caeruleus. The Himalayan Whistling Thrush.

Seen and heard occasionally in nullahs containing streams—particularly
around Mattiana and Baghi.

Hemichelidon sibirica. The Sooty Flycatcher.

Noted on a number of occasions around Mahasu and in the Baghi and

Kadrala forests—especially on the road to Kadrala. Usually seen ‘flycatching’
from a fixed tree perch.

Muscicapula superciliaris. The White-eyebrowed Blue Flycatcher.

Common in woods and forests. throughout the whole area where its soft
trilling call note can frequently be heard. Is usually seen collecting food for
young in June.

Eumyias thalassina. The Verditer Flycatcher.

Common at Mahasu but not so common elsewhere-—seen near Mattiana and
Theog.
Laniusschach, he Rufous-backed Shrike.

Not common. Seen on one occasion near Mattiana dak bungalow.

Peri crocotus brevirostris. “The Short-billed Minivet,

Fairly common throughout the whole area. Usually seen in small parties
or pairs in the tree tops, the scarlet of the males being very conspicuous.

Dicrurus macrocercus, The Black Drongo.

Not very common-—seen at Mahasu, Theog and Baghi.

Dicrurus jongicaudatus. he Indian Grey Drongo.
Noted only at Mahasu, Mattiana and Baghi.

Phylloscopus trochiloides. The Greenish Willow-Warbler.

A very doubtful identification—but two or three pairs which seemed to be of
this species were observed near the Mattiana dak bungalow.

Phylloscopus magnirostris. The Large billed Willow-Warbler.

Noted in the wooded ravines on the side of Mount Hathu. Call note:

a
high pitched whistle ;—‘eeeee, eee-eee, eee-eee.’

Phylloscopus occlpitalis. The Large Crowned Willow-Warbler.

Abundant everywhere where there are trees, up to 10,000 feet, and probably

higher—its whirring song being a conspicuous feature of the Simla hills in
June.

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Horornis pallidus, ©The Pale Bush-warbler.

This amusing little bird is common around Narkanda and Baghi. It spends
its time creeping about the interior of thick bushes and is difficult to see but
its constantly uttered thin whistle ‘ew-eu-eu-eu-eu-eu’ followed by a loud and
vehement ‘I see you see?’ or ‘I see you!’ cannot be mistaken.

Acridotheres tristis, ~The Common Mynah.

Has found its way into the hills as far as Mattiana where it is particularly
common in and around the village but was not seen beyond that place.

Perissospiza icteroides. The Black & Yellow Grosbeak.

Common—especially so in the Mahasu, Narkanda, Baghi and Kadrala for-
ests where its quick whistle ‘keeky-too, keeky-too’ can constantly be heard.
Often seen feeding on the ground.

Pyhrehula erythrocephala The Red-headed Bullfinch.
A pair of these handsome finches were seen once in a wooded nullah on
the Baghi-Kadrala_ road.

Hypacarthis spinoides. The Himalayan Greenfinch.
Noted only in fairly open country at Mahasu, Mattiana, Baghi and Kadrala
where it was occasionally observed.

Passer domesticus. The House Sparrow.

Like the Common Mynah the House Sparrow is common in the villages
as far as Mattiana, where it is annoyingly evident nesting in the dak bungalow,
but does not yet seem to have found its way further into the hills.

Passer rutilans. The Cinnamon Sparrow.
Not very common—seen only at Fagu, Baghi and Mattiana in the vicinity
of the villages.

Emberiza cia, The Eastern Meadow Bunting.

Common throughout the area, favouring the more open country, constantly
uttering its cricket-like ‘cheep’ and occasionally singing a twittering little song.

Hirundo daurica. The Red-rumped Swallow.

Frequently observed en route up to Narkanda and at Kadrala but not seen
at Baghi. Often rests on the ground.

Oreocorys sylvanus. The Upland Pipit.
Noted on the scree covered hillsides near Mattiana and between Fagu and
‘Theog—has a loud creaking note ‘put — eeeezee’ and ‘eeeeeee — put’.

Zosterops palebrosa. The White-eye.

Noted only on one occasion at Mahasu.

Aethopyga gouldiae. Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird.

This beautiful bird was seen occasionally in the Mahasu area feeding on
fiowering trees. Its call of ‘Tzit tzit — tzit tzit — ———’ draws attention
to its presence.

Picus squamatus, The Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.

Not often seen. Noted around Mahasu and in the Baghi forests.

BIRDS NOTED IN THE MAHASU-NARKANDA-BAGHI AREA ~ 313

Hypopicus hyperythrus. The Rufous-bellied Woodpecker.

This handsome little woodpecker is to be seen fairly frequently in the
forest near Narkanda on the Rampur road. Observed drumming on a hollow
tree trunk.

Dryobates himalayensis. The Himalayan Pied Woodpecker.

Fairly common in the Mahasu area and in the Narkanda-Baghi and Kadrala
forests.
Megalaema virens. The Great Himalayan Barbet.

The mournful cry of this species; ‘pee oh’? — can be heard in all the

valleys en route up to Kadrala.

Cuculus canorus. The Asiatic Cuclxoo.

@
The familiar ‘Cuck-oo’ call of this bird is heard everywhere and it is
arti CS 2 acai : I ah A ;

particularly common at Mattiana, Narlkanda, Baghi and Kadrala. At these
places also a loud, obviously cuckoo, call (somewhat reminiscent of the notes
of the White-cheeked Bulbul) which may be expressed ‘Quick, quick, drinking
with you’ is also very frequently heard. This was traced to a Cuckoo of the
canorus type but whether canorus, optatus, or poliocephalus it- was not possible
to determine without procuring a specimen.

Cuculus optatus. The Himalayan Cuckoo.

Common—particularly so at Mahasu, Narkanda, Baghi. and Kadrala. Its
call hoop hoop hoop hoop is frequently evident at dawn, long after sunset
and during moonlit nights.

Cuculus micropterus. The Indian Cuckoo.

Fairly common throughout the area and easily recognised by its call of
Make more pekoe. Often calls before sunrise.

Hierococcyx sparveroides. The large Hawk-Cuckoo.

Heard at Mahasu, Narkanda, Baghi and Kadrala where it is common. Has
the same ascending trill and call Brain fever as the Common Hawk-Cuckoo
but less shrill. Also calls before sunrise and on moonlit nights.

Cacomantis merulinus. The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo.

Heard only on one occasion in the Mashobra Valley below Mahasu. Call:
how few, how few,

Upupa epops. The Hoopoe.

Noted only at Fagu and Narkunda.

Micropus pacificus. Blyth’s White-rumped Swift.

A flock of swifts identified as Blyth’s Swift by the white rump and larger
size than the House Swift were observed in flight below Mahasu before a storm.
It is believed the Alpine Swift with its white underparts was also seen in the
same locality.

Collocalia fuciphaga, The Himalayan Swiftlet.

Small flocks may occasionally be seen circling over the valleys usually
preceding a storm.

Strix nivicola, The Himalayan Wood Owl.

Noted at Baghi. Call: Hu-hoo and Huhu-hoo.

Otus spilocephalus. The Himalayan Scops Owl.

The double whistle phew.....phew of this bird can. be heard at night in
the forests particularly at Mahasu and Narkanda,

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Sarcogyps calyus. The King Vulture.
; Not common—seen only on two occasions, once at Mahasu and once at
Narkunda.

Gyps himalayensis. The Himalayan Griffon.

Common everywhere in the area.

Pseudogyps bengaiensis. The White-backed Vulture.
Uncommon—seen once in flight over the Theog ridge.

Neophren percnopterus. The Neophron.

Fairly common throughout the whole area up to Baghi.

Gypaétus barbatus. The Lammergeier.

Fairly common everywhere—usually seen ‘contouring’ the hills with out-
stretched. wings occasionally flexing, bearded head turning from side to side
as every ravine and spur is examined.

Falco peregrinus. ‘The Shahin Falcon.

A falcon in flight over the Mashobra valley below Mahasu and of which a
close view was obtained was noted as a Shahin but the identification was not
sertain.

Falco tinnunculus. The Kestrel.

Fairly common—especially so around the steep hillsides: near Narkanda and

Baghi.

Ictinaétus malayensis, The Black Eagle.

This fine bird was seen once,—skirting the edges of cliff forest and thread-
ing the trees on the side of Mount Hathu. Dark colour, fan tail and markedly
upturned flight feathers are notable.

Haematornis cheela. The Crested Serpent-Eagie.

Seen on two or three occasions coasting with swept-back. wings. over the
Mahasu—Kufti ridge uttering its loud whistling call.

Milvus migrans. The Common Pariah Kite,

Although common at Simla and at Mahasu the Common Kite does not seem
to have moved further into the hills;—not even to Fagu—it was however observed
once in flight crossing the saddle near Narlxanda village.

Sphenocercus sphenurus. The Kokla Green Pigeon. ©

Noted in a deep forested ravine on the side of Mount Huttoo. The human-
like whistle of this bird described by Whistler as Why, we wat cheer; what
ave we waiting for? immediately, attracts attention. Malic

Columba livia. The Blue Rock Pigeon.

Not common but a number seen at Mattiana and a pair at Baghi.

Streptopelia orientalis, The Rufous Turtle Dove.

Common—particularly so around Narkunda, Baghi and Kadrala. The speed
at which this bird flies through the interstices of thick forest is rather astonishing.

Streptopelia risoria, The Indian Ring Dove.
Not common. Noted only at Mattiana where only one individual was seen.

Pucrasia macrolopha. The Koklas Pheasant, — .
Seen and heard in the Catchment Area forest near Mahasu:

BIRDS IN MAHASU-NARKANDA-BAGHI AREA: ADDENDA 315

Gennaeus hamiltoni. The White-crested Kalij Pheasant.

Occurs fairly commonly in the Mahasu area but not noted. elsewhere en
route. Pheasants were heard (but unfortunately not seen!) in the Narlunda-
Hathu Baghi area but lack of familarity with their calls precluded identification.
Mr. A. E. Jones, however, states that the Monal and the Western Horned
Pheasant occur on Hathu.

Arborophila torquevla. The Common Hill Partridge.

The low toned melancholy call poo-or of this bird is evident in the forests
around Mahasu, Narkanda and Baghi,

Alectoris graeca, The Chukor.

Seen on rocky hillside between Mattiana and Theog and heard near Baghi
and Kadrala. Probably also occurs on the Theog scree slopes.

Francolinus francolinus. The Black Partridge.

Noted in the valleys below Mahasu, Fagu, Theog, Mattiana and Narkanda.
The grating call may be represented in the Morse code as ‘UNNK’, iLe.,

)

——.’ and is especially evident in rainy weather.

It may perhaps be emphasized that the foregoing record applies
only to the period from the middle of May to the middle of June.
The avifauna of any particular area in the hills is subject to con-
siderable change—with seasons, of course, and with breeding pe-
riods, rainfall, food supply etc. The species observed in the area
under discussion in October, for instance, will contain birds from
the higher Himalayas and omit summer visitors (vide ‘Some Birds
Observed at Fagoo near Simla’, H. Whistler, J/.B.N.H.S., October
20th 1919); species which are confined to a particular area whilst
breeding will wander away therefrom before and after that period;
a prolonged dry spell seems to be accompanied by a desertion of
the hill tops and a descent to the valleys. Similarly, the ripening
of crops and the flowering and fruiting of trees and bushes produce
local movements. At any time of the year, however, a study of
the birds of the Simla Hills is a most interesting subject. —

ADDENDA

As a result of a further visit to Mahasu and Narkanda during
late May and early June this year (1946) some species were observed
additional to those listed in the foregoing note. Further data are
also available from Waite’s paper on ‘Birds on the Hindustan-
Tibet Road, N-W. Himalaya’ J.B.N.H.S. Vol. 45 part 4, page 53
so far as his account refers to the Mahasu-Narkunda-Baghi area
and for the months of May and June. This information is given
below with an indication of still other species which may be met
with, although not at all common.

(1) ADDITIONAL SPECIES NOTED IN MAY/JUNE 1946:—

Stachyridopsis pyrrhops. The Red Billed Babbler.

Not common. Heard in the Catchment area below Mahasu in _ May. Call,
a clear evenly pitched whistle, of 5 to 9 notes.

_Microscelis psaroides. The Black Bulbul.

~ Small -flocks seen in the’ tree ‘tops on three of four cecasions near -Narkunda
in early June. Pier

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Culicipapaceylonensis, The Grey Headed Flycatcher.

Uncommon. Seen in the Mahasu area at the end of May.

Seicerous burkii. ‘The Black Browed Flycatcher Warbler.

Not common. Seen near Mahasu at the end of May in hillside forest scrub.
This bird is a spring passage migrant.

Glaucidium brodiei. The Collared Pigmy Owlet.

Not previously noted but frequently seen and heard this year in the forests
near Mahasu. Call, an oft-repeated four note whistle,—'poot putput poot’, which
carries a long way and is evident during the day as well as at dawn and
dusk. (Waite states met with at Baghi in June.)

Clamator jacobinus. ‘The Pied Crested Cuckoo,

Not at all common. MHeard in the Mahasu area at the end of May. (Seen
by Waite at Mattiana in June.)
The following species were seen this year in the Narkunda area in addition
the places previously noted :—
White Throated Laughing Thrush
Indian Blue Chat
Himalayan Greenfinch
Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.

(2) ADDITIONAL SPECIES FROM WAITE’S PAPER :—

t¢

Sitta leucopsis leacopsis. “The White-cheeked Nuthatch.

Specimen obtained between Baghi and Sungri in June.
Siva strigula strigula. The Stripe-throated Siva.
Male obtained at Baghi in June.

Oreocincla dauma dauma, The Small-billed Mountain Thrush.

Specimen obtained on Mount Huttoo on 24th June.

Emberizafucata arcuata. ‘The Indian Grey-headed Bunting.

Few seen between Narkunda and Mattiana in June.

Emberizastewarti “he White-capped Bunting.

Seen at Baghi in June.
Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus. The Small Cuckoo.

Obtained in June at Baghi.

(3) ADDITIONAL SPECIES WHICH MAY BE MET WITH
IN MAY & JUNE :—

The Green Shrike-Babbler. The Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker.
The Fire-cap. The Golden Eagle.

The Brown Hill Warbler. Bonelli’s Eagle.

Pallas’ Willow-Warbler. The Booted Eagle.

The Orange-gorgetted Flycatcher. The Sparrow-hawk.

The Slaty Blue Flycatcher, The Hobby Falcon.

The Blue Rock-thrush. The Monal Pheasant.

The Brown Bullfinch. The Horned Pheasant,

The Himalayan Goldfinch. The Woodcock:

The Black-naped Green Woodpecker,
The author’s thanks are due to Mr. A. E. Jones who very kindly
checked the list in paragraph (3).

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN* FRESH-
WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES.

BY
S. JONES, M.Sc.

Payee I
INTRODUCTION.

In the course of a study of the breeding and developmental his-
tories of some Indian fresh-water and brackish-water fishes, the liter-
ature on the subject was found by the author to be not only scanty
but so scattered that he felt there was a real need to bring together
in the form of a paper all the available information on the subject.
It was just as he embarked on this work that the Editors of this
Journal invited him to write a general article of this type in order
to arouse interest on the subject among the members of the Society.
This work is primarily intended for field naturalists rather than
for specialists though the latter also may find it helpful.

Breeding and developmental studies of fishes are full of interest,
and from the author’s experience of the last few years, offer plenty
of scope to anyone willing to devote some attention to them. These
studies consist mainly of fieldwork and do not therefore require
costly equipment and laboratories. Observations under aquarium
conditions, though artificial, are still valuable, and interesting data
can be obtained which can be checked later under natural conditions.

At a time when we hear from every quarter of the country the
cry for the improvement of the fisheries so as to effect a greater
production of fish and thereby to ensure a richer supply of food to
the people, the importance of research on the life-histories, rate of
growth, food, migrations, etc. of fishes cannot be over-emphasized.
The information we have on the biology of Indian fishes is in no
way comparable to the extensive knowledge accumulated as a result
of years of well planned and systematically conducted research on
the important fishes of the western countries. The little we know of
a few fishes of this subcontinent is mostly from isolated observ-
ations and a great deal of further work is required before any prac-
tical use could be made of the knowledge. Though the following
remark made by Dr. Stanley Kemp in 1938 in the course of an ad-
dress at Cambridge to the Zoological Section (D) of the British
Association does not exactly hold good at the present day, it helps
to throw some light on the meagreness of our knowledge until
quite recently. ‘It is no great exaggeration to say that in Africa and
almost throughout the stretch of the Indo-Pacific region there is
scarcely a fish whose life history is fully known and whose various

* Including Burma and Ceylon.

318 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIET Vo Wolhe6

stages from egg to adult can be recognized. Of such matters as
age, rate of growth, spawning periods, food and migrations we are
equally ignorant; nothing is known of the incidence of fluctu-
ations and nothing in seasonal and other changes in the environ-
ment.’

In the case of each fish dealt with in this paper only brief.
notes on the work done so far are given and for detailed inform-
ation the reader is recommended the original works. Though no
pains have been spared to incorporate in this paper every avail-
able reference, any omission may be kindly brought to notice
through the columns of this Journal. The account is confined to
fishes that are known to live and breed or undergo larval devel-
opment in fresh and brackish water including such essentially
marine (anadromous) forms as frequent estuaries and ascend rivers
for breeding purposes.

HISTORICAL RESUME.

The literature on the subject of breeding and development of
Indian fishes is hardly a century old and it belongs to two import-
ant periods. The first period consists mainly of the observations
of the civil and military officers of the East India Company and
the Government of India in the last century. This commences with
Jerdon (1848) and is succeeded by Day (1873 & 1878) and Thomas
(1870 & 1897). It can be considered a dormant period and the few
incomplete notes we get are casual observations confined to breed-
ing habits of some of the common forms with hardly any record
on development. It is evident from these works that even in those
days the study of the breeding habits of fishes with a view to
improving the inland fisheries was engaging the attention of the
Government.

The second period which is much more productive than the
first begins with Willey (1908, 1910 & 1911) ‘whose observations’
as Raj (1916, p. 249) remarks ‘on the breeding habits of Ophice-
phalus striatus and account of the nest, eggs and fry of some other
species in his report on the inland fisheries of Ceylon are substan-
tial contributions to our knowledge of the spawning habits of
Indian fresh water fish’. About. this time:we get the notes by
Jenkins (r910) and this is followed by the account of Raj in 1916
on the fresh water fish of Madras. The latter work is an impor-
tant one as it is rich with his own observations on the breeding
habits and development of a number of Madras forms and it -has
been brought up-to-date by the incorporation of all the previous
facts known on the breeding and development of Indian fresh
water fishes. His work on Hilsa in r917 also deserves mention
here.. The faunistic investigations of the Zoological Survey of
India in the Chilka Lake resulted in the work of Bhattacharya ‘in
1917 on the eggs and early stages of three fishes there. Annan-
dale has given in-1918-some. notes on the breeding of fishes in. the
Lnlé...Lake,. Burma,..and Southwell and Prashad (1919) notes. .on
certain stages in the development of a Notopterid. A very import-
ant work is that of Panikkar in 1920-supplemented by a note in

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 319

1924. In the former he has given detailed observations on the
breeding season, nesting habits, parental care and early develop-
ment of two South Indian Cichlids. We know through this work
the time of attainment of sexual maturity of the two species—a
thing we are practically ignorant of for many other Indian fresh
_water fish. Khan (1924 & 1926) has given notes on the breeding
habits and development of some Punjab fishes and in 1928 of that
of the Gold fish. The notes on the collections of gravid females and
young larvae of a number of fishes from different localities in
Ceylon by Deraniyagala (1929, 1930 & 1930-32) are very useful.
The work of Aiyer (1935) on Acentrogobius neilli is remarkable
‘in that it is the first account of a detailed nature on the development
of any Indian fish though only the embryonic and the early larval
stages are given, Jones in 1937 described the breeding and early
development of seven Madras fishes and in 1928 of two Ceylon
carps. Ina paper by Job and Jones in 1938 the breeding and early
development of two Synentognathi from Madras are dealt with.
The recent work of Hora (1938) on Hilsa deserves particular men-
tion here. There is a valuable paper on trout culture in Ceylon
by Philip Fowke in 1938. Among the contribuuions of the last four
years those of Kulkarni (1940 & 1943), of Chidambzram (1941),
of Nair (1940), of Khan (1943), of Job (1940 & 1941), of Jones
and Job (1940) and of Jones (1940, I940a, 1941 and 1944) are
the most important.?

We have abstracts of a number of papers (Raj 1917, Rao 1919,
Rao 1934, Ahmed 1934 and 1936, Raj 1940 and Mukerjee 1943)
from which very little useful information could be gathered due
to their condensed nature. The original papers if published would
have been very useful.

GENERAL NOTES ON BREEDING.

Notes on the breeding of Indian fishes have been given by
several workers; but those given by Day and by Thomas during
the later half of the last century still remain as some of the most
outstanding contributions on the subject. Most of the forms dealt
with are from South India.

The report on pisciculture in South Canara by Thomas (1870)
is a very useful contribution and his observations hold good for
the West Coast fishes in general as the whole region is similar in
physical and climatic conditions. He says that the great majority
of the small fish spawn in May, June and July (a few of them
repeating the performance in October, November, December and
January), and the spawning time of the mass of the big fish ex-
tends over September, October, November, December and January,
but is chiefly confined to December and January.’ | | |
.. Day (1873 & 1877), while dealing with the breeding of fishes
in freshwater, speaks of the close relationship. between breeding and

oe
LE

Seen bis article was communicated for publication early in 1944. ° The later
publications -6n: the’ subject. will ‘be given ‘in the. appendix ‘atithe ‘end. 2.

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

migration and divides the freshwater fishes into migratory and non-
migratory fishes of the plains and migratory and non-migratory
fishes of the hills. The migratory forms produce a larger number
of eggs as the chances of survival are less than that of the non-
migratory among which also a difference is noticed in that the
monogamous deposit fewer eggs than the polygamous. He says
that the migration for breeding takes place when the water courses
are flooded and that considerable destruction is caused to the young
fish due to improper methods of fishing when the waters subside.

Beavan (1877) while writing about the freshwater fishes of this
country gives brief notes on the breeding habits of’ Ophicephalids,
Siluroids and Cyprinids.

Willey (1911) says that the floods provide natural close season
for the river fishes.

It may not be out of place to mention here the findings of Ste-
wart (1911) on the breeding and migration of the fish on the Tibet-
an side of the Himalayas at a height of 13,100 feet. ‘The breed-
ing in the neighbourhood of Gyantse appears to occur about June.
In the less favoured waters near the water-shed it is probably
somewhat later. Adults with large ovaries and testes are found
in the former district as early as March when the river is parti-
cularly covered with ice and the smaller streams and channels are
completely frozen over’. Again he says ‘All the inhabitants of
Gyantse whom I consulted in regard to obtaining fish agreed that
the larger fish migrated from the Nyangchu to the Brahmaputra
(Tsay-po) for the winter and returned to breed in spring. It is
certain that I did not obtain any large fish during this season, but
this fact also could be accounted for by the hibernation of either the
fish or the fishermen’.

Annandale (1918) who investigated the fish and fisheries of
the Inlé Lake, Burma, says that according to the Intha_ fisher-
men almost all the fish of the lake breed in February, March and
April. He found ripe or nearly ripe roes in all the species examin-
ed at the end of February and in March.

Wilson (1920) gives the following note on the migration of the
fish during the spawning season in the Bhavani River (S. India).
‘The big fish run up to the spawning grounds in the upper reaches
of the Bhavani during the South-west Monsoon as soon as _ the
higher water begins decreasing during August, September and
October according to the season’.

The observations of Annandale and Hora (1920) show that the
fish of Seistan on the Persian frontier north of Baluchistan, breed
in winter as young specimens were collected at that time.

Generally speaking we do not have except in North India the
different seasons so distinctly marked as in the cold countries.
Observations of the present writer are confined to South India
and he has found that the spawning period of the freshwater and
brackishwater fishes is rather extended in this region, more so on
the West Coast than on the East Coast due to the presence of two
monsoon rains. The peak period in the former region is by the
onset of the monsoon in May and June and the breeding continues

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 321

till November and December by which time the North-east Mon-
soon is over. The early showers towards the end of April and
beginning of May give the first stimulus to the breeding activity.
These rains flush the rivers and tanks; but the initial influx of water
is not so great as to make them overflow. There is a marked
increase in the planktonic organisms suitable for the growth of the
fry and the absence of any floods at this time enables the eggs and
fry to develop in comparative safety. By the onset of the regular
rains the different waters get united and the fry as well as the large
fish get themselves distributed. The condition is the same in both
fresh water and brackish water areas and in the latter it has been
seen that the breeding activity is at its maximum before the open-
ing of the bars towards the end of June. Such of those marine
forms that visit the estuaries or ascend rivers for breeding do so
after the commencement of the regular rains when the bars are
open. On the East Coast the breeding activity is at its maximum
in August at the time of the early monsoon showers and it conti-
nues with intermittent intensity till about January. Among many
of the South Indian fishes some degree of spawning is prevalent
throughout the year especially in those parts where the climatic
conditions do not show marked difference during the different parts
of the year.

The fishes dealt with in this paper are listed below. The classi-
fication followed is that of Jordan’, with the genera under each
family and the species under each genus arranged alphabetically.

Super Order: TELEOSTEI.

Order: ISOSPONDYLI.
Sub-Order : ELOPOIDEA.

Family: Elopidae.

Elops indicus Swainson.
Family: Magalopidae.

Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet).
Sub-Order: CLUPEOIDEI.
Family : Clupeidae.
Hilsa ilisha (Ham.).
Family: Eugrantidae..
Engraulis purava (Ham. Buch.).
Engraulis telara (Ham. Buch.).

Sub-Order: NOTOPTEROIDEI.,

Family : Notopteridae.
Notopterus chitala (Ham. Buch.).
Notopterus notopterus (Pallas),

SujpOndlee 2 SAILMOMOIDIDIE

Family: Salmonidae.
Salmo gairdneri Richardson.

* Jordan, D. S. ‘Classification of Fishes’, No. 2, Stanford University Pub.
Vol. III, 1922-22.

ISS)

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vole 46

Order: OPISTHOMI.

Family : Mastacembelidae.

Macrognathus aculeatus (Bloch). -
Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.).
Mastacembelus pancalus (Ham. Buch.).

Order: APODES.

Sub-Order: ENCHELYCEPHALI.
Family: Anguillidae.

Anguilla elphinstonei Sykes.

Order: EVENTOGNATHI,

Family: Cyprinidae.

Amblypharyngodon melettina (Cuv. & Val.).
Amblypharyngodon microlepsis (Bleeker).
Barbus ambassis. (Day).
Barbus amphibius (Cuv. & Val.).
Barbus carnaticus (Day).
Barbus chola (Ham. Buch.).
Barbus conchonius (Ham. Buch.).
Barbus chrysopoma (Cuyv. & Val.).
Barbus dorsalis (Jerdon).
Barbus filamentosus (Cuv & Val.)
Barbus gelius (Ham. Buch.).
Barbus lateristriga (Cuv. & Val.)
Barbus melanampyx (Day).
Barbus phutunio (Ham. Buch.).
Barbus sarana (Ham. Buch.).
Barbus sophore (Ham. Buch.).
Barbus stoliczkanus (Day).
Barbus terio (Ham. Buch.).
Barbus ticto (Ham. Buch.).
Barbus titteya (Deraniyagala).
Barbus tor (Ham. Buch.)
Barbus vittatus (Day).
Barilius bendelisis (Ham. Buch.).
Barilius gatensis (Cuv. & Val.).
Brachydanio albolineatus (Blyth).
Brachydanio nigrofasciatus (Day).
Brachydanio rerio (Ham. Buch.).
Carassius auratus (Linn.).
Catla catla Cuv. & Val.
Cirrhina mrigala Ham. Buch.
Cirrhina reba Ham. Buch.
Danio malabaricus (Jerdon).
Danio neilgherriensis (Day).
Esomus danrica thermoicos (Cuv. & Val.}
Esomus danricus (Ham. Buch.).
Garra ceylonensis ceylonensis (Bleeker).
Garra mullya (Sykes).
Gymnocypris waddellii Regan.
Labeo bata (Ham. Buch.).
Labeo calbasu (Ham. Buch.)
Labeo gonius (Ham. Buch.).
Labeorohita (Ham. Buch.).
Rasbora daniconius (Ham. Buch.).
Rasbora maculata Duncker.
Rasbora labiosa (Mukerji).
Rasbora rvasbora (Ham, Buch.)
Rasbora taeniata Ahl,

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES

Family :

Cobitidae.
Botia geto (Ham. Buch.).

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis (Cuv. & Val.).

Nemacheilus notostigma (Bleeker).
Nemacheilus zonatus (McClelland).

Order: NEMATOGNATHI.

Family :

Siluridae.

Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch).
Wallagonia attu (Bloch).

Ariidae.

Arius falcarius Richardson.
Arius jatius (Ham. Buch.).
Arius jella Day.

Arius sona (Ham. Buch.).
Osteogeniosus imilitaris (Linne).

Bagridae.

Gagata cenia (Ham. Buch.).
Mystus aor (Ham. Buch.).
Mystus gulio (Ham. Buch.).
Mystus seenghala (Sykes).
Mystus vittatus (Bloch).

Claridae.
Clarias teysmanni Bleeker.

Heteropneustidae.
Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch).

Sisoridae.
Sisor rhabdophorus Ham. Buch.

Order: CYPRINODONTES.

Family :

Cyprinodontidae.

Aphanius dispar (Rippel).
Aplocheilus blockii (Arnold).
Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. & Val.).
Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton),
Oryzias melastigma (McClelland).

Family : Poeciliidae.

Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard).
Lebistes reticulatus (Peters).

Family : Horaichthyidae.

Horaichthys setnat Wullkarni.

Order: SYNENTOGNATHI.

Family :

Belonidae.
Tylosurus strongylurus (van Hass.).

Hemiramphidae.
Dermogenys burmanicus Mukerji.
Hemiramphus gaimardi (Cuv. & Val.).

323

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol.

Order: LABYRINTHICI.
Family: Ophicephalidae.
Channa orientalis Bloch & Schneider.
Ophicephalus gachua Ham. Buch.
Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Buch.

Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch.
Ophicephalus striatus Bloch.

Family : Polyacanthidae.
Belontia signatus Gunther.

Family: Osphromenidae.

Betta splendens Regan.

Colisa fasciata (Bloch & Schnn.).
Colisa labiosa (Day).

Colisa lalia (Ham. Buch.).
Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.).
Osphronemus goramy (Lacép.).
Trichogaster trichopterus (Pallas).

Family: Amabantidae.
Anabas testudineus (Bloch).

Order: PERCOMORPHI.
Sub-Order : PERCESOCES.

Family: Mugilidae.
Mugil sp.

Sub-Order :;: RHEGNOPTERI.
Family : Polynemidae.
Polynemus paradiseus Linn.

Family : Ambassidae. :
Ambassis lala (Ham. Buch.).
Ambassis miops Gunther.
Ambassis nama (Ham. Buch.).
Ambassis vanga (Ham.. Buch.).

amily : Latidae. a ane
Lates calcarifer (Bloch).

Fomily : Theraponidae.
Pelates quadrilineatus (Bloch).
Therapon jarbua (Korslkal).
Therapon therapos (Cuv. & Val.).

Family : Sillaginidae.
Sillago sihama (Forskal).

Family : Nandidae.
Badis badis (Ham. Buch.).
Nandus nandus (Ham. Buch.).
Sub-Order : SQUAMIPENNES.
Family: Toxotidae.
Toxotes chatareus (Ham. Buch.). °

Family: Scatophagidae,
Scatophagus argus (Gmel. Linn ),

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 325

Order: CHROMIDES.
Family : Cichtidae.

Etroplus maculatus (Bloch).
Etroplus suratensis (Bloch).

Order: GOBIOIDEA. au
Family : Gobiidae.

Acentrogobius netlli (Day):
Acentrogobius viridtpunctatus (Day).
Ctenogobius acutipinnis (Cuv. & Val.).
Glossogobius giuris (Ham. Buch.).
Gobius ostericola Chaudhuri.
Oxyurichthys striatus (Day).

Family : Periophthalmidae. ,
Boleophthalmus boddaerti (Pallas).
Periophthalmus cantonensis pearsi Eggert.

Order: JUGULARES.
Family: Blennidae.
Petroscirtes bhattacharyae Chaudhuri.

Elopidae.

Elops indicus (Swainson).

Raj (1916) says that breeding is in the cold season and that the fry are
ribbon shaped.

Megalopidae.
Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet).

Thomas (1870) says that the breeding season of this fish in South Canara
extends from May to June and Raj (1916) says that it breeds in the cold wea-
ther (October and November) and that it passes through the larval stage like
that of an eel.

idae.

Among the clupeids the spawning habits of Hilsa ilisha or the so-called
Indian Shad has engaged from the very early times the attention of the pisci-
culturists. Till the recent investigations of Hora, Prashad and Nair the habits
of the fish were not known definitely. Their findings go to show that Hilsa
actually reside in the rivers and that ‘after leaving the rivers the fish do not

‘go far into the sea but move about in shoals in the estuaries and along the
foreshores’.

Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton).

Day (1873) has first referred to the migratory habits of this form, pointing
out the fact that both young as well as sexually mature fish ascend the rivers.
According to him the fish attains sexual maturity when about two years old
and this is confirmed by the findings of the Madras Fisheries Department, He
(Day 1878) has given the migratory period of the fish in some of the rivers
of India and Burma and stressed on the destruction caused to these fisheries
by the numerous weirs that span many of the Indian rivers devoid of fish
‘passes which otherwise would enable them to get at the upper reaches of
the rivers for spawning purposes. Wilson (1909) succeeded in artificially
fertilising Hilsa eggs at Coleroon and this was the starting of a scheme to-
‘wards the artificial propagation of this form. ~ Jenkins (1910) gives notes on
-its habits in Bengal and there is a brief note by Raj (1917) on the artificial
propagation in the Coleroon hatchery where he succeeded in liberating about
10 million fry from artificially impregnated eggs in August 1916. This work

‘

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

is being continued regularly by the Madras Fisheries Department (Devanesan,
1939).

The recent work of Hora (1938) on the spawning habits and bionomics of
this form is a fairly detailed and comprehensive account embracing all the
previous work done on this line with special reference to that done in Bengal
and embodying the results of his own investigations, and a complete biblio-
graphy. The observations of Hora at Pulta, and of the Madras Fisheries Depart-
ment in South India, go to show that the fish is capable of living in con-
fined waters. The breeding period is extensive with a maximum during the
rainy season.

Nair (1939) has described some of the early larval stages, 14 to 27 mm.
in length collected from the Pulta Water Works, Calcutta, where the young
are found in great abundance from March to November. Eggs and very
early larval stages have not been collected from the Hooghly.

Hora (1940) refers to the importance of the conservation of Jatka fish,
young Hilsa 2-5 months old, for the Hilsa fishery. He (1941) gives an account
of the life history and habits of Hilsa in Bengal waters.

Engraulidae.

Engraulis purava (Ham. Buch.)

Raj (1916) refers to the occurrence of the young of this form in Cooum
river, Madras, during October and November. Dr. T. J. Job and the present
writer have collected the larvae of E. purava in March from Adyar, Madras.

Engraulis telara (Ham. Buch.)

Day (1878) gives the colouration of the pectoral fins of the young.

Notopteridae.

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)

There is a note by Rao (1919) in which he says that the ‘eggs adhere to
each other and to the substratum on which they are deposited in clumps’.
Nothing more regarding its breeding habits or development is known.

Notopterus chitala (Ham. Buch.)

Notes on the breeding habits and development of this form based on_ the
observations made, and materials collected, by Mr. Hoshin at Buxar (Bihar)
from the Ganges are given by Southwell and Prashad (1919). The eggs were
collected in June and July. 1915 and these were attached mostly to stones
and masonry where they had been deposited by the female before fertilization.
There is no elaborate nest building and the eggs measuring about 5.2 mm.
in diameter usually number from three to five hundred and are circular with
an adhesive surface which is raised into projections on one side. The eggs
take about two weeks to hatch and there is parental care but which of the
parent takes the main part is not known. The breeding of this fish probably
extends from the end of May to the middle of July.

Salmonidae.

Salmo gairdneri Richardson

There is an interesting and exhaustive account on trout culture in Ceylon
by Fowke (1938) wherein notes on the life-history of the trout acclimatized
in the Ceylon waters is given. The observations of Fowke throw consider-
able light on the identity of the species and he has given sufficient reasons
to show that the Trout in Ceylon is not the Rainbow (S, shasta) as is gener-
ally believed to be but the Steelhead. The article provides interesting and
instructive reading and may be gone through with advantage.*

* For a comprehensive account on trout culture the ‘Domesticated Trout’
by Livingston Stone may be consulted.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES

(SS)
Ny
NI

Mastacembelidae.
Mastacembelus panacalys (Ham. Buch.)

Raj (1916) gives the des¢ription of an immature fish and mentions the cold
season as the breeding Bence Job (1941) gives a detailed account of the
breeding habits and development of this form and according to him the fish
breeds in Bengal from May to November with the peak period during the
premonsoon rains, The eggs are transparent and measure 1.3 to 1.35 mm.
in diameter and are laid feebly attached to algae. Hatching takes place 36
hours after oviposition and there is no parental care. The early larval deve-
lopment is rather rapid and the fish acquires adult characters by the end of
the first month. Sexual maturity is attained in about an year.

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.)

Raj (1916) records mature ova in a specimen he collected early in February
1910. Derainyagala (1930-32) gives a number of places in Ceylon from where
young specimens, and fish with mature eggs were collected. The writer has

collected young specimens of this fish in August 1938 from a tank in Central
Travancore.

Macrognathus aculeatus (Bloch)

Deraniyagala (1930-32) describes the eggs and gives a number of places in
Ceylon from where sexually mature specimens were collected.

Anguillidae.

Members of this family are known to migrate to the sea for breeding

purposes and the young ones after passing the larval (Leptccephalus) stage
in the sea ascend rivers during the elver stage.

Auguilla elphinstonei Sykes.

According to Raj (1916) the elvers ascend the Adyar and Cooum rivers in
Madras about the month of November. —

Cyprinidae.

This family embraces the Carps, the most important group. of fresh-water
fishes in India. . Theugh complete life histories of only a very few forms
are known we have notes~on the breeding habits of a number of them. The
intensive sexual activity and migratory habits of these fishes soon after the
first monsoon rains are well known. They are so reckless at this time that
they are captured with comparative ease by fishermen. Thomas (1870 and
1897), Day (1873 etc.), Beavan (1877), and Jones (1940) have mentioned about
the spawning activity of Cyprinids. This has been a familiar and favourite
subject of study for many naturalists. Khan (1924, 1926, 1939 & 1943) has
made some interesting studies on the spawning habits of some of the Punjab
forms and the present writer has worked out the life histories of two forms
in Ceylon (Jones, 1938 a & b). As Khan (1926) says, ‘To this group belongs
a vast number of edible and sporting fishes and their culture should be the
main object of a_pisciculturist’.

Beavan (1877) says that ‘the Mahseer and many other Cyprinoid fish, are
said not to deposit their spawn all at once like the salmon, but in several
batches during a period of several months, say from May to August’.

Some of Khan’s (1924) observations are given below :—

‘All attempts to breed members of the family Cyprinidae, namely Labeo rohi-
ta, L. calbasu, Cirrhina mrigala and Catla catla in artificial waters have
proved failures. Unlike their western species they do not lay their eggs, even
when brood fish from river are introduced into the tanks. The experiments
were tried at the departmental hatcheries at Madhopur but no result was
obtained. One of the main reasons for our failures is the want of knowledge
of their. breeding habits in their natural environments.’

‘The fish become ripe in May and both the male and female seek shelter
under weeds and aquatic plants near banks and are not easily frightened
by the approach of intruders. Towards evening group of fish may be seen

328. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

splashing water and fighting with each other. These are signs of courtship! And
thus they wait for the first shower of rain. If there is no rain at all or if
they are late the eggs degenerate in the ovaries, leaving a filthy mass. In
July as soon as the rains set in, the streams become flooded and the fish
move on to shallow waters. If the flood is of a temporary character they
fall back into the main channel with the diminishing current without spawn-
ing, but if the floods are continuous the fish get into the surrounding fields,
play together, lashing the water with their caudal portions. A female is.
often followed by three or more males, but reverse cases have also been
observed. Very rarely are single couples seen. If male is separated from a
companion or is companionless it has been heard to produce guttural sounds.
calling the other. This play lasts only for a short time and the female then
lays its eggs which are nonfloating and the males shed their seminal fluid or
milt over or near them. Depth of water in fields where spawning takes.
place varies from three inches to two feet, and temperature of water ranges.
from 76° to 98° F. Sometimes when the flood subsides early, little pools
are formed by the depression and there the eggs are found in heaps’.

‘The eggs are not laid at one place and at the same time, but at intervals:
during which the fish keeps on moving with its mates along with the current.
of water. The rivers are flooded first and the fish therein are the first to-
spawn while those of the tributaries wait for heavy rains which flood them
sufficiently to overflow into the fields where spawning takes place. The
breeding time thus lasts from the beginning of July to the middle of August’.

Khan (1938 a) says that the breeding time for the Indian Carp is June
and July when the rivers are flooded by the monsoon rains. Administration
of extract of anterior tobe of the. pituitary gland hastened ovulation in Cirr-
hina mrigala and as such under natural conditions the pituitary sex hormone
is discharged into the blood prior to ovulation though the factors responsible
for this gland activity are not known.

It may be mentioned here that the author has been able to collect the
eggs of a number of Cyprinids, from fresh water tanks and lakes in Trayan-
core, which are not described here as their parentage has not been ascertained.
‘The embryonic period is of very short duration as in the other members of
the family, some hatching out within twelve hours. In two species two
very interesting types of larval ‘cement organs’ the like of which have not heen
recorded in any other fish have been observed. (Jones. 1942).

Labeo calbasu (Ham. Buch.’

Mukerjee (1943) says that the fry have yellow bands at the nape, a yellow-
ish spot at the place of insertion of the dorsal fin and yellow colour, some-
times alternating with the black of the body whereas the adult is completely

black.

Labeo genius (Ham. Buch.)

Khan (1924 & 1926) has given notes on the embryonic and early develop-
ment of this form till it is three weeks old, when the caudal fin get sepa-
rated off and scales appear. The eggs, which are bluish in colour, hatch in
about 30 to 40 hours and mouth, gut and anus are absent in the larvae at
this stage. Mukerjee (1943) gives a note on the colouration of the fry.

Labeo rohita (Ham. Buch.)

Mukerjee (1943) says that the fry have three small spots in the caudal
region which gradually merge into one and ultimately disappear in the adult.

Labeo bata (Ham. Buch.)

Mukerjee (1943) refers to the presence of a spot on the 5th and 6th scales
on the row just above the lateral line in the fry.

Barbus sarana (Ham. Buch.)

Mukerjee (1943) refers to the presence of a linear band on the. back below
the insertion of. the dorsal fin which gradually gets rounded and disappears
in the adult.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 329

Barbus chrysopoma (Cuv. & Val.)

According to Day (1878) the eyes in the young are comparatively large.
Raj (1916) says that the breeding season at Madras is about December as
the young are common in January and February. He gives the description
of specimen one inch long. Deraniyagala (1930) has collected ycung in Decem-
ber in Ceylon.

Barbus tor (Ham. Buch.)

The migratory habits of this form for breeding purposes are well known,
and being a game fish-as well as food fish it has engaged the attention of
maturalists and anglers from very early times. According to Beaven the fish
lays its eggs in several batches for a long period mainly from May to August.
Thomas (1897) gives in detail the migration and breeding habits of this fish.
According to him, the fish ascend the rapids and eggs are laid there after which
they return with the receding floods. His opinion was that the Mahseer* lays
several batches of eggs probably three in one season. Khan (1924) also refers
to the migratory habits of this form during breeding season, and in the Punjab
the fish has been found to ascend the rivers and traverse long distances in
March and April. Deraniyagala records his collection of gravid female, and
young specimens from a number of places in Ceylon (Deraniyagala 1930). Khan
(1939) has made an interesting study of the sex organs of this form and in
conclusion says that the fish ‘seems to spawn firstly in winter, in January and
February, secondly, in May and June, when the snow melts and the rivers are
swollen, and thirdly, from July to September, when the rivers are flooded with
the monsoon rains’. He refutes the opinion of Thomas (1897) that the fish
lays eggs in batches and says as follows: ‘It may, therefore, be said that the
Mahseer does not lay its eggs in three batches, but that it spawns three times
in the year, and that all the eggs in the ovaries are laid at each spawning
season’.

Barbus sophore (Ham. Buch.)

Day (1878) records the presence of 1850 mature eggs in a female at Madras
in January. Raj (1916) says that it breeds during the cold weather and the
young are common in November and December. He gives some of the larval
characters.

Barbus carnaticus (Day)

Day (1878) mentions some of the characters of the young of this form.

Barbus melanampyx (Day)

The writer has observed large numbers of the young of this fish in hill
streams in Travancore in the months of August and September 1940.

Barbus chola (Ham. Buch).

Notes on the breeding habits of this fish is given by Innes (1935). Stoye
(1935) says that the habits are similar to that of Bb. conchonius.

Barbus dorsalis (Jerdon)

Willey (1911) describes a collection of unfertilized eggs from the Colombo
Jake. According to Raj (1916) the spawning season in Madras extends from
August to October. Deraniyagala (1930) gives the names of the places in
Ceylon from where he collected ripe females, and young with the correspond-
ing dates.

* Mahseer is the popular name given to most of the large scaled Carps of
the Genus Barbus.

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Barbus amphibius (Cuy. & Val.)

According to Thomas (1870) this form breeds during October, November
and December in South Canara. Raj (1916) observes that its breeding season
is during June and July in Madras. He gives the colouration of the young.

Barbus ambassis (Day)

According to Spence and Prater (1932) breeding season is as in Barbus
filamentosus.

Barbus conchonius (Ham. Buch.)

The breeding of this fish in the aquarium is given by Baake (1930) and by
Innes (1935). According to the latter it is easier to breed this fish than
B. chola. Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935) also give the breeding of
it in the aquarium. It begins to breed when five months old and lays 150 to
over 600 eggs scattered among the vegetation and the fry hatch out in about
one and a half days at a temperature of about 70 to 75° F. The fry cling
on to plants and sides of the aquarium indicating the presence of cement glands.
The youtrg seem to have cannibalistic tendencies.

Barbus ticto (Ham. Buch.)

Innes (935) gives the distinguishing characters of the sexes during the breed-
ing season. Mellen and Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935) say that the breeding
habits resemble those of B. conchonius. Spawning temperature is 80° F. and
from 150 to 300 eggs are laid scattered among the vegetation. Fraser (1937)
refers to the presence of very young specimens at Deolali in November and
egg bearing females in March. Khan (1938) says that this fish and B. stigma
breed in July and August in, the Punjab and the eggs which are small hatch
out in 18 to 20 hours and the young begin to seek their food after a week.

Barbus stolicskanus (Day)

Innes (1935) says that this species is said to be prolific and as hardy as
B. ticto. According ‘to Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935) the breeding

habits are similar to those of B. conchonius. The spawning temperature is
80° F.

Barbus gelius (Ham. Buch.)

Innes (1935) refers 75°-F. as the optimum temperature required for the
breeding of this form and Mellen & Lanier (1935) give it at 80° F. Stoye (1935)
gives some notes on the breeding of the fish in the aquarium. All refer to the
spawn eating tendency of the parents. The embryonic period.is 36 hours and
the larvae are probably provided with adhesive glands. .

Barbus phutunio (Ham. Buch.)

Notes on the breeding habits in the aquarium are given by Innes (1935).
Mellen & Lanier, (1935) say that the breeding habits are similar to those of
B. conchonius.’ It breeds at 76° F. and the embryonic period is from 30 to
40 hours. Stoye (1935) gives similar notes on the tish under aquarium condi-
tions. :

Barbus. terio (Ham. Buch.)

According to’ Innes (1935) the breeding and care of this fish’ is the same as
in the case Of B. conchonius ‘though it does not spawn so readily.

Barbus .vittatus (Day)

sanyo es eres a

Day (1878) gives the coloration of the very young specimens. Innes (1935)
says that this’ is’ a good breeder in the aquarium. Mellen and Lanier (1935)
say that though the sexes are difficult to be distinguished the colour of ‘the

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 331

male becomes more vivid and the abdomen of the female becomes deeper during
the breeding season. The breeding habits are similar to that of B. RaKoenoreos,
50 to 250 eggs are laid and the spawning temperature is 78° F. Stoye (1935)
says that this fish is not so prolific as B. conchonius.

Barbus filamentosus (Cuv. & Val.)

Deraniyagala (1930) lists a number of places in Ceylon from where he
collected gravid females. Spence and Prater (1932) say that in Bombay and
its neighbourhood the breeding is in December and that the young are found
in January. .

Barbus lateristriga* (Cuv. & Val.)

Mellen and Lanier (1935) give 80° F. as the spawning temperature in the
aquarium and Stoye (1935) gives the distinguishing characters of the two sexes
during breeding season.

Barbus titteya (Deraniyagala)

Deraniyagala (1930) has collected young from different places in Ceylon.

Cirrhina reba (Ham. Buch.)

Mukerjee (1943) says that the fry differs from the adult in having three
spots in the caudal region which later on unite with a lateral blue black line
in the adult.

Cirrhina mrigala (Ham. Buch.)

According to Khan (1926) the eggs are light red and the development as
that in Labio gonius. He (1943) has given a detailed account of the early
development of this fish in the Punjab. The breeding is in July as in other
carps and a female contains 124,800 to 216,800 eggs. The young gets adult
characters in a month. Mukerjee (1943) gives a note on the difference in
colouration between the fry and the adult,

Garra ceylonensis ceylonensis (Bleeker)

Deraniyagala (1930) records with their respective dates a number of places
from where young of this form was collected by him in Ceylon. The life
history of this form has been worked out by Jones (1938 & 1941). The em-
bryonic development was worked out in Demodera, Ceylon. Soon after hatch-
ing, the larvae were brought down to Colombo and from there to Tambaram
(Madras). One of the surviving young fish when about 5 months old was
brought to Trivandrum from Madras where it lived for another 3 months.
Thus the larval and the post-larval development has been worked out in India.

Garra mullya (Sykes)

Fraser (1937) records the presence of egg bearing females in Deolali in the
month of March 1936. Jones (1941) has described an interesting case of mig-
‘ration of this fish for breeding in large shoals in one of the up-country rivers
“in. Travancore in the month of April. The early development of the fish ‘is
similar to that in Garra ceylonensis ceylonensis.

Barilius bendelisis (Ham. Buch.)

Day (1878) refers to the large sized nature of the eggs and the breeding of
this form at Cuttack in November. Fraser (1937) has observed gravid females
in March. ;

Barilius gatensis (Cuv. & Val.)

Day (1878) gives the difference in the scales of the females and young from
,, that of the male.

‘ This is a native of the East Indies and has been introduced into. India
“as an aquarium fish.

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Danio malabaricus (Jerdon)

The breeding of this species in the aquarium is mentioned briefly by Innes
(1935) and Mellen & Lanier in (1935) and Stoye (1935). The breeding habits
and early development of this form in:Ceylon were worked out by Jones (1938).
The presence of a cement organ recorded for the first time is another feature
of interest. The developmental study was carried out at Demodera (3000 ft.),
Uva Province, Ceylon, during the months of April, May and July, 1937. Young
fish of different stages were abundant at this time in the streams there showing
a long period of breeding.

Danio neilgherriensis (Day)
Day (1878) mentions the presence of light horizontal bands in the young.

Carassius auratus (Linn.)

This beautiful fish introduced from the Far East is a very common aquarium
form now in India. Khan (1928) gives notes on the spawning and develop-
ment of this form. According to him it breeds at frequent intervals (in the
Punjab) from April to August and the eggs hatch out in 46 to 60 hours. Three
months old fry assume the coloration of the adult. There are several accounts
on the breeding of this fish in other countries (see Mellen & Lanier, 1935,
for references.) From 2000 to 70,000 eggs are laid in a year according to the
size of the female and eggs are small and resemble soap bubbles. The parents
are spawn eaters and the young are cannibalistic. 60° to 70° is the spawning
temperature.

Esomus danrica thermoicos (Cuv. & Val.)

Deraniyagala (1930) refers to his collection of fishes with mature ova from
Athidiya, Ceylon, early in April, 1929.

Esomus danricus (Ham. Buch.)

The spawning habits of this fish in the aquarium are described by Innes
(1935) and by Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935) The spawning tem-
perature is about 80° F. and 75 to 250 eggs which are small and pale yellow
in colour are laid feebly attached to plant. The parents are spawn eaters and
the eggs hatch in two to three days.

Catla catla (Cuv. & Val.)

Raj (1916) says that in Godavari River this form breeds about August and
young specimens are common in January. He refers to the rapid growth as
observed by Mitchell (1875). Mukerjee (1935) says that in the fry the red tinge
of the gill filters out through the transparent operculum. Though this fish
grows well in still waters it does not breed there.

Amblypharyngodon microlepis (Bleeker)

According to Raj (1916) the breeding season extends from October to Decem-
ber at which time he says the fry are quite common. He gives a description
of the fry.

Amblypharyngodon melettina (Cuv. & Val.)

Willey (1911) says that females three inches long are found egg-laden in
December in Ceylon. Deraniyagala (1930) refers to the development of a cuta-
neous symphysal flap over-lapping the upper jaw during breeding seasons.

Rasbora daniconius (Ham. Buch.).?

Raj (1916) observes this to breed during rains in September and October
in Madras, where it is common during the breeding season along with the

» The development of this fish has since been worked out by the author.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES

Go
w
ww

fry of Amblypharyngodon, Nauria danrica and Barbus vitltatus, Deraniyagala
(1930) collected gravid females from a number of places in Ceylon. Innes (1935);
Mellen and Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935) give notes on the breeding of this
fish in the Aquarium. The spawning temperature is 80° and eggs are attached
te fine plants.

Rasbora rasbora (Ham. Buch.)

According to Thomas (1870) this form breeds in June and July in the West
Coast.

Rasbora labiosa Mukerji.
Hora (1937) has collected young of this form in November, and gravid
females in February.

Rasbora maculata Duncker.

Mellen and Lanier (1935) say that the spawning temperature is 80° and
that the eggs are deposited on the under surface of leaves. Stoye (1935) gives
the distinguishing features of the male fish.

Rasbora taeiata Ahl.

The spawning temperature of this fish is about 80° and about 250 eggs are
laid at a time. (Innes, 1935, Mellen & Lanier, 1935, and Stoye 1935.)

Gymnocypris waddellii Regan.

Stewart (1911) says that in the ripe specimen the mature ova attain the
impressive size of 2.5 mm.

Brachydanio rerio (Ham. Buch.)

Innes (1935), Mellen and Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935), give notes on the
breeding of the fish in the aquarium and the method of rearing of the larvae.
Innes (op. cit.) refers to the occurrence of sterile hybrids of B. rerio and B.
nigrofasciatus. The male is brightly coloured during the breeding season and
from 150 to 350 transparent eggs are laid by the female. The parents are
spawn eaters. The larvae come out in about 2 days and appear to be provided
with adhesive glands which enable them to cling to the sides of the aquarium
for about two days. The spawning temperature is abcut 80°

Brachydanio nigrofasciatus (Day)

The breeding habits of this species are given by Innes (1935) and Mellen and
Lanier (1935) in the aquarium and they refer to the difficulty of breeding it.
The spawning temperature is about 80°. Stoye (1935) gives notes on the breed-
ing of the fish.

Brachydanio albolineatus (Blyth)

Baake (1930) gives notes on the care of this fish in the aquarium and’ its
breeding habits. Innes (1935),.and Mellen and Lanier (1935) also refer to the
breeding of this fish in the aquarium which are similar to those of B. rerio.
The young develop rapidly and attain sexual maturity in six months. Stoye
{1935) says that the breeding habits are similar to those of others of the group.

Cobitidae.

Nemachilus sonatus (McClell.)

Day (1878) gives the colouration in the young.

Nemachilus notostigma Bleeker

Deraniyagala refers to his collection of young of this form in Ceylon.

334. JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46.

Lepidocephalichthys. thermalis (Cuv. et Val.) _

Day (1878) records the presence of 2,500 eggs in a female. “Aécovaeem to
Raj (1916) the breeding season in Madras extends from October to Jantaey,
Deraniyagala (1930) has collected gravid females in Ceylon.

Botia geto (Ham. Buch.)

Day (1878) gives the larval characters of this form.

Siluridae.

Wallagonia attu (Bloch)

Khan (1924 & 1926) has given notes on the early development of this form
and Ahmed (1934) gives a brief note on its embryology. Deraniyagala (1930-32)
has collected female specimens with mature ova from Kelaniya (Ceylon) on
25-2-27. The present writer has taken a very young specimen from a_ tank
ia Trivandrum during the middle of May 1938. According to Khan
the eggs are yellowish and hatch out in twenty-four hours. The fry is
waAnivorous with cannibalistic tendencies.

Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch)

Rao (1919) gives a short note on the development of this form. Derani-
yagala describes the eggs and records the collleeiaton of ovigerous females and
young specimens in Ceylon. :

Arlidz

The buccal incubation recorded in some of the members of this family
whose breeding habits are known is so interesting that it practically eclipses
the parental solicitude displayed by other fishes. The eggs are. heavily yolked,
large in size and few in number and these are carried in the mouth of the
male. They are aerated by the respiratory current of water and the egg bear-
ing male never feeds during this period. The larvae are also carried imside
the mouth until they are able to take care of themselves. Notes on the spawn-
ing habits are given by Day (1878), Willey (1910), Jenkins (1910), Raj (1916),
Deraniyagala (1930-32), and Chidambaram (1941).

Arius falcarius Richardson.

Willey (1911) has recorded the buccal incubation in this form and gives a
description of the eggs and the egg carrying males. Raj (1916) gives the breed-
ing habit according to which the spawning season extends from September
to November, when large numbers congregate in estuaries to deposit their
spawn.

Arius sona (Ham. Buch.)

This is a marine and estuarine form and Day (1889) gives the characters
of the young specimens.

Arius jella (Day)

Chidambaram. (1941) describes in some detail the parental care and early
development of this fish at Madras where the breeding extends from August
to March. The eggs are heavily yolked and yellowish green in colour and
measure from 10 to 10.5 mm. in diameter. Soon after oviposition the eggs
are fertilized by the male and transferred to its mouth where they undergo
the embryonic development. They hatch after a month and the larvae continue
to remain inside the buccal cavity for about another month by which time
the yolk sac. gets completely absorbed. The male does not feed during the
whole period. ;

Arius jatius (Ham. Buch.)

Jenkins, (1910) records the capture of a larvae-carrying: male while shrimp
trawling -in the Culputtoa River in Khulna District.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 335

Osteogeniosus militaris (Linne)

This is a marine and estuarine form and Jenkins (1910) describes the egg
and parental care of this species. Similar notes. are given by Deraniyagala
(1930-32) according to whom O. sthenocephalus Day is probably a sexual modi-
fication of O. miulitarts.

Bagridae.

Mystus vittatus (Bloch)

Raj (1916) refers to his collection of ovigerous females in the month of
March.

Mystus gulio (Ham. Buch.)

According to Day (1878) and Willey (1911) the eggs of this species are
small sized as in the related forms. Eggert (1930) suggests that the female
of this form may have the habit of carrying the eggs in the folds of its ab-
dominal skin.

Mystus aor (Ham. Buch.)

Raj (1940) has recorded for the first time the interesting breeding habits
of this form. It is suspected that the eggs are incubated by the male attached
to its ventral side which is thrown into vascular folds. The young on hatch-
ing out remains in a shoal under the parent and for some period appear to
get nourishment from a white fluid exuding from the highly vascularised villi-
form processes of the ventral surface. Some of the larval stages of the fish
are described.

Mystus seenghala (Sykes)

Raj (1940) infers from his observations that the pecedi og habits of this
species is similar to that of M. aor. ts,

Gagata cenia (ec ‘Tendi)_

Day (1878) refers to some small specimens he peamined from Davai,

Claridae.

Very little is known about the breeding habits and early development of
fishes belonging to this family.

Clarias teysmannii (Bleeker)

Deraniyagala (1930-32) describes the colour of the eggs and reccrds the dates
of collection of ovigerous females in Ceylon. .

Heteropaeustidae.

Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Day (1878) describes the ova from an ovigerous female captured at Bez-
wada. According to Deraniyagala (1930-32) this form spawns all the year. round.

Sisoridae

_ Sisor _rhabdophorus (Ham. Buch.)
Day (1889) says that the young of this has the habit of remaining under
stones.

(To be continued.)

NOTES ON THE INDIAN MAHSEERS.

BY
KX. DE B. COoDRINGTON.

In Vol. xl (Nos. 2, 3 and 4) and Vol. xli (No. 1.) of the
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Dr. Sunder Lal
Hora continues his researches upon the Indian Mahseers. In
his prefatory papers in Vol. xxxix of the same Journal, he con-
fesses that ‘the precise generic and specific limits of the forms
included under this composite term’ are not easy to define. He
also stresses the want of field observations, especially from ang-
lers. The following notes are based upon plentiful catches re-
cently made in the Ghorband, Kurram, Swat, Jhelum, Chenab,
Sutlej and Kistna rivers, and in certain of the Indian lakes and
other enclosed waters. Although I have collected fish elsewhere,
I must confess that I found the preservation and transportation
of specimens of Mahseer impossible under war-time Indian con-
ditions. I suggest that it would be profitable to issue simple
directions for dissection to collectors, so that information as to
the condition of the ovaries could be recorded photographically.

1. Nomenclature.

Dr. Hora recapitulates the current explanations of the name
Mahseer, and in doing so quite rightly disposes of a good deal
of bad etymology. Dr. Chhabra’s rejection of the derivation from
Persian Mahisher is interesting; he points out that the Persian
compound should properly be Shermahi. One of the common Bar-
bels of Afghanistan, of which I sent specimens to Dr. Hora from
both sides of Hindu Kush, is actually known as Shirmahi, but
it has neither a big head nor is it a lion-hearted fish. Dr. Hora
makes it plain that many of the dialect names of the Mahseer
refer to its big scales, but he might have added to the Bengali
Mahasaul (Mahasalkalin) the common Marathi name Masla
(Mahasala) which is corrupted into Kawli massa, ‘the scale fish’.
Again, in Afghanistan, the Mahseer is known in Persian as Mahi-
patra, which, also, means ‘scale fish’. The fitness of the ‘term
is Clear and it is not surprising that it is used from the Kistna
to Bengal to Afghanistan. On the other hand the Tamil name
Bom-min (Pon-min) identifies the Mahseer as ‘the gold fish’.

2. Area:

The eastern limits of the Mahseer are extensive but vague. It
certainly exists in Burma and friends of mine from Siam and the
Philippines have professed to recognise Dr. Hora’s excellent plates.
However, leaving aside the known African species and_ possible
Mesopotamian relations, the western boundary of the Indian
Mahseer species is clearly defined. They exist in the Hub and
other rivers in the neighbourhood of the Karachi coast. They

NOTES ON THE: INDIAN MAHSEERS 337

are found in the rivers of Baluchistan, Waziristan, in the Gomal
and the Gumti and the Kurram, and I have caught specimens my-
self at Begram, near Charikar on the united Ghorband and Panj-
shir Rivers in Afghanistan, as well as in the Kunar (Chitral)
River below Kila Drosh. Local fishermen at Begram, who are
familiar with the Mahseer, though somewhat uncritical of its speci-
fic points, say that it does not run very far up the Ghorband and is
not found at all in the Panjshir itself. It is not found, or recog-
nised, in the Helmand river or in the tributaries of the Oxus
system. It seems. clear that the Hindu Kush-Kabul Kohistan
watershed is its western limit in this region, as it is the
eastern limit of the Oxus trout. With reference to trout in
Asia, it is well worth noting that everywhere in India this fish
is a western importation. The Kurram was stocked with trout
from Kashmir; but it is perhaps also worth recording that H.R.H.
Shah Ahmad Khan recently put some Oxus trout in a tank in his
garden in Paghman near Kabul. With regard to the Kabul Valley,
the Mahseer is not found in the Kabul River above the Tangi Garu
falls, or in the Logar. Nor does it occur in any of the Kabul
KKohistan streams, which are drained dry by irrigation canals and
do not communicate with the Ghorband-Panjshir-Ikabul system,
except when in spate.

3. Migration.

The Mahseer is generally treated of as being a migratory fish,
running up river to spawn. The suggestion that it does not run
up the Ghorband much above Begram or up the Chitral River
above Drosh, which I believe to be true, indicates an upper limit
of migration of about 6,000 feet altitude for those latitudes. With
regard to peninsular India ‘Skene Dhu’ (The Angler in India, 1923,
p. 19.) records that it is not to be found in rivers rising below
1,000 feet above sea level. This suggested lower limit is probably
too low, but I did not find the fish, or any knowledge of it, in the
Manjira River system, a tributary of the Godavari in Hyderabad
-State. Moreover, the whole question of the altitude limits of
tolerance of the Mahseer, and of its migratory nature, is compli-
cated by the undoubted fact that in many parts of India, Mahseer
are found in lakes and artificial tanks at varying altitudes. I have
caught small Mahseer. virtually at sea level in the Kolak River,
north of Bombay, though I believe this river is open to upward
migration to a fair altitude (1,300 ft. ?). On the other hand,
many of the canals in Northern India have Mahseer in plenty,
which cannot possibly migrate to higher spawning beds. Even
where there are fish-ladders, I have never been able to convince my-
self that they are effectively used. This is a subject of some
importance. These canal Mahseer undoubtedly develop normal ova,
but until direct evidence of spawning is available, it should not
be assumed that their spawn is viable. Fry in great numbers are
washed through the upper canal head-works during the spring and
summer floods, and these are quite sufficient in number to main-
tain a dense population. These semi-isolated fish may be compared
with the Mahseer of such rivers as the Kistna, which during the

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

hot weather, are reduced to un-connected chains of pools. The
great, high altitude lakes, such as the Kumaon Lakes or Bhandara-
dara in the Ghats above Bombay, are clearly fertile breeding-
grounds, but fresh observations are urgently needed with regard
to the sacred fish preserved in small artificial tanks, such as that
at Hassan Abdal near Rawal Pindi. It is difficult to see how these
fish are propagated. I have never been able to find any evidence
that such tanks are restocked. oe

The extant evidence may perhaps be summarised by saying
that the upper altitude range of the Mahseer seems to be limi-
ted in terms of a minimum temperature. In other words, the
Mahseer does not like cold which is the reason why, in December
and January, they congregate in their hundreds at the head of
the famous Jungoo Pool at Tangrot, near the Jhelum-Poonch junc-
tion, where there are warm springs. On the other hand, they
flourish throughout the whole range of water temperatures normal
to peninsular India.

Since taxonomy cannot be divorced from environmental con-
siderations, it would seem advisable to pay special consideration
to the lake, tank and canal types of Mahseer. On the other hand,
it is quite clear that the Mahseers of the great rivers of the North
of India are migratory, though the causes of the upstream and
downstream movements are not yet intelligible. For one thing,
it is assumed that the spawning grounds lie upstream. Analogies
based upon the habits of the salmon are obviously unjust, but,
remembering the critical altitude—temperature factors controlling
the viability of trout spawn—the assumption may be accepted as
an optimum tendency. On the other hand, direct observations of
the spawning of the Mahseer are almost entirely wanting, and a
certain conflict of evidence as to the times of migration and the
seasonal development of the ovaries must be taken into considera-
tion. Thomas (The Rod in India, p. 42.) put forward the theory
that the Mahseer dropped its spawn by batches, repeating the
process several times in the year. There does not seem to be
any evidence for this, beyond the fact that Mahseer are caught
in varying states of ovarian ripeness throughout the year. Re-
cently Hamid Khan in Vol. xli of the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, has suggested that there are three distinct
spawning seasons, (1) January and February, (2) May and June and
(3) July to September, the monsoon flood months.

Sufficient evidence is obviously wanting, but after opening over
a hundred well-grown fish caught in the Jhelum throughout the
year, I can find no confirmation for a May-June breeding season.
The state of the ovaries of fish caught at Tangrot in late Novem-
ber suggests a minor breeding season in January-February in
those waters: while there is a good deal of evidence for what I
take to be the major breeding season in August in the upper Jhelum
and Wular Lake. The fishermen at Tangrot insist that there are
no adult Mahseer there from late June to late September. I, my-
self, have fished at Tangrot in early June, when Jungoo was un-
populated and the junction Pool empty of big fish, I have followed
the river downwards from Ningle on the Wular Lake, which I

NOTES ON THE INDIAN MAHSEERS 339

found empty in the last week in June, to Domel and saw the
first shoals (Punjabi, Toli) pass Rampur a week later. I have
returned to Tangrot in the last week in September to see the
first sizeable fish appear in the junction Pool and Jungoo. More-
over, I examined the higher pools of the Poonch on the same day
as the first shoal showed in Jungoo, and found fish at Chak, six
miles up, the intervening pools being empty. It would, therefore,
seem to be true that the fish, which congregate in thousands at
Tangrot during the cold weather, run up either the Poonch or the
Jhelum in May and June and return in September.

4. Breeding in terms of Migration.

It is important that the conditions of the normal cycle of move-
ment should be examined. Fortunately in the cold weather until
February, the Poonch at Tangrot is crystal clear, and its pools
can be examined in detail, wherever the banks are high enough
to enable one to look down. The fishermen say that the small
fish are the first to arrive in September and the last to leave in
June; and the Tangrot Fisherman’s Records also suggest that
this is so. In many places in the Jhelum above Domel, there
are fish-jumps. I watched one of these, three miles below Rampur,
in the first week in July, and saw hundreds of fish pass upwards.
Before Kashmir State developed the timber trade, it seems that
the fish arrived in these reaches much earlier, but now in June the
river is a mass of floating logs, the effect of which can be seen
in the scarred and battered fish caught at all seasons; one-eyed fish
are noticeably common. |

The upper Jhelum is, on the whole, a clear water river, the
snow-water settling in the Wular basin. Snow-water floods occur
on the Poonch from the end of February to the end of April.
Rain floods begin in June, when the monsoon breaks, and continue
until well into August. The water is then thickly coloured by
the river’s muddy tributaries, the Kunhar being especially turbid.
Since the fish do not begin to move upstream until shortly before
the rain-floods, it is difficult to see how there can be a summer
spawning season, as Hamid Khan suggests. The mass of water
and the speed of the current forbid it. By the end of August
the river is clear and the water has fallen considerably. It con-
tinues to fall until the snow-floods start in the Spring... In May,
between the snow-floods and the rain-floods the water again falls
considerably. The available evidence seems to me to suggest that
there are two breeding seasons on a migratory basis:—at low
water in January and February in the lower Poonch at Tangrot;
and in August in the Upper Jhelum and the Wular Lake.

It is important to realise that small Mahseer are to be caught
in the lake at all times. The fishermen of Sopore catch them,
illegally, on long lines, and I have seen them taken from the
water in June, before the migratory fish arrive from the lower
reaches. Furthermore, among the small fish to be caught at
Tangrot in late May and September are large numbers of obviously
juvenile fish. They are of slim proportions and have a pearly lustre,
which is quite unlike the livery of the mature fish, and is indeed,

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

unmistakable. Although I have frequently caught small Mahscer
of 14 lbs with developed ova, these juvenile fish are all immature.
In September they are seldom much over a pound in weight, but
in June I have caught theni up to 7 lbs with rudimentary ova. It
is possible, therefore that the fish spawned in the early Spring at
Tangrot do not migrate until they are yearlings. Unfortunately
there is no evidence, for the summer flood months at Tangrot, when
the floods forbid netting and the colour of the water makes rod-
fishing impossible. But it is certainly true that the Mill Reach
above Jungoo, where a little stream joins the Poonch, is plentifully
supplied with infantile Mahseer, from 4 ins to 8 ins in length at
all other times. I must, however, admit that I have never seen
Mahseer fry in the upper Poonch or Jhelum, though I have thought
I have identified them in the pellucid, colourful depths of the
Wular Lake. 3

I have one further piece of evidence as to the migration of the
Mahseer. On Christmas day, 1941, Major Roger Bacon, then
Political Agent, Khyber, saw many large fish trying to pass the
head-works of the Upper Swat Canal at Amandara. In the first
week in February I myself saw the same thing. There were at
least two dozen fish in the pool below the dam. Neither Major
Bacon nor I were able to land one of these fish. It is worth
noting that it is usually said that the Mahseer leave the upper
Swat river in October and that its waters are empty till April.
This is evidently not so. Indeed what Major Bacon and I saw,
suggests a tendency to work up stream in early spring; and this
tendency is probably instigated by the fact that the best breeding
grounds lie up-stream.

5. Laxonomy.

I can add very little to the discussion of the specific arrange-
ment of the Indian Mahseers, except to point out that, from the
point of view of behaviour, they are ail of a kind. As a genus,
they provide the fishermen with a single problem. Here a clear
distinction must be drawn between the large mouthed Barbus spe-
cies and the small mouthed. Fishing for Mahseer is altogether a
different proposition from fishing for Barbus jerdoni or Barbus
dobsoni. Of the Mahseers, two of the reported species seem to
me to be well-established—the Bokar of the Assam rivers and
the dark green, tubby fish of the Kistna. My notes on both these
fishes show a remarkable consistency of colour, size, scale and fin
count. I have too little experience of the Mahseers of South India
to generalise, although I have had a certain number of them in
my hands.

It is, perhaps, natural that the available descriptions should
make much of the Mahseer’s colouration. It certainly is very strik-
ing, but it must be confessed that it varies very considerably.
Moreover, the colours of the living fish change rapidly after death,
the reddish tones strengthening, while the jade green and blue
tones pale to brown and slate. Thomas, with the living fish in
front of him, describes the dominant Bawanny Mahseer as worthy
of its name, Bom-Min, the gold fish. He says that its colour is not

NOTES ON THE INDIAN MAHSEERS 341

really gold-fish-like but ‘something between the colour of a bright
new sovereign and that of bright, shining copper fresh from the
mint, the burnished copper the colour of the outside of each scale,
and the tinge of brighter gold flashing through the centre of each
scale and coming out almost all over the gill covers and showing
freely in parts of each fin’. He specifically says that this is the
‘predominant colour of every scale’. I have seen these golden
Mahseer in the Bawantiy and accept Thomas’ description. I have,
also, seen his second type of Mahseer ‘with grey back, silver stom-
ach and bright orange fins and tail’. But I have never been fortunate
enough to catch his third, with ‘deep chocolate coloured back and
fins, thé colour blending into golden brown on the sides and gills
and fading into white on the stomach’ the eye being vermillion.
‘Skene Dhu’ quotes three Mahseers :—(1) the Punjab Mahseer which
he describes as ‘silvery with scales becoming golden below the lateral
line and fins reddish’, (2) ‘The Mahseer of the Narbudda (in which
river No. (1) is also to be caught)—Pale Blue’, and (3) the jet black
Mahseer of the Kalinadi River, which he also reports from the Pun-
jab. His pale blue Mahseer from the Narbudda is common enough;
I have, also, caught these fish at Rupar on the Sutlej. I have never
seen a black Mahseer, though I have caught many that were either
deep jade green or dark slate, and I have noticed that the green
body colour usually goes with gold-red fins, the others having
pinkish fins which rapidly redden after death.

Dr. Hora states categorically that the colouration of Barbus
(tor) putitora ‘varies considerably with the type of waters in-
habited by it’. I think that this warning should be applied to
all Mahseer species as, indeed, it does to trout and many other
genera and species of fish. The most extreme example of colour
variation I have found among Mahseer was a female fish of 27
Ibs.. which I caught in the Swat River, in the sandy pool above
the head-works of the Upper Swat Canal. It was an opaque white,
exactly the colour of the river bed. This was an old fish, which
may account for the want of silvery tones, but the conformity with
the background was most striking. Fish of this size are not
washed over the dams even in floods, and as I have never seen
the fish-ladder at this particular head-works used, upwards or down-
wards, I am inclined to think this fish had inhabited the pool for
some considerable time.

With regard to the precise identification of the Mahseer species
of the rivers of North India, any fisherman with sufficient ex-
perience will, I think, agree as to the existence of the two
acknowledged species, Barbus (tor) putitora, and Barbus (tor),
Tor of Hamilton. The former is a long, racy fish, with a big
mouth and a long head; the latter a shorter, heavier fish, with a
smaller mouth and a shorter head. On, the other hand, I admit
that I cannot distinguish Hamilton’s Barbus (tor) moral from his
putitora. As I have said, I feel that until a larger number of
living fish have been described, little weight should be given to
differences of colouration in distinguishing Mahseer species as a
whole. My first impression is that the Mahseer of the Kurram,
Ghorband and Kunhar Rivers are of the Putitor type. But this

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

does not amount to more than my second impression, that the
Putitor inhabits faster water than the Tor Mahseer, and is there-
fore found higher up the rivers.

6. Sex and Size.

Dr. Hora (Journ.,B.N.H.S., Vol. xli, pp. 278 et seq.) admits
that the formation of the lips of the Barbus (tor) putitora varies
considerably, and says that this wide variation is common to the
Mahseer species of India, as well as to ‘the large scaled Barbel of
the neighbouring countries and Africa’. Thomas rightly observes
that it is found in small immature Mahseer and rebuts the almost
universal opinion of Indian fishermen that the Mahseer with hyper-
trophied lips are females. Ghulam Muhammad, the chief shikari
of Tangrot, is the only Indian fisherman I have ever met who knew
this to be false. My own observation of sex differentiation are
limited, but my experience indicates that the females greatly exceed
males in number. I have only found three male Mahseer. All these
were well under 7 lb. and were long, thin fish, noticeably less in
girth than the females from the same waters. I am convinced that
the bulk of large Mahseer of over 20 lbs. are female. I can find
only one case of an alleged large cock fish in the Tangrot Fisher-
man’s Books. This weighed 53 lbs. and was caught in the Jungoo
Pool; no details of the dissection are given, and knowing the difh-
culties of field dissection, the entry may be considered dubious. 1!
must, incidentally, record that I have never caught a Mahseer with
hypertrophied lips of over 15 lbs.

I have never preserved, or attempted to analyse, the scales of
the fish I have caught. But, as I have already suggested, there
is a great difference between the lustre of the average fish between
three and twenty pounds and large fish of over twenty-five pounds.
Most fish of over twenty-five pounds suggest senility, rather than
maturity, and this is clearly indicated by the size and condition of
the female organs.

It is possible to get a fairly accurate idea of the range of size
of the living Mahseer, by climbing the hill above the Jungoo pool
at Tangrot. In November and December, the head of the great
peol is thick with fish, lying head to tail. Immediately below
the neck of the pool, where the warm springs are, lie the monsters.
There are usually four or five fish of well over sixty pounds. At
that time, the water is crystal clear and at midday every movement
of tail and fins can be seen from above. The monsters hardly stir.
Then come, rank after rank, the lesser fish. Occasionally a small
fish noses its way into the high places of the great, only to scurry
to the safer shallows at the first movement of a fin. At the tail of
the pool, fish of up to 10 Ibs cruise about, the smaller ones obviously
feeding on the bottom or among the mixed fry near the banks. It
is interesting to notice that several fish of fifty two or three pounds
have been caught at Tangrot, but none bigger. The monsters of
Jungoo do not take any known bait, and the fact that even live
bait will not move them, suggests that in old age the Mahseer
becomes wholly a bottom-feeder. I have often noticed how bad
the throat-teeth of the average Mahseer. of over ten pounds are,

NOTES ON THE INDIAN MAHSEERS | 343

though this is probably not the reason why they turn away from
the cannable delights of their maturity. There are many pools
such as Jungoo is, throughout the length and breadth of India. I
have watched the fish in them for hours throughout daylight, but
I have never seen the really big fish feed.

The infantile Mahseer, like the mature Mahseer, is omnivorous.
But they have their seasons and close-seasons. In October in the
Chiblat River at Hassan Abdal, the weed grows thick and luscious,
and the Mahseer, also, grow fat on it, refusing all other bait, ex-
cept a live frog, the one bait which may tempt Mahseer at all times
of the year. I have, also, noticed that the stomachs of the fresh
run fish, arriving in Jungoo from upstream after the autumn down-
ward migration, are usually empty except for masses of convervae.
But they will take minnow, live, dead or artificial, if it is offered
to them sufficiently skilfully. The explanation seems to be that they
are too tired for the first few days to face’ the rapids, near the
banks of which the fry and small fish nervously hide. Fry are on
the whole strikingly absent from such pools as Jungoo and in
September-October there is nothing much else edible in them, ex-
cept convervae. <A few days later the fish move out into the rapids,
and the Fisherman’s Books and all who know Tangrot, agree that
October is the river’s best month, challenged only by March. On
the other hand it is hard to believe that the monsters live only on
convervae. Molluscs are not universally distributed in such pools,
or indeed, in any Indian river. JI am inclined to think that worms
form a larger part of the Mahseer diet than is usually admitted. I,
also, have incontestable evidence that he does not spurn the drop-
ping of the herds that go down to drink in the evening.

The Tangrot Fisherman’s Books are full of references to ‘the
Chilwa running’ and laments of ‘no Chilwa’. I have never caught
or seen Chela argentea in the Jhelum or Poonch. There are plenty
of silvery Tengra (Macrones seengala) though they seem to run
rather small; at Jeast, I have never caught one of over 2 lbs. At
the head of Jungoo, there are, also, usually one or two large
Wallago attu. There are, also, a few Kalabans (Labeo calabasu).
Unlike the Tengra the Labcos are unprotected by spines, and they
have no teeth like the fresh-water shark; it is evident that the
Mahseer rules the roost in the lower Poonch and Jhelum. The
population pressure is set up by the Mahseer, itself, and, since he
is essentially a cannibal, he probably also is its most important limit-
ting agent.

If the opportunity ever comes my way again, I shall certainly
devote as much time as possible to taking the census of pools
like Jungoo. As everywhere, it is certain that the size and numbers
of the fish are directly governed by the size of the waters and the
richness of the feeding grounds. A big fish from the Chiblat
would be inconsiderable by Tangrot standards. Moreover, all these
Indian rivers have suffered at the hands of man. They have
all, at times, been dynamited and are all netted and long-lined
in spite of regulations and paid watchers. At Tangrot the recorded
weights of fish caught do not provide a smooth curve. Fish up to
15 lbs. are frequent and those of 25 Ibs. are not infrequent. More-

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

over, fish of over 35 lbs. are surprisingly common. But in between
there seems to be a gap. My own records and observations of the
population of Jungoo agree with this, though I cannot account for
it. It would be interesting to find out if the larger Jhelum fish
migrate upstream to the Woolar Lake, a gruelling journey which
would cause heavy casualties. It is possible that the monsters
spawn in the lower tributaries of the Poonch, each having its fixed
territory, so obviating the dangerous struggle upstream. I have
never seen very large fish at the Jhelum fish-jumps during the
actual migration, though it is common knowledge that fish of over
50 Ibs. are to be caught at Ningle in August.

A NOTE ON SOME SNAKES OF BENARES (U.P.)!

M. N. AcHARji, M.Sc.
(Zoological Survey of India, Benares Cant.)

The ‘kaiser Castle’* at Benares, which at present houses the
office and collections of the Zoological Survey of India, consists of
blocks of buildings in a large compound situated on the bank of
the Varuna river. Specimens of snakes occasionally found in the
compound or inside the rooms of the ‘Kaiser Castle’ have been
collected by some members of the staff during the last three years.
The collection at present consists of 17 specimens belonging to 5
species.

The collection at my disposal is far too small to give any idea
of the number of species of snakes occurring in and around Benares,
but as practically nothing is known of the snake fauna of this
area, a record of the species already collected will, it is hoped,
prove useful. Except for one paper by Wall® on the snakes of
the Fyzabad district, I am not aware of any works dealing with
the reptilian fauna of the United Provinces specially. During the
course of 19 months active collection at Fyzabad, Wall was able
to collect 704 specimens referable to 18 different species.

Fauna as a whole in Benares is very poor. Nevill* has _ re-
marked: ‘The density of population, the high state of agricultural
development and the absence of forests or extensive jungles com-
bine to render Benares one of the poorest districts in the matter
of wild animals of all those that are comprised in United Provinces.’

I am grateful to Dr. B. N. Chopra, Director, Zoological
Survey of India, for going through the manuscript and making
some helpful suggestions, which, I feel, have materially improved

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.
2 Named after the owner H. E. Sir Kaiser Shumshere Jung Bahadur, Rana
of Nepal.
% Wall, F., Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xviii, pp. 101-129 (1907).
4 Nevill, H. R., Gazetteer of Benares, xxvi, pp. 17-18 (1909).

A NOTE ON SOME SNAKES OF BENARES (U.P.) 348

this note. I am also thankful to those members of the staff of
the Zoological Survey, who have collected the specimens on which
this note is based.

The following 5 species are represented in the collection:

FAMILY: COLUBRIDAE.

1. Ptyas mucosus (Linn.): 8 specimens; collected in March,
July, September, October and November.

2. Oligodon arnensis (Shaw): 2 specimens; collected in
March, and April. |

3. Lycodon a. aulicus (Linn.): 4 specimens; collected in June,
July and September.

4. Natrix piscator (Schneider): 1 specimen; collected in June.

Faminy EnApmpAr.
>, Naja n. naja (Linn.): 2 specimens; collected in April and
2) J ] Pp 5) '
June.

Ptyas mucosus_ (Linn.)

(The Rat Snake or Dhaman)

1758. Coluber mucosus, Linn, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, p.. 226.

1864. Pyas mucosus,. Gunther, Rept. Brit. India, p. 249.

1943. Ptyas mucosus, Smith, Fauna Brit. India. (Reptilia & Amphibia),
iii, P. 159.

There are 8 specimens in the collection, varying in length between
413-1670 mm.

Wall (loc, cit., 1907, p. 114) has remarked on the variation in the range
of ventrals and subcaudals in this species and has pointed out that in the
Fyzabad specimens there is a tendency for the subcaudals to be fewer in num-
ber than in the examples he had previously examined from Cannanore. The
same is also observed in the 8 specimens from Benares that I have examined,
as is seen in the accompanying table.

Comparative Table of Scale Counts.

— —

Ventrals | Subcaudals

: (S) cas 192-207 100-126

Fyzabad collection 300 80 || 13) 9) 191-206 108-115

Benares - 500 --- | (8) 192-209 102-124
|

C P (4) 3 197-202 127-137

According to Smith the range in the number of the ventrals and the sub-
eaudals is as follows:

Ventrals 190-213; Subcaudals 100-146. Wall and Pope? have stated that
the males are greater in length than the females.

Piyas mucosus is found throughout India and Indo-China. It has also been
recorded from Java and Sumatra.

* The figures in parentheses show the number of specimens on which the

scale counts are based.
* Pope, C. H., The Reptiles of China, x, p. 221 (1935).

340 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Oligodon arnensis (Shaw)
(The Common Kurki ‘Snake.)-

1802. Coluber arnensis, Shaw, Gen. Zool. iii, p. 526 (based on Russell’s

fig. 38).
1890. Simotes arnensis, Boulenger, Fauna Brit. India. (Rept. & Batrachia),
Pp. 314.
1943. Oligodon arnensis, Smith, Fauna Brit, India. (Rept. & Amphibia),
) [Db Zp

? anion arnensis is represented in the collection by two juvenile specimens,
measuring 185 and 175 mm. respectively.

The larger specimen has 32 black bars on the body and 12 on the tail,
while. the smaller one has 34 bars on the body and 1o on the tail. The broad-
est black bars occupy 3 scales. They are narrower on the sides, have white
margins and do not reach the ventrals.

Wall’ has noted that specimens from the United Provinces, Punjab, N.W.
Frontier and Western Himalayas have 41-54 black bars on the body and 9-12
on the tail, while one specimen from Orissa had 37 bars on the body and 6

on the tail.
Smith after examining a series of specimens from different localities came

to the conclusion that the number of black bars on the body and the tail -

is roughly correlated with the geographical distribution of the species. He
arranged them as follows:

Ceylon, 13-18 on the body, 3-6 on the tail.

India, South of lat. 20° 18-30 on the body, 4-16 on the tail.

India, North of lat. 20° 7-20 on the body, 7-20 on the tail.

In both the specimens from Benares the loreal scale is present. According
tc Smith this scale is usually present in specimens morth of lat. 20°, but absent
in examples south of that line. Wall (loc. cit., 1914, p. 755) has also remarked
that the loreal is rarely absent in examples from Fyzabad.

Oligodon arnensis is very widely distributed, and is one of the common for ms
found in the United Provinces. According to Smith ‘Its habits are chiefly
diurnal, and it appears to make its home for the most part in masonry,
domiciling itself in bungalows and_ out-houses’. efsy

Lycodon aulicus aulicus (Linn.)
(The Common Wolf Snake.)

. 1758. - Coluber aulicus,.Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th Ed., p. 220.

1870. Lycodon aulicus, Stoliczka, Journ., Asiat. Soc, Bengal, xxxix, p. 201.

1943. Lycodon a. aulicus. Beas Fauna Brit. India (Rept. & Amph.),

De AOS.

‘There are four. _examples ae Lycodon .a. aulicus. in the collection varying
in total length between 450-540 mm. Wall’ gives the total length of the largest
male and female of this species, sc far recorded, as 692 and 737 mm. res-
pectively.

In évery specimen’ there are 8 upper labia!s. of which the 3rd, 4th and sth,
touch-the eye. There is absence of brown spots on the upper labials of cne
specimen (collected in Sept. 1942), while the rest have faint brown spots.

In me the 35 examples in the Fyzabad collection examined by Wall (loc. cit.,
1907, p. 113), the anal scale was found to be divided. In my collection from
Benares there is one specimen in which this scale is entire. This aberration
has been recorded by Smith (loc. cit., 1943, p- 255) in several lispegics of Lycodon,
such as aulicus, striatus, and travancoricus.

The colouration of all the four specimens is of the same type, but the
number of cross bars on the dorsal surface varies considerably. One example

— —__—

1 Wall, F., Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, p. 751 (914).
* Wall, I°., Ophidia Taprobanica; p. 159 (1921).

A NOTE ON SOME SNAKES OF BENARES (U.P.) 347

has 19 cross bars, one 15, one 38 and the remaining one 10. In every case
these bars are whitish with faint brown spots.

Smith’ has described the arboreal habit of Lycodon aulicus, stating ‘ It is a
good climber and appears to prefer the roof to the floor’.

Natrix piscator piscator (Schneider. )
(The Chequered Water Snake.)

1799. Hydrus piscator, Schneider, Hist. Amph., i, p. 247.

1940. Natrix p. piscator, Smith, Rec. Ind, Mus., xlii, p. 483.

1943. Natrix p. piscator, Smith, Fauna Brit. India (Rept. & Amph.), iii,
Pp» 295- .

Four fairly well defined races of this species are recognizable, dependent
chiefly on the colour pattern and geographical distribution.

According to Smith the following races are found. in. India:

1. Natrix piscator piscator.

2. Natrix piscator flavipunctata.

3. Natrix piscator asperrimus.

4. Natrix piscator melanzostus.

There are blackish spots on the dorsal surface giving off a bluish sheen.
The spots are arranged in a ‘Chess-board pattern’, The under-surface is
whitish. The scale counts and the length of the single specimen in my collection
are given below:

Scale counts: Mid-body 19; Ventrals 138; Caudals 78.

Total length: 976 mm. Tail 269 mm.

Natrix piscator chiefly feeds on frogs and fish. It causes great. destruction
to fish, when they are herded into shallow water at the end of, the dry season.

Naja naja naja (Linn.)
(The Indian Cobra.)

1758. Coluber naju, Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th Ed.,.p. 221.

1943. Naja n. naja, Smith, Fauna Brit, India (Rept. & Amph.), iii, p. 431.

The most striking point of interest in the present species is the variation
in the colour scheme and in the markings of the hood. Smith on the basis of
the ‘hood design’ divided ‘Indian cobras’ (Naja naja) in three races, which can
be correlated to some extent with geographical distribution also. Bannerman
& Pocha’, after examining a series of specimens, had come to the same con-
clusion many years earlier. Wall found 12 different designs or patterns of
the hood markings in his 39 examples from Fyzabad.* Out of the two
specimens under report, the hood markings are distinct in one and tally with
the markings shown by Wall. on Plate I, fig. 4. In the second example
the markings are interrupted. and broken on the sides. ie

The colouration is brown in. one specimen and blackish brown, in the’
other. The total length of the specimens is 870 and 780 mm. respectively:

eae een ene eeeme eS

wg i ee ED Be EEE Ne . .
+ Smith, M.A., Journ.,”Nat. Hist. Soc., Siam, i, p. 16 (1914). .
? Bannerman, W. B. & Pocha, J. B., Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc:, xvt,
p- 638 (1905). , | :
’ There: are beautiful plates in black-and-white drawn ‘by Wall (Journ.,
Bombay Nat. Hist, Soc-, xviii, pl. I & II, 1907) showing different hood patterns

found in Fyzabad specimens.

THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES.

CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

(With 10 plates and 4 text-figures.)

INTRODUCTION.

On going through the Fauna of British India (23) (Reptilia),
2nd ed., vol. ii (Snakes), we find several descriptions and seven
illustrations of the hemipenes of snakes. These descriptions and
illustrations have been largely based on material dissected out of
spirit specimens, and, consequently merely give a picture of the
organs in a quiescent state, retracted into the base of the tail. Such
descriptions and illustrations, though valuable in themselves, can
give no idea of the organs in the everted condition, which is per-
japs the truer aspect. The study of the everted organ may poss-
ibly throw some light on the habits, anatomy, and other features
of the various species. It is aiready well-known that there is a
considerable variation in the structure of the hemipenis from genus to
genus, and in some instances from species to species. Although some
herpetologists have attempted a classification based mainly on the
morphology of these structures, there appears to be plenty of room
for further investigation based on especially collected material.

Col. Frank Wall (13), that indefatigable field-worker on Indian
snakes, was apparently the first to draw attention to the subject
of the possibility of a classification based on the structure of the
hemipenis. In 1923 when reviewing the genus Oligodon in the
Records of the Indian Museum, Wall wrote:

‘A study of the genitalia shows that there are very different varieties to be
met with among the species, and it is possible the genus, as now represented,
may be divided hereafter on this basis.

Fig. 1, Hemipenes of A. Oligodon albocinctus; B. O. sublineatus (after Wall.) |

‘However I have the genitalia of only four species, it is wisest provisionally
to let them all remain under the one generic title Oligeadon.’ (1,c., p. 305-)

“(paqyiaae Aypuy) susomnm q°Z ‘(papnajoid Aqyetzzed) ‘sayzuny snsosniu syit{g gq ‘:(puyos) 4zojpasid xiappy “S { (‘uurT)

snanjom uoyiAg “F S(meys) wjassns vaadi yg “€ S(*puyos) snajn1H7 snavsung “z ‘ (uIpneqd) snzaUur0uvha siydospAy ‘I

‘soyvug jo souediwopy
“NNVOOW °O : OLOH

. y
ay
Se

Se r
: if TAN 3
sim eden Teeny re GREER p/p aIs branes iw ova

tered

vu /
CO ae re

. 1 (i! ion
‘

THE HEMIPENIS IN-REPTILES . 349

‘The male genitalia vary in the species here included in one genus, and it
is possible that this variation may be used as a basis for a subdivision of the
genus into two. I have dried genitalia of four species in my collection. In
taeniolatus and sublineatus the organ is relatively small, cylindrical and beset
with recurved cartilaginous processes from base to extremity, just as one sees
in so many other species of the Colubridae. In albocinctus and juglandtfer,
however, the organ is relatively very large, cylindrical, and increases in girth
from base to extremity, being cleft at the extreme tip. There are no recurved
processes. The proximal third has feeble longitudinal rugae, the middle third
a honey-comb network, and the distal third concentric and somewhat imbricate
rugae (see figures)’ (l.c., p. 306.)

Although Wall saw the possibility of a classification of snakes
based on the structure of the hemipenis, he evidently did not persue
the subject further for I can find nothing more from his pen relative
to it. Wall had only dried genitalia of four species and describes
‘two forms’ in his paper referred to above. The illustrations of
the two types, fig. 1, show clearly the differences, although the organs
are not fully everted. Here we must leave Col. Wall and pass
on to a decade later.

In' 1933 C. H. and S. H. Pope (17), undertook a study of the
Asiatic and Malasian Green Pit-Vipers identified under the name
Trimeresurus gramineus and published their results in the American
Museum Novitates. Their investigations were based entirely (?)
on preserved material dissected out from specimens in the collect-
ions of the British Museum (Natural History) and those in the
American Museum of Natural History. The results indicate that-

‘A study of the hemipenis of nearly every valid species of Trimeresurus has
‘convinced us that this genus may be divided into groups of allied forms having
different types of hemipenes.’ (l.c., p. 1.)

The authors were conscious of the possibilities arising out of
this method of classification for they asked the question :

‘. , . is the hemipenis more or less stable than the various external
characters generally relied upon for the determination of the species and even
genera? Also, is it more valuable for the separation of large or small groups,
in the classification of snakes? In the genus Tvrimeresurus, the hemipenis is
excellent for the separation of the various species into groups, but we think
it would be dangerous to generalize until more detailed data on this organ in
other genera are available.’ (l.c., p. 3-)

However, a serious difficulty with this form of classification is
undoubtedly the determination of the females. The authors, quoted
above, refer to this aspect in their conclusion which reads:

‘The females of T. gramineus and T. stejnegeri cannot be distinguished
from each other with certainty, while mature males are recognised at once
by the form of the hemipenis. Immature males generally may be separated
by colour characters. ‘The meaning of this similarity in two form with radically
different hemipenes is not understood but may be correlated with ecological
adaptations therefore field studies are much needed.’ (l.c., p. 12.)

The frequent handling and observing of living snakes and liz-
ards first drew my attention to the subject of the hemipenis on
account of the frequent eversion of the organ when handled. ‘This
behaviour led me to consider the subject of copulation in many. of

3s0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

its aspects in these two groups of reptiles. With a view to under-
stand the true characters and function of the organ, I adopted a
simple process of everting the organ when in the fresh condition,
and of fixing it in the everted condition in preservation. This
method, which I shall explain below, can only be applied to fresh
material, i.e. recently killed animals. The photographs and dia-
grams will fully illustrate the points I have raised. Before proceed-
ing, however, it is necessary to give a brief explanation of the
structure of the organ without delving too deeply into its anatomi-
cal details and myology, and to refer to the postures assumed
during coitus, which, I am of opinion, have a very significant bear-
ing on the subject. Unfortunately, I have very little literature at
my disposal and must therefore rely largely on my own observ-
ations.

‘A discussion on the structure of the hemipenis in snakes and
lizards would perhaps be incomplete without reviewing the struct-
ure of the male genitalia throughout the Order. Accordingly, I
will discuss the structure of the corresponding ee of crocodiles
and chelonians by way of comparison.

STRUCTURE OF THE HEMIPENIS.

To start with, allow me to quote the definitions given in some
of the standard text-books:

Parker & Haswell (7): ‘A pair of vascular eversible copulatory sacs which
when everted are seen to be of cylindrical form with a dilated and bifid apex,
open into the posterior part of the cloaca.’

Sedgwick (4): ‘There are two penes, They have the form of eversible
hollow sacs opening into the posterior wall of the cloaca and attached by a
retractor muscle, passing from the hinder end, to some of the caudal vertebrae.
A groove runs to them from the opening of the vas deferens for the conveyance
of the sperm. Erectile tissue is found in their walls. The organs can be
everted through the anus and used as copulatory organs. They are present
in both sexes, though less developed in the female.’

Smith (23): ‘. . . have paired copulatory organs, . . . Each organ consists
of a tube of erectile tissue, which can be everted like the finger of a glove....
They are flattened on their inner sides, more rounded externally.’ (l,c. p. 10.)

The above statements are but general descriptions which give
us very little idea of the true structure and appearance of the organ,
and therefore, need a certain amount of explanation to ensure

clarity, as the characters vary much from the quiescent to the active
condition.

Gadow’s (3) descriptions of the organs in the various groups are
in more detail; they read as follows:

Lizards: ‘The cloaca of Sauria is somewhat modified; instead of the Copro-
daeum, Urodaeum, and Proctodaeum forming three successive chambers, the
Gredeetin is practically reduced to its dorsal half, forming a dorsal recess
between the two chambers. The Coprodaeum is restricted into several success-
ive chambers, and is always well shut off from the urodaeum by a _ strong
sphincter. The urodaeum. receives the urinary secretions, which are mostly
chalky, white and are rather consistant instead of being fluid. The right. and
left oviducts also open into it. The vas deferentia open into the dorso-lateral
portions of the walls of the. urodaeum, but the sperma is conducted by folds in
the ne of the chamber towards the base of the copulatory crea which,

THE HEMIPENIS IN- REPTILES 351
¢
although arising from -the lateral and posterior corners of the cloaca, where
uro- and procto-daeum meet, are stowed away outside the cloaca. These
organs are always paired. The proctodaeum or outermost cloacal chamber is.
shallow. Its inner opening is round and is furnished with a strong sphincter,
but it is surrounded and covered by lips of the outer skin, which forms a
transverse slit, This is due to the peculiar arrangement of the copulatory
organs.

Each organ consists of a tube of erectile tissue, and can be everted- like
the finger of a glove. To the apex of the tube is attached a long retractor
muscle, which arises from the ventro-lateral surfaces of the caudal vertebrae
and extends a considerable distance back. When at rest and withdrawn the
organs form conical, longitudinal swellings on each side of the root of the
tail, an external feature by which male specimens can generally be distinguished.
Only one organ is inserted at one time.’ (pp. 498-499.)

Snakes: ‘The cloacal arrangement is essentially the same as that of the
Lacertilia, but snakes possess no urinary bladder. The copulatory organs are
stowed away beneath the skin in recesses of the posterior lateral corners of
the shallow cloacal vestibulum. Each organ is usually bifurcated at the free
end, and furnished with little spike-shaped, but scarcely horny, excrescences.
On each side of the outer cloacal chamber, in both sexes, lies a roundish
gland with an offensive, strongly-scented secretion; that of various Boas smells
disagreeably sweet and musky.’ (p. 585.)

T. Rymer Jones’s (1) remarks on the structure of the hemipenis
are of special interest, they are as follows:

‘(2025.) . . . The earliest appearance of the copulatory organs is seen in
Serpentes and in the Lizard tribes; and in such reptiles it will be observed
that the penis is rather a provision for securing the juxtaposition of the
sexual aperatures of the male and female than an instrument of intromission,
The two lateral halves of the penis (or corpora cavernosa, as we shall have to
call them hereafter, when they become conjointed in the mesial line) are as.
yet quite separate, and palced_at each side of the cloaca fissure, from which
they protrude when in a state of erection, so that there appear to be two
distinct organs of excitement, or, more properly speaking, of prehension: for
each division, being of course imperforate, is covered with sharp spines, and is.
obviously rather adapted to take firm hold of the cloaca of the female than
to form a channel for the introduction of the seminal fluid.’ (l.c., p. 758.)

The organ is paired. When at rest the two halves are re-
tracted outside in into the base of the tail. On dissection of the
tail the operator only sees the inner surface of the organ. In this.
position it appears like two subcylindric, linear, muscle processes
lying adjacent to one another. The organ is scarcely separable from
the retractor muscle itself, except for a slight difference in colour,
and texture on palpation. The retractor muscles extend the whole
length of the tail. Nothing of the formation of the sculpturing is
visible. On opening one of these bodies the operator sees what
would be presented externally in the everted condition, but much
shrunken and distorted, and therefore, he does not get a true
picture of the external morphology of the organ. From this as-
pect of the organ we must pass to the everted aspect to under-
stand its characteristics. As the two. halves are exactly alike a
description of one half will suffice.

Broadly speaking, half the organ, when everted, presents the
shape of a flower bud with a short. or long stalk. To facilitate
description I shall refer to the stalk as the pedicil and the ‘bud’ as
the head. The division between the pedicil and the head may be
well demarcated or barely so. The pedicil may be strongly or

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

feebly armed with spines or excrescences of varying size and shape,
or with fleshy transverse collars, flounces or ridges. Likewise the
surface of the head may be beset with similar structures; or, both
regions may be smooth or with just a few fissures or furrows.
The head may also possess horn-like appendages. On the inner
face (the side facing the central long axis of the body) there is a
deep or shallow groove. This groove, known as the sulcus, may
be clearly visible up the entire length of the organ or it may be
less pronounced in the region of the head itself. This groove is
in direct communication with the opening of the ureter, and acts
as a channel for the conveyance of the spermatic fluid. (A few
ridges run from the base of the opening of the ureter to the base
of the sulcus.)

The bulk of the tissue composing the organ is erectile tissue,
and when everted the organ is hollow within, except for the mus-
cle strands drawn up from the retractor muscle and the semi-car-
tilaginous ‘ribs’ supporting it which are only visible in certain
species. I shall refer to these structures under the specific heads
of the species I have so far examined. ‘The position of the organ
at rest is often visible externally. It is represented by a thickened
area just below the vent, but certainly does not always form an
infallible distinguishing character between the sexes without fur-
ther investigation. In practiced hands an animal can, many a
time, be made to evert the hemipenis on pressure at a point a
short way below the vent. It may evert only one or both halves
simultaneously. To attain the extrusion of both halves together
(which is sometimes possible) pressure must be exerted at a parti-
cular point. This must be located by practice. Merely lifting up
an animal by its tail may occasionally produce the same result.

On going through the Fauna (23) we find the statement: ‘In
pairing, only one organ is everted at a time, but which one is im-
material, and depends upon the side the male happens to be at
the time of copulation.’ Gadow (3) makes a similar statement.
On what grounds the ‘‘observation’’ or ‘‘conclusion’’ rests I am un-
able to say, but it certainly gives rise to much room for doubt
when we consider the structure and behaviour of the hemipenis in
the living animal. A_ significant point is the posture assumed
during coitus. There is hardly any possibility, if at all, of observ-
ing the insertion or extraction of the organ for:

(a) the organ is only everted when the two vents are approxim-
ated;

(b) the organ is collapsed soon after the emission of the seminal
fluid and the cessation of sexual excitement, and accordingly it is
retracted at the time when the two vents separate.

With these two serious difficulties in view, actual observation
is almost, if not entirely, impossible. I have frequently observed
lizards in coitus, but have never been able to establish whether
one or both halves of the organ are inserted for the reasons stated
above. Even if a pair of lizards or snakes in coitus were killed
instantaneously, the killing of the animals would result in the im-
mediate cessation of sexual excitement, and would probably be
followed by the partial or complete collapse of the hemipenis.

= ©. «© THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES , 383
Again, under normal circumstances there is the possibility that one
hemipenis may retract completely in advance of the other, and the
partially retracted one may be ‘trailed’ in a flaccid condition for a
while outside the vent. Such a ‘trailing’ of the penis after coitus
is not infrequently observed among anserine birds. Injury to the
organ during coitus may also result in belated retraction. This
last point I have occasionally observed in Calotes. Perhaps the
accidental extrusion of the hemipenis on such an occasion may
have given rise to the statement quoted above.

Testudines.

Testudines.—The formation of the penis in tortoises and _ turt-
les has been described in the Fauna (15) along with that of croco-
diles. It reads as follows:

‘In crocodilians and chelonians a median unpaired penis arises from the
ventral wall of the proctodaeum and is extruded through the anterior end of
the cloacal slit. On its dorsal surface there is a deep groove which leads
back to the openings of the seminal ducts.’ (l.c., p. 29)

On p. 54 there is a little more detail:

‘The cloaca is large and its divisions are imperfectly defined. The procto-
daeum contains the unpaired copulatory organ, which is deeply grooved on
its dorsal surface and is constructed much like that of the Crocodilia. The
coprodaeum and urodaeum are confluent, and into them open the genital ducts,
the bladder and the end of the gut, the termination of the latter being well
marked.’

1 T. Rymer Jones (1), writes:

‘(2026.) In Chelonian reptiles the penis is much more perfectly developed,
and really constitutes a very efficient intromittent instrument. The two cor-
pora cavernosa, after commencing separately, approach each other, and
become united along the mesial line so as to form a single organ of consider-
able size, terminated at its extremity by a glans-like dilatation. There is,
however, no corpus spongiosum, nor urethral canal properly so called; the
latter is represented by a deep groove which runs along the upper surface
of the penis from the cloaca to the extremity of the organ; and it is along
this groove that the spermatic fluid is conveyed during coitus.’ (I.c., p. 758.)

So far I have not had the opportunity of examining the genitalia
of a freshly killed male specimen.

Crocodilia.

The description of the penis cannot be dismissed in general
terms in the Crocodilia as it is rather a complex structure. This
statement is all the more forcible when it is viewed from the as-
pects of comparative anatomy and field observations. Gadow (3)
describes it in the following terms:

‘In the latter (proctodaeum) is stowed away the large copulatory organ.
It arises out of the medio-ventral wall of the cloaca, and has a deep, longitudinal
groove on its morphologically dorsal side for the conduction of the sperma,
the vas deferentia opening near its basal end. On either side of the root of
this organ, in both sexes alike, opens a peritonial canal, wide enough in
large specimens to pass a goose-quill. The outer opening of the cloaca forms:
a longitudinal slit: within it dorso-laterally, are the openings of the two
anal musk glands.’

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The Fauna (15) states:

‘On its dorsal surface there is a deep groove which leads back to the
openings of the seminal] ducts.’

1 T. Rymer Jones (1), writes:

‘(2029.) In the Crocodiles and higher Saurians the penis in its structure
resembles that of the tortoise; and instead of a urethra, there is merely a
deep groove traversing the upper surface of the organ, along which the semen
trickles out of the cloaca.’ (l.c., p. 758.)

To the field-worker the position of the sulcus offers some diffi-
culties which I shall indicate below, after describing the organ.
For the purpose of clarity I shall refer to it (the sulcus) as being
ventrally situated.

Crocodilus palustris Lesson. (Pl. III & Pl. V) & Text-fig. 2.

The penis is composed of solid fibrous tissue and consequently
cannot alter its size and shape when under the stimulus of sexual
excitement. The ridgity of the organ, however, is compensated
for by the presence of erectile tissue at its base which is capable
of altering the position of the penis from the retracted, resting posit-
ion to the protruded active posture. The erectile tissue merely
acts as a hinge. At rest the organ is reverted into the cloacal

Fig. 2
Copulatory organ of Crocodilus palustris Lesson.

lit., i.e. it is retracted backwards bringing the sulcus nearest
the vertebral column and the extremity pointing backwards towards
the tip of the tail. When erected the position of the organ is
reversed, the distal end pointing foreward. In this position the
sulcus is brought below (and is ‘ventral’). It is this change in
the position of the sulcus that confounds the field-worker. Viewed

Puate II.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

&s:
\
XN

Lissemys punctata granosa (Schoepff.).

A gravid specimen showing the greatly enlarged condition of the genital system.
Eeeocs Od:, soviduct; Re. ruptured eggs.

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THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES HG 30

from below, i.e. the side of the sulcus, the penis appears as though
it were composed of two halves, the sulcus forming the dividing
line. At the proximal end the fibrous tissue forms two large re-
versedly club-shaped bodies (Crus) narrowing towards. the distal
end and then widening again to form the terminal lobed extremity. -
The sides of the penis between the two extremities are somewhat
flattened about. the middle. Viewed in profile there is observed a
distinct upward bend about the middle of the organ. The distal
extremity is enlarged, and as already mentioned, lobate. There are
two main lips; the upper forming a rigid hood over the cavity formed
between the two; the upper lip is firm, broadly ovate, with a deep.
cleft at its tip; the lower is boat-shaped and slightly in-curved and
exceeds the upper lip in length; its distal extremity terminated in
two somewhat triangular flaps on either side of the sulcus. From
the lower lip a median ridge, which increases in height, runs down
into the cavity formed by the two lips. The sulcus arises out of
a tubular structure at the proximal end, between the fibrous bodies,
and extends forward to the extremity of the lower lip, it is bord-
ered by subfleshy ridges. The structure and position of the organ
suggests a ventral union of the sexes and a copulatory hold during
coitus. However, the correctness of this suggestion must’ be
proved by actual observation. It also seems possible that coitus
in these bulky animals takes place in water.

THE FEMALE. CLOACA.

A reference to copulation without a consideration of the female
genitalia and its morphology would be_ incomplete, Hinata ae I
must give a brief description of it as well.

The text-books make no reference to the female cloaca in parti-
cular, but describe the cloaca in general terms which apply to both
gexes. However, for the purposes of this paper it becomes’ necess-
-ary to differentiate not only between the cloaca of both sexes,
but to consider them in and out of the breeding season. There is
little or no change in the case of the male, except for the fact that
the testes and ducts display a marked reduction or increase in size.
according to the seasons. In the female, however, there are very
marked physiological changes which take place from the active to
the inactive condition of the ovaries. This point is perhaps well-
known, but I drew attention to it in my articles on Amphipia and
Reptiles published in the Journal. The changes are of particular
significance when we consider the subject of copulation, particularly
in reptiles with bifid introversal organs.

Snakes: The cloaca of a female snake, when its ovaries are in
an advanced state of activity, is not as well defined into three’
compartments as in lizards. The coprodaeum is confluent with
the hind end of the gut from which it is barely distinguishable.
In a fresh state (as in lizards) its opening almost reaches the last
chamber or proctodaeum thus preventing the fouling of the middle
chamber or urodaeum to any great extent. The urodaeum is
formed by a dorsal invagination into a comparatively enlarged,
saccate chamber which opens posteriorly into the proctodaeum.

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

(The proctodaeum is comparatively short. The wall of both the
urodaeum and the proctodaeum are thrown into longitudinal (fluted)
folds. The proximal ends of the oviducts are considerably enlarged
into oblong, thick-walled, glandular chambers which open directly
into the dorsal portion of the urodaeum. These chambers appar-
ently function as ‘shell glands’. Unlike the lizards these ‘shell
glands’ are not separated by a narrowed portion of the oviduct
from the urodaeum. This description is based on median sagital
sections made through the cloacas of preserved specimens of
Natrix stolata (Pl. VI, E,F.) and Naja naja, and a freshly killed
Piyas mucosus; all gravid. I could find no appreciable difference
between the species. It is worthy of note that, apart from the
general reduction of the organs during the inactive ovarian period,
the opening of the oviducts are closed.

Lizards: According to my observations the cloaca during the
active condition, is as follows: (Pl. IX F.—H.)

The cloaca is well differentiated into three compartments, the
coprodaeum, urodaeum, and the proctodaeum. The coprodaeum
at its hindermost end forms a mammilate, extensible tube which
enters the urodaeum. It is supported by a suspension membrane
from the mid-dorsal line of the urodaeum. This membrane part-
ially divides the urodaeum into ~two halves. The urodaeum is
separated from the proctodaeum by a sphincter partition. On the
dorso-lateral sides of the urodaeum, and just above the protruding
end of the coprodaeum are the entrances of the oviducts. The en-
trances to the oviducts are large, the portion just above them
is elastic and is easily dilated without undue pressure from within.
The opening of the proctodaeum to the exterior is closed by a
strong fold of the external skin. A point worthy of note, in pass-
ing, is that the mammilate portion of the coprodaeum, suspended
within the urodaeum is able, on extension, to reach the orifice
formed by the sphincter separating the urodaeum from the proc-
todaeum, a device which probably prevents the fouling of the:
urodaeum during defaeciation. (The above description is based on
a freshly killed specimen of Hemidactylus maculatus in breeding
condition.) (PI. IX, figs. F—H.) IX, D,E.

Testudines: The cloaca of a female mud-turtle (Lissemys
punctata) during the period of ovarian inactivity does not exhibit
a clear differentiation into the chambers characteristic of the liz-
ards. The terminal portion of the gut is cut off from the uro-
daeum by a sphincter. Posterior to this sphincter another sphincter
shuts off the much reduced urodaeum from the rest of the posterior
end of the cloaca. Beyond the posterior sphincter the urinary
bladder opens on the ventral floor of the cloaca. Immediately
following the narrow neck of the bladder is a dense-tissued collar,
the arms of which reach to the posterior sphincter. From the
dorsal surface, but outside the passage of the proctodaeum, arises
a solid, fibrous, clitoris-like structure which protrudes into the
cloaca, but not through its wall; this body is seated on a somewhat
spongy base which allows of a certain amount of movement to it.
The walls of the proctodaeum are thrown into somewhat obscure
folds. The oviducts enter the much reduced urodaeum and in this

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Crocodilus palustris Lesson.

B,. distal portion, ‘ventral’ aspect; C, the same, lateral aspect; D, extremity of low
top view; Agl., Anal gland; Cl., clitoris; R, gut; Sul., sulcus.

er lip;

ZLALE Vs

E, upper lobe,

THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES 387

condition of sexual inactivity they are imperforate; the openings
are somewhat laterally situated. (PI. IV, B.)

In an example exhibiting ovarian activity in an advanced state
there is a considerable enlargement of the oviducts and the now
perforate openings. The ova occupy much space in the abdominal
Reavityn (El: I.)

Crocodilia: The text-book descriptions of the cloaca in these
Saurians are as follows:

Sedgwick (4): ‘The cloaca is divided into two parts by a muscular fold.
Into the anterior chamber open the urinary and generative ducts by separate
and paired openings. There is no bladder. On the ventral side of the posterior
chamber of the cloaca is a grooved penis very similar to that of Chelonia.
Peritonial canals are present in both sexes and open on either side into the
cloaca at the base of the organ.’ (l.c., p. 379.)

Parker & Haswell (7): ‘In Crocodilia and Chelonia, instead of the copulat-
ory sacs there is a median solid penis attached to the wall of the cloaca, and
a small process or clitoris occurs in a corresponding position in the female.’

Smith (15): ‘The cloaca is formed as follows:—The coprodaeum and uro-
daeum are confluent and form a large oval bag, closed in front and behind by
strong sphincters. Normally it acts as a teceptacle for urine, and into it
also opens the oviducts, near the base of the clitoris. The proctodaeum or
outermost chamber contains the large unpaired penis. This arises from the
ventral wall of the chamber and has a deep longitudinal groove on its dorsal’
aspect to conduct the seminal fluid. On either side at the root of the penis.
opens the peritonial canal. The outer opening of the cloaca is a longitudinal .
slit, and within it, placed dorso-laterally, are the two anal musk-glands.”
(l.c. p. 34.) |

The following are my own observations on the cloaca of a
female crocodile during her period of ovarian activity:

The anterior chamber is large and is suspended dorsally be a
strong suspension membrane. Internally the walls of the cham-
ber are thrown into several deep, longitudinal folds: its posterior
end widens into a large cavity; apart from the folds already refer-.
red to, the walls of the chamber are much vermiculately rugose
throughout. From the posterior enlargement a narrow, much
longitudinally fluted passage passes backwards under a_ dense-
tissued, fluted, bulbous knob, arising from the mid-dorsal surface ;.
the knob is posteriorily notched. Just beyond this dorsal protuberance, .
arises, from the ventral floor of this passage, a peniform clitoris.
with its distal extremity directed towards the opening of the vent.
The walls of this passage are deeply longitudinally furrowed. The
oviducts are much enlarged and longitudinally furrowed. The
oviducts both enter the anterior chamber of the cloaca, the open-.
ings being somewhat dorsal in position. (Pl. V, fig. A.)

In reptiles the period, between the commencement of the reduct-
ion of the gonads and the beginning of their regeneration to
activity, corresponds roughly to the period when the desire for food’
is predominent, namely, the period when the animals are not
aestivating or hibernating as the case may be. This period «is
devoted to feeding activity and the consequent storage of large
accumulations of fat in tissues especially assigned for the purpose.
The marked reduction in the size of the genital organs from the
greatly enlarged active condition to the much reduced inactive
state makes room for the accumulation of fat that would not be

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.:-SOCIETY, Vol. 46

possible if this change did not take place. At the end of the period
of activity, the genitals once more commence to show signs of
returning activity. It is at this time that the animals embark on
their period of aestivation or hibernation as the case may be. It
is during the inactive life of the animal that the genitals develop
to their maximum. Most of the stored fat is gradually absorbed
and the area occupied by it 1s once more filled to capacity by the
enlarging genitals, particularly in the case of the females. Thus
the animal’s life may be divided into two main periods: (1) the
feeding period, and, (2) the period of sexual activity (including the
period of hibernation or aestivation and the actual union of the
sexes).

In a female with inactive ovaries, the cloaca displays no marked
peculiarities, for during that period the entire genital system is
reduced to a minimum and in some instances the organs atrophy
to such an extent that the animals become difficult to sex with any
degree of certainty without careful dissection. On the contrary,
when the ovaries are active there is a marked increase in the size
of the ovaries themselves and a corresponding enlargement and
appearance of the oviducts and the walls of the cloaca. Both the
latter become more ‘spongy’ and furrowed to give the necessary
elasticity for the passage of the eggs. The ova mature within the
body cavity, and when ripe break away and enter the funnel-shaped
opening, the ostium abdominale, of the oviducts. Fertilization
takes place in the oviducts, for it is only when the ova are in a
fairly advanced condition that coitus takes place. This has been
my experience with such reptiles as I have observed and dissected
after coitus. ‘At this period the oviducts are at the fullest develop-
ment and the aperatures to the exterior are at their largest.

What are we to conclude from these observations? The only
reasonable answer is that as the genitals are so reduced during the —
inactive period, coitus is physically impossible, and as far as I
am aware does not take place, not to mention the possible absence
of any desire to cohabit during such a period (the reproductive
organs being reduced or atrophied. There is no marked reduction
in the size of the hemipenis).

From these considerations we must pass on to the postures
assumed by reptiles during coitus.

FOSTURES ASSUMED DURING COITUS.

Snakes: Snakes have no limbs. The copulating pair, like a
fighting couple, at first entwine themselves, rope fashion, and ap-
proximate the vents. It is only then that the male organ is inserted
and coitus ensues. Whether the male uses its jaws in obtaining
the first hold on the female, I am unable to say, but as I have
observed a similar practice in other reptiles, such as lizards, I am
inclined to the view that the same may obtain among snakes. Once
the sexes are united in copula it appears to be immaterial whether
they remain entwined or not. On this point we have some meagre
evidence.

THE. HEMIPENIS IN. -REPTILES hy 359

Col. Wall (10) writing in the Journal on the evidence of Mr.
Hampton wrote the following in regard to a couple of cobras (Naja
Naja) :

‘In Trivandrum the pair remained coupled from 311 a.m. until 4-20 p.m.
on the 17th January. In Mr. Hampton’s vivarium coitus lasted intermittently
for three days.. He observed that the pair nodded their heads continually, and
their bodies quivered. They did not take the slightest notice of anybody in
front of the cave. They did not expand their hoods, neither did they wrap
themselves around one another. Each turned the vent upwards and sideways
to effect engagement.’ (xxii, 550.)

Unfortunately the observer tells us nothing of the first engage-
ment and so we must conclude that he did not witness it and that
the observations refer only to the period after engagement had
already taken place. Some important details arise out of these
observations, namely, (@) coitus may be protracted for several hours ;
(b) that it is repeated periodically, (c) that the couple were not
entwined during the process. Similar facts I have observed in
certain lizards. Another instance of snakes in copula was recorded
in the Journal together with a photograph by Mr. A. R. Poyntz (14).
In this instance the animals concerned were sea snakes. They were
hauled out of the sea by means of a boat-hook. Both were en-
twined and remained so when put on shore, in spite of the rough
handling. In volume xxxvi (15) of the Journal there is a plate
illustrating two phases during the copulation of two Rat-snakes
(Ptyas mucosus). Figure 2 of this plate shows the pair entwined,
which appears to be an earlier stage than figure 1 illustrating the
pair unwound, but with the two vents still approximated. How-
ever, further close observations are necessary on these details.

Lizards: Although lizards generally possess well-developed
limbs I have observed no true copulatory hold in these animals.
After a brief period of manoeuvring round, the male generally
makes a rush at the female grasping her fiercely by his jaws at
the back of her neck, often wounding her in the effort. The vents
are approximated and the union of the sexes ensues. At this
juncture the male releases his partner’s neck and remains stationary
until separation takes place. The duration of coitus varies and is
repeated at intervals. Like snakes, lizards possess a divided copu-
latory organ. A point that is worthy of mention in passing, is
that coitus usually takes place when the ova are already in the
oviducts. I shall have occasion to refer to this point later.

Testudines: During coitus the male supports itself on the
shell of the female, and remains in position by its own weight,
but there is no hold in the true sense. It is common knowledge
that the plastron in many species is very distinctly hollowed in the
males. The sexes may remain in the copulatory attitude for a
considerable length of time.

Crocodiles: 1 can find no reference to a pair of crocodiles hav-
ing been observed in copula, hence we have no information on the
subject as to the presence or absence of a copulatory hold.

After considering the copulatory poses assumed in the various
groups of reptiles, we find that it is among such groups as
do not employ a true copulatory hold during coitus, that we

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

find a paired organ. In both groups the period of union is usually
protracted and separation takes place only after retraction of the
organ. As there is no hold to secure the sexual position till the
act is consummated we must turn once more to the structure of the
organ when it is everted to its fullest for an explanation of its
functions. A pertinent question arises as to whether we are dealing
with a single or dual organ. This point must be disposed of first.

Is THE HEMIPENIS A SINGLE OR DUAL ORGAN?

The word hemipenis itself suggests that we are dealing with
‘half’? an organ. The point is, Do the two halves unite together to
form a single organ, or, does each part form a separate functional
organ, one independent of the other? ‘As already indicated, each
hemipenis (when everted) has a longitudinal groove, the proximal
end of which is confluent with the opening of the ureter to which the
seminal ducts are connected and through which the seminal fluid
enters the sulcus up the hemipenis. Then there are the very signi-
ficant points that (a) both hemipenes are everted when pressure is
applied to a certain point below the vent just above the organ (at
rest); (b) when forcibly everted there is a strong tendency for the
two to curve outwards, i.e. away from each other (this and the pre-
vious point I have confirmed repeatedly by experiment); (c) there
is the fact that the head of the penis is much dilated when fully
everted; (d) there is no copulatory hold during actual coitus in
animals that possess a hemipenis. Taking all these points into con-
sideration I am inclined to the view that we are dealing with a
single organ composed of two halves. The reasons for such an
Opinion are perhaps obvious, but for sake of clarity it will be bet-
ter to express them:

(a) the two halves of the organ when everted together result
in approximating the two sulci, thus forming a ‘complete’ tube at
least in its lower portion for the conduction of the seminal fluid;

(b) the dilated heads of the organ establish a firm copulatory hold
within the female, thus dispensing with the need for an external
hold during coitus.

From these considerations and conclusions we must pass to
another aspect of the cloaca. In snakes and lizards the openings
of the oviducts to the exterior are very near the vent itself, they
open into the urodaeum. There is no vagina as in higher animals.
Such large organs as the hemipenis when fully everted could not
be accommodated in the cloaca alone. This to my mind is a very
significant point. In the crocodiles and chelonians there is suffi-
cient space to accommodate the penis. Again, it must be rememb-
ered that more often than not, the ova in both oviducts are fertilized.
Spermatozoa received into the cloaca alone would, I think, in all
probability not reach the ova to produce maximum fecundity as is
generally the case. I readily realize that this view may call forth
serious objections on account of the motility of spermatoza, but,
for the present I introduce the suggestion merely by way of argu-

DHE: HEMIPENSS INGREPTILES .. ; 361

ment. Another point not to be lost sight of is the absence of the
copulatory hold in animals possessing a hemipenis, namely snakes
and lizards. Taking these points into consideration, I am of the
opinion that at the time of coitus both halves of the organ are
inserted, and further, that the distal heads enter the openings of
the oviducts themselves. The large heads thus provide a sutficient
lock to prevent the extraction of the organ during the passage of
the seminal fluid. The union of the lowest portions of the two
sulci form an adequate tube in the cloaca, and the upper portions
a passage into the oviducts.

A point perhaps worthy of consideration is that snakes and
lizards are ‘belly walkers’; the body being usually adpressed to
the ground. In animals with such a mode of progression a median,
enlarged, solid penis would be somewhat of a hindrance during
progression. The saccate, reversable and divided organ is more
comfortably accommodated under the caudal vertebrae, apart from
the fact that they perform the function of claspers during coitus.
Another point worthy of note, though it has no direct bearing on
the subject in hand is, that according to Wall’s (12) observations
the hemipenis is extruded in embryos. He wrote as follows:

‘The brood (of Hydrophis spiralis) in an advanced stage of development in-
cluded 10 males and 4 females. The males (with the genitals extruded)
measured...’ (XXVi, 432).

Again in regard to the embryos of Russell’s Viper (Vipera rus-
sellii) the same author states:

‘The genitalia of the male are extruded up to about four days before exova-
tion.’ (xXVi, 432).

Having reviewed the many and complex aspects of sexual act-
ivity in the various groups, I shall now pass on to the description
of the male genitalia in the species I have had the opportunity of
examining in freshly killed animals. I also introduce the descript-
ions given in the Fauna (23) and those of Col. Wall in his various
works by way of comparison.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MALE GENITALIA UNDER SPECIFIC HEADS.

Serpentes or Snakes.
Boag.
Python moiurus (Linn.) (Pl. I fig. 4. & VII fig. 1.)

The hemipenis of Python molurus and P. reticulatus are defined
in the quiescent state in the Fauna (23) as follows:

‘It is forked for about half its length, the lips of the sulcus being very
prominent; throughout the whole length there are longitudinal folds, and
just proximal to the point of bifurcation of the sulcus there is a fleshy tongue-
shaped papilla; there are no spines.’ (l.c., p. 105.)

Everted aspect: In the fully everted condition the hemipenis
resembles the fruit of Tvapa bispinosa (the Water Chesnut) on its
pedicil. The pedicil is well differentiated from the head; it bears
no spines or excrescences but just below the base of the head are

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

two distinct fleshy collars almost entirely encircling the pedicil.
They are broken by the sulcus. The lower of the two collars is
stouter and exhibits a nodular excrescence on the side opposite to
the sulcus. The upper is feebler and undulated. The head 1s
broadly triangular in outline with a retuse depression at the distal
extremity. The two free ends of the triangle each bears a slightly
recurved papilla at the base of which are a few fascet-like depres-
sions. The surface of the pedicil and the head exhibit very shallow
fissures which probably represent fold lines. The sulcus arises at
the base of the organ and is represented by a comparatively deep
groove bordered by somewhat stout ridges. At the base of the
head the sulcus branches dichotomously, the branches turning’ to-
wards the outer faces of the head and finally terminate in the
grooves below each papilla. The outer margins of the sulcus are
surmounted by fleshy folds which have a tendency to turn inwards,

COLUBRIDAE.

Ptyas mucosus Smith (Pl. I fig. 6 & 7) (Pl. VII fig. A-D.) &
text-fig. 3. |

The Fauna (23) describes the hemipenis as follows :—

‘Hemipenis extending to the 1oth-12th caudal plate, not forked. The distal
one third is flounced, the folds at the tip being much finer than those proximally:
this area is followed by one of almost equal length in which the flounces are
much thicker walled and joined together in part to form the calyces; it is
succeeded abruptly by a spinose portion, the spines being thick and fleshy, and
terminating in a spicule; there are 11-12 in lateral series; at the base of the
organ there are two very large spines. In addition the distal one-half or
one-third is incompletely divided in two by invaginations of the external wall
of the organ. The connection between them is maintained by connective tissue
and is intimately connected with the sulcus. In general character the structure
is that of Zaocys carinatus but the modifications are iess developed.’ (l.c.,
p. 160.)

Everted aspect: In the fully everted condition the hemipenis—
of P. mucosus is more complicated in structure and more difficult
of description than that of Python molurus. The pedicil, which is
well defined, supports a broadly quadrangular head which rests on
one of its angles. For a short distance the proximal end is smooth
all round; this is followed by an area of spines of almost equal
length, the spines decreasing slightly upwards. At the base of the
spinous area, on the side opposite to the sulcus, there are 2-4 spines
much larger than the rest; the spines on the same side as the sul-
cus are smaller than those opposite. Each spine has a hard whitish
core surrounded by translucent tissue. The extremity of the core
protrudes externally as a sharp spicule. Immediately above the
spinous area there is a deeply flounced area extending to the base
of the head, the flounces decrease in size upwards and pass into
the rugose area of the head. The flounces encircle the pedicil but
their continuity is interrupted by the sulcus on the inner aspect.

am, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate VI.

1
|

Vel. C. McCann,

a Oh Ne pe TEMS:

Be en

Hemepenis of Ptyas mucosus Giinther—A-D.

A, The paired organ back & front; B, Top view; CG, Wateral aspect; D, Spine;
Sul.,- Sulcus; Lts., lateral rib.

Cloaca of Natrix stolata Pope—E. & F.

Cloaca of a female with eggs in the oviducts, showing enlargement of urodaeum.
Ovd., oviduct; U., urodaeum.

}
|
1
|

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate VI)

Del. C. McCann.

Hemipenes of Snakes.

1, Python molurus (Linn.); 2, 3 & 5, Natrix piscator (Schneider); 4, Bungarus caeruleus
(Schneider); 6, Vipera russullii (Shaw), everted; 7, V. siamensis Smith
(drawing after Smith) reverted.

THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES | 363

The quadrangular head when fully distended is somewhat trans-
parent, especially towards the distal region. The angles are
‘rounded. The supporting stays of somewhat cartilaginous tissue
are Clearly visible extending from the two lateral angles to the distal
or topmost angle (Fig. 3. Lts.). The surface of the head is shallowly
flounced below, the flounces gradually passing into oblique rugose
ridges which become almost obscure or obsolete towards. the cent-
ral area, but reappear along the central axis. The sulcus is well
| defined along the pedicil
but gradually fades out
except for a ridge along
the wall of the head. On
the opposite side to the
sulcus there is also a
fine ridge corresponding
to it in position. At the
base, the sulcus is bord-
ered by somewhat strong
ridges.

Internal aspect: A
long section of . the
hemipenis exhibits the
following: Within the
pedicil there are two
cylindric bodies (Fig. 3.
Er. cyl.) of erectile tissue
separated from each
other by a much finer
cylinder. Both the large
cylinders are attached to
the walls. The upper of

, the two extends for a
Fig. 3. Diagramatic sections of the hemi- short distance into the
penis of P. mucosus. Er. cyl.=erectile cylinder; tn Come :
Lts.=lateral stays; Mbp.=median septum; J©4¢- t its distal end
Mds.=median stay. is lhgulate somewhat

cartilaginous body (Fig.
3. Mds.) reaching the top of the head. At this point the ligulate
structure supports two semi-cartilaginous ‘stays’ which extend to
the lateral corners. A thin transparent membrane (Fg. 3: Mbp.)
divides the interior of the head into two; it extends from the side
of the sulcus, across, to the opposite wall.

Coluber ventromaculatus Gray & Hardwicke.

The Fauna (23) describes the hemipenis as:

‘Hemipenis extending to the roth caudal plate; the calyculate area occupies
1/3 of the organ, the cups being deeply scalloped and spinose; this area merges
gradually into a spinose one, the spines being more or less uniform in size;
there are about 20 lateral series.’ (l.c., p. 168.)

--—-Col--Wall (11) writesi---—

‘The ¢ claspers’ in adults are studded with hook like horny appendages’
(xxiii, 41.) mee 3

364. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Lycodon striatus (Shaw) Stoliczka.

The Fauna (23) describes the hemipenis of this species under
L. java; it reads:
‘Hemipenis extending to the 1oth caudal plate; the distal 1/3 is obliquely

flounced and calyculate, the remainder of the organ spinose, the spines being
large and more or less equal sized throughout.’ (l.c., p. 261.)

Col. Wall (6) writes:

‘The male organs are beset with numerous minute claw-like appendages.’
(X1X, 104.)

Lycodon aulicus (Linn.) Guenther.
Regarding the hemipenis the Fauna (23) states:

‘Hemipenis extending to the t1oth caudal plate; forked near the tip; the
distal 1/3 is calyculate, the calyces being transversely arranged; the remainder
of the organ has longitudinal folds which are beset with more or less distinct
spines; starting from the calyculate portion of the organ and extending about
half-way down, are two prominent folds composed of a number of. short, flesh
papillae.’ (l.c., p. 264.)

Col. Wall (6), writes:

‘The copulatory male organs are beset with many minute recurved spines.’
(xIx, 97-)

Everted aspect: In the fully everted condition the hemipenis
is comparatively short. The pedicil is stout, and occupies approxi-
mately 1/3 its total length being unarmed, and fully differentiated
from the head. The head is somewhat obovately trigonous, and
is armed with comparatively large curved spines, increasing in
length towards the distal extremity. Each spine is embedded in a
somewhat translucent membrane with a free and sharp extremity.
The sulcus is deep, and extends up one of the angles terminating
in the ‘pit’ formed by the invagination and is margined by thick
lips.

Natrix piscator (Schneider) Smith (Pl. 1 fig. 5) & (Pl. VII. figs.
2, 3) 5-)

With regard to the construction of the hemipenis in the genus
Natrix the Fauna (23) records the following:

‘Hemipenis reaching the 7th or 8th caudal plate’, spinose and calyculate
throughout, the spinies being more or less uniform in size. The lips of the
sulcus are short or very short, the spines originating within the cup; at the
base of the organ there are 2-4 large or very large spines.’ (l.c., p. 281.)

Under the specific head of N. piscator:

‘Hemipenis extending to the 12th caudal plate, forked for about one-third
of its length; it is spinous throughout, the spines being relatively coarser at
the distal end than at the proximal; extending for the greater part of its
length are four prominent folds; there are no basal spines.’ (l.c., p. 294.)

Everted aspect: In the fully everted condition the hemipenis of

piscator, the large columnar head occupies the greater part of
ae organ. The pedicil is very short. The head is large, bluntly
quadrangular and bifid at the extremity ; each bifurcation ermine:

* There is a slight discrepancy between these figures and that given under
the specific heading below.

THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES 365

in a somewhat spherical head which is invaginated at the apex.
The side opposite to the one bearing the sulcus exhibits a median
prominent hump just below the thivision between the two distal
hemispheres. The whole surface of the head is covered with small
almost uniform recurved spines, except its basal end; in the distal
region and on the hump the spines are a little larger. On the
side of the sulcus very shallow fissures run obliquely upwards
away from it, to the angles. The sulcus is well defined and runs
up to between the lobes; at this point it bifurcates and furrows
lead up to the invaginations at the top of the distal lobes.

Atretium schistosum (Daudin) Guenther.
Regarding the hemipenis of this species the Fauna (23) records:

‘Hemipenis forked at the junction of the distal 1/3 and the proximal 2/3,
spinose and calyculate throughout; the calyces are thick-walled and present a
honey-combed appearance; the spines are small and on the floor of the calyces.’

(Us@sn (D6 BO)
Col. Wall (9) states:

‘The 4 clasper is beset with numerous falciform processes from the base
TomUne stip. | (Qcxi 1013.)

Psammophis condanarus (Merrem) Boulenger.

The Fauna (23) refers to the hemipenis under the generic heading ;
it reads as follows:

‘The hemipenis is long and extremely slender, so slender that I have been
unable to make a proper examination of it from the material at my disposal.
It has neither spines nor calyces but is provided with longitudinal folds. It
does not differ from the five species dealt with in this book.’ (l.c., p. 362.—quotes

Wall.)
Col. Wall (8) records:

‘The male claspers I have found peculiar, differing from these organs in
other snakes in that when forcibly extruded by digital pressure behind the
vent they were directed downward instead of forward. They are thin, long,
and spirally twisted reminding me of a black buck’s horn. Again they are
entirely lacking in asperities or tentacles such as one usually sees on these
organs in other snakes.’ (xx, 630.)

ELAPIDAE.

Bungarus caeruleusBoulenger. (Pl. I fig. 2.) & (Pl. VII. fig. 4.)

The description of the hemipenis in the Fauna (23) is applicable
to the genus. It reads as follows:

‘The hemipenis extends to the 6th-9th caudal plate; the dista! one-third or
half is calyculate, the remainder spinose. The calyces are smallest near the
tip of the organ and increase in size as they approach the spinose area. Each
cup is stiffened by spine-like structures, which, like the ribs of an umbrella,
hold the membrane and projects beyond the margin. The transition from the
calyculate to the spinose area is fairly abrupt, the largest spines are those
nearest the calyces; they are thick and papilla-like in form, and bear a small
sharp spine at the tip. The bifurcation of the sulcus is about the middle of
the calyculate area or at the- junction of the calyculate and spinose areas, and
the lips of the sulcus are beset with small spines throughout. I have found
considerable variation within the species as regards the number and form of
the spines.’ (l.c., p. 408.)

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Everted aspect: In the fully everted condition the hemipenis
of B. caeruleus is well demarcated into pedicil and head. The
pedicil is comparatively short and slender, and its surface is smooth.
The head is somewhat oblong or ovate-oblong with a distinctly
retuse apex ; about its middle there is a constriction which separates
the two areas of large and small spines. The spines are larger
in the lower portion while those above the constriction are smal-
ler and prickle-like. The sulcus is somewhat shallow but is well
defined ; it bifurcates just below the retuse apex and the arms ioose
themselves among the prickles.

Naja naja (Linn.) Nikolosky.
The fauna (23) describes the hemipenis as:

‘Hemipenis extending to the 1oth caydal plate, forked opposite the 7th;
it is divided into three areas, which are fairly abruptly defined from one another,
namely a proximal one beset with minute spine, a median one with very much
larger spines, and a distal calyculate area, the cups being poorly developed and
having spinose edges. The median area is further interrupted by a narrow
transverse, smooth area, which does not, however, intercept the sulcus or its
two adjacent longitudinal ridges.’ (l.c., p. 429.)

Col. Wall (10) writes:

‘The male clasper is narrow and long surmounted with very small claw-
like tentacles. It is not bifid.’ (xxii, 550.)

HYDROPHIIDAE.

Hydrophis cyanocinctus
[Dyarmoliay, (Vell! My) Males Ait5)) ee
Text-fig. 4.

The Fauna (23) describes
the hemipenis as:

‘Hemipenis forked near the tip,
and spinose throughout, except

near the base, where there are
longitudinal folds; the edges of

the sulcus are also spinose.’ (I.c.,
P- 455-)

Everted aspect: shire
hemipenis in this species is
comparatively small with a
strong tendency to recurve.
In shape it is somewhat ob-
conic. The pedicil is shorter
that the spinous head and is
somewhat lobate. The head
is elongately | subcylindric,
narrowing towards the pedi- Fig. 4. Hemipenis of H. cyanocinctus :
cil ; its distal extremity iS A. Entire organ ; ‘Be Top aspect ; C. mul-

to mE) ‘ tiple spine; D. Simple spine.
shallowly invaginated; — its
surface is spinose throughout with the largest spines nearest the
pedicil (the difference in the length of the spines is not very mark-
ed). The sulcus is comparatively deep and its margins thrown
into folds (rather lobed). It terminates in the invagination,

THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES 307

Hydrophis caerulescens Smith.

The description of the hemipenis in the Fauna (23) reads:

‘Hemipenis forked close to the tip; this is furnished with coarse flattened,
papilla-like structures arranged in Jongitudinal series; the remainder of the
organ is spinose, the spines being of moderate size, closely set and becoming
slightly larger as they approach the base.’ (l.c., p. 463.)

Everted aspect: The hemipenis of this species is very similar
to that of H. cyanocyncta in shape and behavous when everted.
The pedicel is about half the length of the head and is somewhat
lobate. The head is subcylindrically obconic; its surface is spin-
ous, the spines being a little larger at the base than above. The
fleshy investments of the spines are connected to one another. The
sulcus is comparatively deep and its margins are lobed and spin-
ous; it, leads into the invagination at the distal extremity.

Col. Wall (3) writes:

*, . . the main stem when the organ is protruded, being about half an inch
in length. . . . The orgam of one side is invaginated as it would be during
the act of coition. I have never observed this pecularity in other snakes. Is
it a viperine characteristic?’ (xv, 526.)

Note: None of the specimens of Hydrophis I have so far examined
exhibit a forked distal extremity.

VIPERIDAE.

‘Vipera russellii Shaw. (PI. I, fig. 3.) & (Pl. VII, fig. 6.)
In describing the hemipenis of V. russelli the Fauna (23) states:

‘Hemipenis extending to the 1oth caudal plate, forked opposite the 2nd to
ard; calyculate in the distal half, spinose in the proximal, the largest spines.
being nearest to and extending beyond the fork.’ (xviii, 483.)

Col. Wall (5) states again:

‘The male genitals are peculiar. The clasper on each side is bifid, a character,
I believe to be found in all vipers. I have also observed the same condition in
the sea-snakes, but not in any other colubrines. In a male 3 feet 7 inches in
length, the main stem of each clasper was about half an inch long.’ (xviii, 13.)

Everted aspect: In the freshly everted condition the hemipenis
of V. russellii naturally presents a very different picture from what
is described above. The pedicil is extremely short and the distal
end may be described as ‘sessile’. What is visible of it 1s en-
circled by fleshy annuli. The head is remarkably U-shaped, the
extremity of the two arms being deeply invaginated; its surface
is covered with short prickles intermixed with large spines, the
largest of which are restricted to the sides of the arms of the head,
diminishing in size within the invaginations. The sulcus is com-
paratively deep, bordered by fleshy margins; it divides dichotom-
ously and the branches lead up into the respective invaginations.

Note: I am indebted to Col. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, Director
of the Haffkine Institute for presenting me with a living specimen.

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Sauria or Lizards.

In the Fauna (18) (vol. ii, Sauria) there is no mention either
under the generic nor specific heads of the structure of the hemi-
penis in lizards beyond the general description given in the Intro-
duction, already referred to. Evidently there has been no serious
attempt at a classification based on the morphological characters
of the hemipenis in the case of lizards as has been done in the
case of snakes. However, after an examination of the limited
material in my collection, it is clear that there is just as great a
diversity in the morphological structure of the organ in this group
as is exhibited in the snakes. For the purposes of comparison I
have illustrated four types from four families, namely, Gekkonidae,
A gamidae, Chamaeleonidae, and Scincidae. Very probably a fur-
ther study of the subject will reveal that there are also differentiat-
ing characters between the genera and, perhaps, species, but here
I must leave the subject.

GEKKONIDAE.
Hemidactylus maculatus Smith. (Pl. IX, figs. D. E.).

Everted aspect: In the everted condition the pedicil and head are
well defined. The pedicil is longer than the head; it is stout and
is encircled by a thick, fleshy collar just below the head on the side
opposite to the sulcus, the arms descending obliquely on the side
of the sulcus where it descends to about the middle of the pedicil
and its continuity is broken by the sulcus; the surface of the
pedicil is smooth but a few fold lines are evident. The head is
depressedly elliptical in outline and its surface is formed into several
lobes; on the side opposite to the sulcus the lobes at the distal
end are somewhat hemispherical; each lobe exhibits a cannalicul-
ate depression at the top and a lateral ligulate excrescence; in the
sinus between the lobes there is a somewhat rounded, elevated
body; on the side of the sulcus the lobes are subdivided into minor
lobes and elevations by a deep furrow; the surface of the head is
marked with microscopic reticulations. The sulcus is deep, it
opens out into a funnel-shaped depression distally, the sulcus is
bordered by thick, fleshy margins.

Hemidactylus brookii Gray. (PI. IX, figs. A-C.)

Everted aspect: In the everted condition the pedicil and the
head are not distinctly defined. The pedicil is approximately as
long as the head; it appears smooth unless viewed with a power-
ful lens or microscope, and then it is observed to be minutely,
reticulately honey-combed. The head is shallowly bifurcated and
lobate; in general outline it appears rounded; on the side of the
sulcus, but from within its widened distal extremity, arise two
short ‘columns’ each supporting a minutely papillate, hemispheri-
cal head; the surface of the head, like the pedicil is minutely,
reticulately honey-combed, the honey-combing being largest on the
shoulders. The sulcus is comparatively deep, and widens distally
into a funnel-shaped depression finally passing between the bifur-
cation formed between the hemispherical nodules.

Prate VIII.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Del. C. McCann.
Hemipenes of Lizerds,
1a, 1b & 1c, Hemidactylus flavivirdis Riippell; 2a & 2b, Calotes versicolor (Daudin) ;
3, Mabuya carinata Boulenger. Sul., sulcus. 4-7, Chamacleon seylanicus Laurenti ;
4, entire organ; 5, side of sulcus; 6, lateral view; 7, rugae.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate IX,

mot ®

i”

Prem.

Del. C. McCann.

Hemipenes and uro-genital system of Hemidactylus.

A-C, Hemidactylus brookii Gray 3; D & E, H. maculatus (Dum. & Bibr.)
Smith ¢; F-H, maculatus, @.

Anf., anal sphincter; C, coprodaeum; D, dorsal; M, musk gland; Od., oviduct ; Ov., ovary;
P, proctodaeum; R, rectum; $, shell gland; Sgo., opening of scent gland; Spm.,
sphincter membrane; Sul., sulcus; Su. m,, suspension membrane; U, urodaeum; V, ventral,

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THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES 30

Hemidactylus flaviviridis Rueppell. (Pl. VIII, figs. 1a-rc).

Everted aspect: In the distended condition the pedicil and the
head are fairly well demarcated. The pedicil is smooth, but
minutely reticulately pitted under high magnification; on the side
opposite to that of the sulcus, a transverse ridge is present just
below the constriction between the pedicil and the head. The
head is shallowly bifid and somewhat lobed; on the side bearing
the sulcus the lobes are divided by a median thick tongue-like pro-
jection which is hollowed and furrowed on the outer side and
rounded on the inner; between the lobes is a rounded elevated body ;
the side opposite that bearing the sulcus there are two obversely
pear-shaped lobes on short ‘pedicils’. The sulcus is deep and
distally widens out into a funnel-shaped concaved area; the sulcus
is bordered by somewhat thick margins.

AGAMIDAE.

Calotes versicolor (Daudin) Jerdon. (Pl. VIII, figs. 2a, 2b.)
ea (el Xx).

Everted aspect: The hemipenis in this species is well developed.
The pedicil is slightly shorter than the head; below the head, it
is broadened out into two shallowly concaved shoulders; there are
no spines. The head is somewhat triangular in transverse sec-
tion, and is oblong in shape. It is shallowly divided longitudinally
into four lobes, two being very slightly larger than the others.
On the side of the sulcus there is a funnel-shaped opening on
either side, and above, of which there are two smooth oval areas;
on the side opposite the sulcus, there is a small, somewhat ele-
vated disc, notched proximally, and situated just below the divis-
ion between the two larger lobes of the head. The surface of
the head is reticulatedly pitted, the pits being larger on the out-
side and diminishing in size towards the divisions between the
lobes. The sulcus is comparatively deep and is covered by a flap
formed by the fleshy enlargement of one of its margins. The sul-
cus leads into the funnel-shaped aperature already described which
in turn is in communication with the sutures descending into the
hollow formed by the union of the divisions of the head.

CHAMAELIONIDAE.
1Chamaeleon zeylanicus Laurenti. (Pl. VIII, figs. 4-7.).

Everted aspect: In the everted condition the hemipenis of the
Chamaeleon is subcylindric with bearly any differentiation between
pedicil and head. It is one of the most curiously. formed organs.
I have so far observed and is difficult of accurate description on

* The Fauna (vol. 2,p. 251) attributes the generic name Chamaeleon to
Gronovius (1763)- in the Catalogue of Lizards, vol. 3, p. 438, the authority for
the same name is Laurenti (1768). According to the Fauna-Laurenti used the
name Chamaeleo zeylanicus. The spelling of the generic name is at variance,
and, I believe, according to the Rules the authority for the new combination
Chamaeleon zeylanicus should read (Laurenti) Smith, not merely Laurenti, but
as I have no access to the Rules I merely raise this point out of interest.

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

account of its complex structure. The pedicil is approximately as
long as the head; in its lower half it is almost smooth; in the up-
per half it is partially encircled by rugose flounces, the margins of
which are very minutely serrated; on the side of the sulcus the
flounces pass into oblique ridges and folds. The top of the head
is crowned by two erect crescentic plates with serrated margins; on
the side of the sulcus there is a glottis-like structure just at the base
of the two crescentic plates, the top margins of this structure are also
minutely serrated; near the middle of the head are another two
crescentic plates fixed transversely to the long axis of the organ,
the margins of these plates are also serrate; on the side opposite
to that of the sulcus the head is covered by reticulately honey-
comb-like pits, the margins of each pit being minutely serrated.
The sulcus is deep and is bordered by somewhat thick margins;
at the base of the head it widen out into a funnel-like cavity under
the two transverse plates; mesially there is a groove between the
plates.

SCINCIDAE.
Mabuya carinata (Schneider). (Pl. VIII, fig. 3.)

Everted aspect: In M. carinata the hemipenis is less compli-
cated than in Calotes. The pedicil is well demarcated ; it is colum-
nar and without any spines or excresences. The head is somewhat
turban-like; on the side of the sulcus it exhibits two large, obli-
quely ovate elevations divided from each other by a shallow suture,
the continuation of the sulcus; the surface is thrown into oblique,
fleshy, turban-like folds and ridges. The sulcus is deep with one
margin developed into a fleshy flap; it divides the head into two
halves and terminated between the two large lobes at the distal
extremity, already referred to.

CONCLUSION.

After paying much attention to the breeding of reptiles in the
field, and studying such literature as is available to me, it is evident
that little attention has been paid to the morphological characters
of the hemipenis of Indian reptiles in the fresh and everted condit-
ion. The study of breeding habits, like the study of any other
aspect of animal life, always leads one into a maze of ramifica-
tions. At this point the student _is confounded, for no matter
which path he follows he must know, or try to know, the geo-
graphy of the others as they are inseparably interconnected. After
years of work in the field, I have found myself at this point. To
study breeding without the study of the genitalia, mode of coitus
in the different groups, and other aspects, seemed to me to be
incomplete. The present paper has been born out of a desire to
put on record my limited anatomical studies and observations. I
fully realize that the subject, as I have presented it, is very in-
complete and that there is much room for further study, but for
lack of time and facilities I cannot pursue the subject further.

Many of the conclusions I have drawn may perhaps, at first
sight, appear rather gratuitous, but in the absence of positive fact
these were the only reasoned conclusions I could arrive at after

THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES 371

weighing each detail in all its aspects in relation to the animal
behaviour and such field observations as were possible.

However, one point really emerges from this scrappy account,
namely, that the study of the copulatory organs should be under-
taken from specially prepared material and their structure studied
in the fully everted position, and not merely described from inate-
rial dissected out of old spirit specimens. Such descriptions,
though they may be useful, leave much to be desired. Dissected-
out preserved specimens do not lend themselves to accurate des-
cription, and give us no idea of the organs in the fully everted
state, which, to my mind, is the more correct aspect. This point
is clearly illustrated by a comparison of the photographs and draw-
ings accompanying this article with those reproduced in the Fauna
(22) and elsewhere. If this article only serves as a stimulant to
some other student to pursue the subject more fully than I have
been able to do, it will have served a useful purpose and justified
its publication in spite of its shortcomings.

In my opinion the paired copulatory organs met with in snakes
and lizards should be taken together as representing two halves
of a single organ adapted to the anatomical structure and habits
of such animals as possess them, and not as two distinct organs
capable of operating independently of one another. The dual
structure, besides forming a passage for the conduction of the
seminal fluid, functions as an internal copulatory hold during coi-
tus. This in itself appears to be a very significant point and
accordingly I cannot accept the statement that only one-half of the
Organ is inserted at a time, for reasons which I have explained
at length above.

There is definitely a possibility of utilizing the penial charact-
ers aS a means of classification, particularly when dealing with
families and genera, but its use for specification must be left for
further investigation and comparison of especially prepared mater-
ial.. However, there is perhaps one serious difficulty to this form
of specific classification, namely, How are we to assign females
to their correct species? This difficulty was experienced by the
Popes when dealing with the genus Tvimeresurus and is repeated
in the Fawna (22). One species of this genus, at least, rests on a
single known female (I. kanburiensis)! The remainder were separ-
ated on penial characters. Although there may possibly be
subtle characters observable in females, so far 1 have failed to
record any with the limited material at my disposal. However, I
feel that as this form of classification implies dissection of the
specimens under investigation, it is very undesirable as it means
the possible ruin of the specimens in the long run, more so as it
would have to be applied to all material in existing collections, some
of which are undoubtedly already in a precarious state of preserv-
ation due to long storage and frequent handling. Another point
that militates against an accurate description of the female cloaca
is its unstable condition owing to the physiological changes which
take place from the active to the inactive periods of the gonads.
Although similar changes take place in the males the hemipenes
do not undergo any alteration in characters in or out of season.

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

A point worthy of mention in the study of the hemipenis in
reptiles is the transition observable from the completely divided
organ in snakes and lizards with its sulci to the single solid organ
with its groove in Crocodiles and Chelonians to the completely
tubular, erectile penis in the higher animals (Mammals). How-
ever, this point of the possible evolutionary aspect is beyond the
scope of this paper.

APPENDIX.

How to sex a snake: Some snakes exhibit sexual dimorphism,
but these instances are few, and are only recognised after long
experience. ‘Ihe comparative difference in the length of the tail
between the sexes is at times helpful but is not infallible. In
males the area just below the vent is somewhat ‘spongy’ owing
to the presence of the hemipenis, but in unpractised hands may
lead to a mistaken determination. Pressure at the base of the tail
may result in the eversion of the hemipenis, in such cases the
evidence is conclusive. Apart from actual dessication, and the
application of pressure, the only swre way of sexing a snake is as
follows:

Having secured the head (if a living animal is being examined),
push the anal shield foreward (towards the head) and press on the
tail between the 1st and 3rd caudal shields at the same time
drawing them downwards. This procedure widens the opening of
the vent and occasionally exposes the point at which the hemipenis
is invaginated. The seat of the invagination is often marked by
a slight discolouring at the point of retraction. This area may be
greyish, blackish or purplish. With a blunt probe gently probe
in the area; if a male the probe will sink into the reverted hemi-
penis to the full depth of the organ which is a sure sign of the
animal’s sex. It is obvious that this will not occur in females—the
organs are absent. An ordinary match stick will serve the purpose
of a probe if one is not available.

‘Methods used in preservation. After killing the animal cut off
the body a couple of inches or so above the vent, if the complete
specimen is not required, or, keep the head with the tail for pur-
poses of identification. Pressure applied an inch or so behind the
vent, according to the size of the snake, will usually induce the
eversion of one or both halves of the hemipenis. The firmer the
pressure the better. In some snakes this procedure is a little more
difficult than it appears. The next thing is to take a syringe with
a hypodermic needle (No. 16 or 18) filled with 4% formalin and
insert the needle at the base of the organ through the scales—the

Se — — ——— — *

-0 discussed, swith Dir SHe Row Rishworth a OnbalalaksOsoenn > hem oben.
C.B.E., the injection method adopted by me for obtaining the everted positions
of my specimens; and he was of the opinion that as I did not inject the fluid
into the arteries a certain amount of distortion may have taken place due to
intracellular infiltration. This point did not strike me at the time, but is cer-
tainly one to be remembered in future. However, there are difficulties when
not working under laboratory conditions and when time is a consideration ‘in
in the field.

THE HEMIPENIS IN REPTILES 373

distance below the vent varies with the size of the organ, or if
already everted, the degree to which it is everted. Pump in the
liquid carefully till the greater part of the hemipenis is visible; now
tie a loose knot around the base of the pedicil in readiness to be
tightened as soon as the hemipenis is fully everted by a further
injection of fluid. If it becomes necessary to fill the syringe once
more before the operation is completed, do not remove the nozzle,
the fewer the holes the better, or else the liquid oozes out before
the organ sets. When the hemipenis is fully distended withdraw
the needle carefully at the same time tightening the knot firmly
to prevent escape of the liquid. ‘A little practice is needed before
success is achieved. It is advisable to add a little Bouin’s fluid to
the formalin as this helps to harden the tissues more rapidly. When
the organ is fully distended coat the outside also with Bouin’s fluid.
Having got so far, put the specimen aside to harden before immers-
ing it in formalin for final preservation. It must be carefully
watched during fixing to see that there is no serious retraction.
If necessary a little more fluid can be carefully injected.

The same end may be achieved by means of a blow-pipe but
this method is not so satisfactory as the fluid process.

If the hemipenes do not evert by injection they may be carefully
drawn out by means of a pair of forceps and the thumb kept press-
ed behind to prevent it retracting. When the organ has been
partially drawn out in this way employ the injection method.
Specimens preserved in this manner keep well. This method may
of course be improved upon.

LITERATURE.

1. Jones, T. Rymer.—General outline of the organization of the Animal
Kingdom and Mazrual of Comparative Anatomy (1871).

2. Gadow, Hans.—The Cambridge Natural History, vol. 8, Amphibia (1901}.
3. Wall, Col. F.—Journ., Bom. Nat, Hist. Soc, vol. 15 (1904).

4. Sedgwick, A.—A Student’s Text-book of Zoology, vol. 2 (1905).

5- Wall, Col. F.—ibid., vol. 18 (1907).

6. Wall, Col. F.—ibid., vol. 19 (1909).

7, Parker, T. J. & Haswell, W. A.—A Tezt-book of Zoology, voi. 2 (1910).

8. Wall, Col. F.—ibid., vol. 20 (1911).

9g. Wall, Col. F.—ibid., vol. 21 (1912).

ro. Wall, Col. F.—+tbid., vol. 22 (1913).

ir. Wall, Col. F.—ibid., vol. 23 (1944).

12. Wall, Col. F.—ibid., Vol. 26 (1919).

13. Wall, Col. F.—Records Indian Museum, vol. 25 (1923) p. 305.

14. Poyntz, R. A.—Journ., Bom, Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 31 (1927).

15. Smith, Malcolm A.—Fauna British India, 2 ed., vol. 1, Loricata and

- Testudines (1931).

16; Prater, S. H.—Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. 36 (1933).

17. Pope, C. H. & Pope, S. H.—American Museum Novitates, No. 620 (1933)-
18. Smith, Malcolm A.—ibid., vol. 2, Sauria (1935).

19. Pope, C. H.—The Reptiles of China (1935).

20. McCann, C.—Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. 39 (1937).

21. McCann, C.—ibid., vol. 41 (1940).
22. McCann, C.—ibid., vol. 41 (1940).

AB. Sram o}, Malcolm A.—bid., vot. 3, Serpentes (1943).

PAPERS NOT QUOTED.

Wall, Col. F.—P.Z.S. vol. 1 (1903) p. go.
Wall, Col. F.—Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. 15 (1903) p.: 526.

(

BUTTERFLIES OF KAIRA DISTRICT—A LIST.

HERSCHEL C. ALDRICH, M.D.

There is no published list of butterflies for Kaira District. Such
a list may be of some value in fixing more exactly the distribution
and range of butterflies as a whole in western India. The list will
also be of interest to anyone who may be collecting in this area.

The following lists have been published for the nearest areas or
localities surrounding Kaira District :—

(1) Jodhpur and Mount Abu (the latter is 140 miles, in a direct
line, north of Nadiad, the centre of Kaira District). By A. D.
Macpherson, in the Journal of the Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol.
xxxli, No. 1 (1927). 63 species are listed.

(2) Mhow (200 miles east of Nadiad). By Swinhoe in the Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society for 1886.

(3) Konkan (the northern limits of this area are given as Surat
which is about too miles directly south of Nadiad). By E. H.
Aitken and E. Comber in the Journal of the Bombay Nat. Hist.
Soc., Vol. xv, No. 1 (1903). 130 species are listed.

(4) Kathiawar, with special reference to Bhavnagar State (Bhav-
nagar is 80 miles south-west of Nadiad). By A. H. Mosse in the
Journal of the Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xxxiii, No. 4 (1928).
75 species are listed.

(5) Cutch (200 miles west of Nadiad). By C. G. Nurse in the
Journal of the Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xii (1g00). 46 species
are listed.

A comparison of these lists with ours for Kaira District is of
special interest for the following species :—

Colotis protractus But. is not listed to the south-west in Bhav-
nagar, nor to the south in the Konkan. This would fix the south-
western limit of this species along the coast of western India, in
Kaira District.

Neptis hylas varmona M. is not listed to the south-west in
Bhavnagar, nor to the west or north of Kaira District. The north-
western limit of this species may be in the neighbourhood of Kaira
District.

Telchinia violoe, Fab. is listed to the south-west and south of
Kaira, but not to the west or north. The Kaira list may therefore
fix its north-western coastal limit.

The butterflies here listed for Kaira District represent a collec-
tion made from December 1941 to December 1944. The collect-
ing has been done fairly systematically and regularly by hand-net ;
no eggs or larvae have been collected. Most of the collecting has
been in the centre of Kaira District, in and around Nadiad. The
western half of the district has also been fairly well covered. The
eastern half of the district has only been collected in spots and may
produce a few more species. As no further new species have been
added to our list during the past year, it is probable that this list

BUTTERFLIES OF KAIRA DISTRICT 375

of fifty-nine different species includes all of the butterflies ordin-
arily found in the district. With more careful collecting the
number of Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae might be increased. The
nomenclature followed in our list is that of W. H. Evans in his
book, Identification of Indian Butterflies, second edition revised.
The numbers preceding each butterfly listed are those found in
Evans’ book, and are given for reference.

A. PAPILIONIDAE.

A2. 10. 8. Tros aristolochiae ari stolochiae, F. Fairy common in occurrence
throughout the district.

A4. 1. 8. Papilio polymmester polymnester, Cr. Rare. Two were seen in
a garden in Nadiad on the 24th. of December 1944; one of these was collected ;
a male. This species is not listed to the north, west, or south-west of Kaira
District. In all probability the north-western limit of this species along the
coast of India is in Kaira District.

A4, 25. <. Papilio polytes romulus, Cr. Fairly common. The first or
‘Typical Form’ of female resembling hector, as described in Evens, is uncom-
mon. The ‘Second Form’, resembling the male, has not been collected here
in Kaira. The ‘Third Form’, resembling aristolochiae, is the common form
of female seen.

A4. 27. <. Papilio demoleus demoleus, L. Common.

A6. 8. <. Zetides agammemnon menides, Fruh. Rare. During October and
November a few are seen in gardens.

1B}, PAVED AS.
B6. 3. Delias eucharis, Drury. Fairly common.
B8. 1. 8. Belenois mesentina mesentina, Cr. Common.

B9. 2. ~. Huphina nerissa evagete, Cr. Common during October, November
and December.

B10. 4. ~. Appias libythea libythea, IF. Not rare during November and
December.

Bll. 1. Catopsilia crocale, Cr. Common.

Bll. 2. Catopsilia pomona, I. Common.

Bll. 4. Catopsilia pyranthe minna, Herbst. Very common.
Bll. 5. Catopsilia florella gnoma, F. Fairly common.
B15. 1. Terias libythea F. Fairly common.

B15. 2. {. Terias laeta laeta, Bdv. Common.

B15.5. Terias hecabe simulata, M. Very common.

B17. 1. Ixias marianne, Cr. Common.

B18. 1. 8. Colotis amata amata, F. Very common; especially along hedges
of Salvadora persica. The next three species of Colotis are also found more
frequently along hedges of Salvadora persica, or in the neighbourhood of this
plant.

B18. 2. Colotis protractus, But. Rare; only found very locally on Salva-
dora persica, in one or two restricted areas in the south-west corner of the
district. Collected in December and January. (See note in introduction on
the distribution of this species.)

B18. 3. Colotis vestalis, But. Common.

B18. 4. 8. Colotis fausta fausta, Oliv. Not rare.
B18. 5. 8. Colotis etrida etrida, Bdv. Common.
B18. 7. <. Colotis danae danae, F. Common.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

C. DANAIDAE.

C2. 9. Danais limniace mutina, Fruh. Fairly common during the rains;
rarely seen after October.

C2. 12. Danais plexippus, L. Rare; seen occasionally in some years only,
during August and September.

C2. 15. Danais chrysippus, L. Very common; this is one of the commonest ©

butterflies seen throughout the year.

C3. 7. 8. Euploea core core, Cr. Common during the rains. The first are
seen towards the end of July; they are common throughout August and Septem-
ber, and become scarce in October.

D> SATY:RIDAE:

D22.1. Melanitis leda ismene, Cr. Rather scarce. A few are to be seen
during September, October, November and December. Commonest perhaps in
October.

F, NYMPHALIDAE.

Fl. 7. 8. Charaxes fabius fabius, F. Rare. One @ collected 6-3-45. This
is the only specimen seen or collected by me in Kaira District.

F26. 6... Neptis hylas varmona, M. Rare; only seen on one occasion early
in November 1943. At this time seven specimens were seen, of which four
were collected. (See note in introduction to this list, on distribution of this
species.)

F30.1. Hypolimnas misippus, L. Fairly common.

F30. 2. Hypolimnas bolina, L. Rather scarce; seen during September,
October, and November. Very quick to take cover if molested. Females pre-
dominate ; have only seen one male of this species in the district.

F35.1. ~<. Precis hierta hierta, F. Rather scarce and somewhat local in
its distributation. Seen in October and November,

F35. 2. <. Precis orithya swinhoei, But. Very common.
F35. 3. <. Precis lemonias vaisya, Fruh. Common.

F35. 4.4. Precis almana almana, L. Common in October.
F36. 1. Vanessa cardui, L. Common.

F52. Telchinia violoe, Fab. Rare; seen in fairly large numbers, locally in
south west corner of the district on Indigofera during September in 1943 only.
One freshy emerged specimen collected Feb. 8, 1944, and one December 13, 1944.
The rainfall in Gujerat has varied a good deal in the past four or five years.
Up till 1943 it had been well below average for some four years. (See note
in introduction on the distribution of this species.)

H. LYCAENIDAE.

H12.6. Tarucus extricatus, But. Not rare.
H13.
H14.
H14.
H14. Azanus jesous gamra, Led. Not pares

]. Syntarucus plinius, F. Common.

1
2
4,

H23. 1. <. Chilades laius laius, Cr. Common.

1
4
6
1

Azanus ubaldus, Cr. Common.
Azanus uranus, But. Common.

H24. 1. ~. Zizeeria trochilus, putli, Koll. Common.
H24. Zizeeria lysimon, Hub. Common.

H24.
H25.

.o. Zizeeria otis decreta, But. Common.
Euchrysops cnejus, EF. Common.

pe mae
Pi rr

’
i
’

cote RRRRET Batol ated) V4
ei " ’ aay t

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Synedrella nodiflora Gaertn.

A. achene of ray floret; B. achene of disc floret.

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY 377

H25. 2. 8. Euchrysops contracta contracta, But. Common.
H27. 1. Catachrysops strabo, F. Common.

H28. 1. Lampides boeticus, L. Common.

H29. 1. <. Jamides bochus bochus, Cr. Not rare.

H57. 6. 8. Spindasis ictis ictis, Hew. Not rare; seen commonly in Novem-
ber. ’
H84.1. Virachola isocrates, F. Not rare. Locally distributed.

H85. 16. Rapala melampus,Cr. Rare. Only three seen; two of which were
caught. (18 Dec. 1943, 28 Nov. 1944, and 14 Dec. 1944).

ee SER TD AIR:

Il. 16. Hasora aloxis alexis, F. Rare.

197, 24. {. Baoris conjuncta narooa, M. Rare.

197. 31. 8. Baoris mathias mathias, F. Common.
198. 1. 8. Gegenes nostrodamus karsana, M. Scarce.

Nadiad,
Kaira District.
Decrni, 1944.

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR THE PRESIDENCY
OF BOMBAY (ID).

BY
Fr, H. SAnrapau, s.J.

(With a plate)

In this second set of New Records,! I have selected mainly a
number of plants from N. Kanara. For the description of the
plants, I have consulted Hooker’s Flora of British India, D Candole’s
Prodromus, Gamble’s Flora of the Presidency of Madras, and, in
the case of Gomphostemma Heyneanum Wall, Mukerjee’s Labiatae
of the Indian Empire. Their descriptions have been supplemented
from study of the specimens in Blatter Herbarium.

1. Synedrella nodiflora Gaertn. Fruct., ii, 456, t. 171, f. 7;
DECr Prodr. v, 629: Hook., Hxot. Fl., t. 60; Clarke, Comp. Ind.,
139; Hooker, f. Fl. Brit. Ind., iii, 8308; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madr.
708; Mayuranathan, Fl. Plants Madr., City, 158.

Synedrella belongs to the family Compositae, and is placed by
Hooker under Tribe V Helianthoideae, subtribe 6 Coreopsideae.

Annual, erect herb, branching dichotomously and reaching a
height of about 60 cm.; stems and branches finely striate, terete,
glabrous or more or less hairy with whitish appressed hairs, which
are more dense just below the nodes.

* See J.,B.N.H.S., vol. 45, p. 445.

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, tapering at both ends, serrate
or crenate, scaberulous with a few scattered hairs on both sides;
base decurrent into the petiole; petioles about 8 mm. long, but
often obscure on account of the decurrent leaf blade. Nerves 3
from the base or near it, with about 4—6 pairs of fainter ones
higher up. The bases of the petioles of opposite leaves meet round

the stem and form a sort of a stipular cup, which is densely hairy ©

with stiff white hairs and ciliate.

Involucres ovoid; bracts few, the outermost herbaceous, den-
sely hairy; the inner ones passing gradually into the paleae of the
receptacle, shining, yellowish. Receptacle small, flat. Floral
heads in the axils of leaves, at the nodes between two dichotomous
branches and at the end of the branches, sessile or nearly so, a
few heads generally crowded together.

Florets yellow; outer florets ligulate, fertile, female, ligule short,
broad, 2-3-toothed; disc florets hermaphrodite, fertile, tubular,
limb 4-toothed. Both ligulate and tubular florets are of about the
same size, so that the lgules are easily missed. Anthers black,
subentire at the base, half-exerted. Style arms of ateasbatejplavwoe uke
florets with long acute tips.

Achenes of ray florets dorsally compressed, 2-winged, smooth,
wings irregularly cut unto a number of teeth which are hairy or
pubescent (see plate, fig. A.); the achenes are black, the wings and
teeth greenish yellow. Achenes of the disc florets narrower,
striate, muricate, ending in two stiff, spreading hairy spines, which
are as long as or a little shorter than the achenes (see plate, fig. B.)

This seems to be a Central American plant, which has been
introduced into India in cultivated lands. Gamble, loc. cit., gives
it as a plant of ‘Plains Districts, occasional on cultivated lands,

introduced from Mexico’. Mayuranathan, loc. cit., mentions that

‘thig weed is thoroughly naturalized here and is frequently found
on waste land’. I have been unable to find any other reference
to the plant in any other published floras on India.

In the Blatter Herbarium there is a specimen collected by
Sedgwick (Sedg. 2952!) during September 1917 at Belgaum; a
note in the handwriting of Sedgwick mentions that the plant is
“well established at Belgaum in the Fort and in compounds ’.
Recently I found this plant growing abundantly at Jogeshwari
near Bombay (Santapau 8161, 8162); it was a gregarious plant,
generally growing under the shade of trees, though it seemed to
thrive best at some distance from the trunk of the protecting tree.
See pl.

\ Me pete en oblongifolia DC. Prodr., i 354; Bennett in Hook-
er f. Fl. Brit. Ind., i, 207, S. obovata Wight IIll., i, 49, t. 22 B;
S. leptostachya Wall. Cat. 41938.

Salomonia belongs to the family Polygalaceae; Cooke mentions
only Polygala, Blatter in his Revision (Part XII, in this Journal,
vol. 84, No. 2, p. 302, July 15, 19380) adds a new genus, Xantho-
phyllum. I add the genus Salomonia, which on the testimony ot
T.R-D.Bell is common in N. Kanara.

Simple or branched annual herb. Stems erect, glabrous,
furrowed and slightly winged, 6-30 cm. high,

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY 379

Leaves elliptic or ovate-lanceolate, sessile or very shortly
petiolate, base acute not cordate, margins entire and with a few
long distant hairs; mid-nerve strong, other nerves obscure.
Stipules O.

Flowers minute in dense terminal spikes; bracts linear, minute,
often persistent at the time of flowering. Flowers crowded,
minute, 2-3 mm. in length, generally pink, occasionally white
(Blatt. Herb. No. 35146). Spikes 1.5-4 cm. long.

Sepals 5, nearly equal, lanceolate, slightly ciliate, the 2 interior
somewhat larger. Petals 8, united below with the staminal tube,
the inferior petal keel-shaped, galeate, not crested; lateral petals
much shorter than the keel. Stamens 4-5, filaments united below
into a tube or sheath; anthers opening by pores. Ovary 2-celled,
each cell with one pendulous ovule. Capsule much compressed
laterally, 2-celled, loculicidal, margins with a row of long teeth,
which are red or reddish in colour. Seeds albuminous, black,
shining, not strophiolate.

This species is very near S- ciliata DC., from which it differs
mainly in the shape and structure of the leaves; in S. ciliata
leaves are amplexicaul, cordate, sessile and strongly ciliate.

To the localities given in Fl. Br. Ind., North Kanara must be
added. In the Blatter Herbarium there are several specimens
collected during the month of October 1919 in various places of
North Kanara: Hallb. and McCann, 35088, Jod-Siddhapur; 35146,
Sampakhand; T.R.D.Bell, 4234, grass lands at Sulgeri on the
Kala Nadi; L. J. Sedgwick 6656, grass banks by the sea, Karwar;
Sedgewick and Bell 7254 Siddhapur. All these specimens show
flowers and fruits; the upper part of the spikes is in flower, the
lower in fruit, and most of the fruits are dehisced,

3. Gomphostemma Heyneanum Wall. Cat. 2152/I and
2152/B; DC. Prodr., xii, 551; Wight Ic. t. 1456; Prain in Ann.
R.B.G.Cal., iii, 248 and t. 79; Gamble, Fl. Madr., 1157; Mukerjee,
Lab. Ind. Emp., Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind., xiv, 206; G. strobilinum
var. Heyneana Hook. f. Fl, Brit. Ind., iv, 696.

Gomphosiemma belongs to the family Labiatae, and is placed
by Mukerjee in Tribe VI, Prasieae. The following description is
taken from Mukerjee, loc. cit.:

‘Tall robust subshrubby herb, 60-100 cm. high; stem erect,
obtusely tetragonous, slightly grooved, densely tomentose with
stellate hairs. Leaves petiolate, elliptic-ovate, subacute, closely
serrate, base abruptely cuneate and decurring on the petiole; lami-
na 16-24 em. long, slightly rugose and shortly hirsute above,
flocculently tomentose beneath; petiole 4 em. long. Spikes termin-
al, interrupted near the base; bracts ovate or ovate-lanceolate,
acute, rounded at the base, longer than the calyx; bracteoles linear.
Calyx about 11 mm. long, teeth shorter than the tube, lanceolate,
acuminate. Corolla yellow or blue with purple tinge, 12-15 mm.
long, tube as long as the calyx, slightly incurved above, hirsute
in the middle within; mouth broad, upper lip short, tomentose.
Style glabrous. Nutlets 5 mm. long, black, rugose, glabrous.’

In the Blatter Herbarium there are several specimens of this
plant, all of which have been collected in North Kanara round
about Gersoppa Falls; No. 85076 was collected by Hallberg and

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

McCann in October 1919; Sedgwick collected Nos. 7062 and 7285/1,
7235/11, 72385/III in October 1918. All these Herbarium sheets
bear remarks by the collectors showing that in every case the
flowers were bright yellow. rain, loc. cit., gives Stocks as the
authority stating that the plant is found in the Konkan; I have
been unable to trace this reference; neither Hooker f. nor Mukerjee
mention Stocks as having found the plant in the Konkan; there
are no specimens from the Konkan in Blatter Herbarium.

For a fine plate of this plant, see Prain, loc. cit., plate no. 79.

4, Euphorbia prostrata Ait, Hort. Kew. u, 1389; Hooker f. Fl.
Br, Ind., v, 266C not EH. prostrata Grah., which is a synonym for
EH. thymyfolia Burm).

J. D. Hooker in his Fl. Brit. Ind., loc. cit., places this species
at the end of hig Euphorbias, under the heading “Doubtful Species’.
He adds the following remarks: “Englemann (in Torrey, Bot. Mez.
Bound. Exped.) says of this American species that it is found
in India; but I have seen no specimen, nor does Boissier, who
figures it well (Huphorb. Ic. t. 17), mention it as Indian. It ig
a native of W. Africa and the Mauritius. It closely resembles
E. microphylla, differing in the ciliate keel of the cocci.’

In Blatter Herbarium there are three specimens collected by

M. Ezechiel at Poona on the 17th and 21st of may 1917 and identi- .

fied by the collector as EH. thymifolia Burm.; the identification
of these three specimens (13509, 18509/B, 13510) has been corrected
by Blatter, who adds the following remarks: “Cocci ciliate es-
pecially the keels’. Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madr., p. 1276, notes:
‘Huphorbia prostrata Ait .... Deccan and Carnatic, occasionally,
usually probably as a weed in gardens. An introduced plant,
native of W. Indies. A Prostrate herb.’ On the evidence of
Gamble and of the specimens in Blatter Herbarium, there is, there-
fore, no doubt as to the occurrence of this plant in India in general
and in Bombay Presidency in particular.

5. Isanthera permollis Nees in Trans. Linn. Soc., xvii, 82;
DC. Prodr., ix, 279; Wight Ic. t. 1855; Clarke in Hookers Fil.
Brit Vind Sv, «at 2e

This plant belongs to the family Gesneracéae.

Small undershrubs; stems in the Kanara specimens 10-20 cm.
high, up to 6 mm. thick, woody, covered with leaf scars almost
from the base. Leaves alternate, broadly oblanceolate, tapering at
both ends, entire or nearly so, with slightly revolute margins; up
to 15 x 6 cm.; base decurrent into the petiole; petioles 0.6—8 cm.
long. Nerves about 12-14 pairs, very distinct on the under surface
of the leaves. Leaves, when young, densely silky pubescent with
reddish hairs; at length glabrous or nearly so above, more or less
pubescent beneath. Inflorescence cymose, axillary, towards the
end of the stem; whole inflorescence densely silky pubescent, at
length more or less glabrous. Peduncles about as long as the
petioles, the whole cyme 1.5-4.5 cm, in diam. Bracts narrow,
acute, up to 9 mm. long. Sepals 5, small, narrow, 4-6 mm. long,
silky, at length glabrous. Corolla small, shortly campanulate,
obscurely 2-lipped; lobes 5, ovate, white. Stamens 4, fertile;
filaments short, anthers small, subquadrate, 2-celled, slits marginal,
finally confluent at the subemarginate apex. Disc very small or O.

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Map of Upper Burma.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE BOTANY OF N. BURMA 381

Ovary ovoid, sessile; style shorter than the ovary, stigma small,
simple, ovary glabrous, muriculate,

Fruit a berry, small ovoid, 8x4 mm., fleshy, indehiscent.
Seeds very small, ellipsoid, smooth, brown in colour. ;

Collected by Hallberg and McCann near Gersoppa Falls, North
Kanara in October 1919 (Nos. 34758, 35050, 35053). Sedgwick
and Bell collected it in the same month and year at Malemane
Ghat in North Kanara (Nos. 7208/1, 7208/11).

6. Microcarpaea muscosa Br. Prodr. 4386; Benth, in DC.
Prodr., x, 483; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madr., 963; Hooker in Fl. Brit.
Ind. iv. 286.

This plant belongs to the family Scrophulariaceae, and the
genus is not mentioned in Cooke as occurring in the Presidency.

A very small slender, diffuse or creeping nearly glabrous herb.
Stems tufted and interlaced, 6-12 cm. long, rooting at the nodes,
angles of the stem and calyx sometimes ciliate.

Leaves opposite, sessile, oblong, obtuse, entire, 3-8 mm. long.
Flowers minute, axillary, solitary, sessile, ebracteate, in one
axil only of each pair of leaves, about 2-8 mm. long. Calyx
tubular 5-angled, 5-fid. Corolla very short, tube broad; lobes 5,
spreading, the 2 upper lobes subconnate; tube shorter than the
ealyx. Stamens 2 perfect, filaments filiform; anthers confluent,
l-celled; staminodes. O, Style filiform, stigma capitste, recurved.
Capsule minute, included, ovoid, 2-grooved, Joculicidal; valves
entire, separating from the placentiferous septum. Seeds few,
ovoid.

To the localities given in Hooker’s Flora must be added those
given by Gamble: * W. Coast, S. Canara to Travancore in marshy
places.’ In the Blatter Herbarium I have seen the following
specimens: No. 384845, collected by Haliberg and MeCann at
Karwar, N. Kanara during the month of October 1919; Sedgwick
5123, collected by Sedgwick in a rice field at Karwar in December
1918, and Sedg. 7256 collected by Sedgwick and Bell at Siddhapur
in October 1919. These three specimens constitute a new record
for the Presidency.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE BOTANY OF NORTH BURMA.

BY
KF. KinGpon WiarD, B.A., F.L.S., ete.

(With a map.)

Recently I received from Mr. HE. J. H. Corner, Assistant
Director of the Singapore Botanic Garden, the Burma diaries which
J left there in 1941. Myr, Corner was a prisoner of war through-
out the Japanese occupation, but had persuaded the Japanese of
the importance of keeping up the Gardens; with the result that
not only was he himself in some measure retained to help Professor
Tanakadate—appointed by Tokyo University to the Directorship—but

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

he succeeded in saving. the herbarium and lbrary both at the
Gardens and the Raffles Museum, for which men of. science
all over the world will ever be grateful. Professor Tanakadate,
convinced by Mr. Corner that my diaries were harmless and of
some scientific value, agreed to their preservation in the lbrary
where Mr. Corner hid them; thus to him also, as well as to the
foresight, courage and ingenuity of Mr. Corner, I am indebted for
the preservation of what, for me, was irreplaceable. Soon after
his release, and before leaving India for ‘England. Mr. Corner
posted the diaries to me. Ags a result [ am now able to add
considerably to my Sketch of the Botany of North - Burma
(J.B.N.H.S., Vols. 44, 45) which was written largely from memory
and rough notes after I left Sing apore in 1941.

Mr. Corner is, I believe, hill in England but hopes te return
to Singapore shortly. His ‘many friends will wish ‘him luck and
many years of health and happiness to carry on the work w vine:
he so callantly stuck to.

TroptcaAL EverGrEEN Rartn Forest (500-2,000 ft.).

The Myitkyina plain, where not cultivated, has been cleared
of jungle. and in ‘many parts has suffered from over- erazing to such
an extent that the dwarf Phoenix humilis is almost the only plant
which will grow on the hungry ground. Elsewhere are thickets,
with a great variety of shrubs—forerunners perhaps of the re-
generating forest—herbaceous plants: like Amorphophallus Crudda-
siana and climbers both woody and herbaceous; Porana, Argyreia,
and other Convolvulaceae, Thunbergia, Mussaenda, and many
others. Tectona grandis also grows. round Myitkyina, but not it
seems further north. Many trees are planted, including a. fair
number of local;spécies such as -Mesua ferrea, Aesculus assamica,
species of Cassia, etc. Ascending from the Mvyitkyina plain to the
alpine region; two of the major changes of vegetation are accom-
panied by an abrupt change in the number of species. The first
change occurs at about 9,000-10,000 ft. with the passage from
Temperate Forest to Abies Forest, accompanied by a distinct drop in
the number of species; the second at about 11,000-12,000 ft. with the
passage from forest to alpine vegetation, accompanied by an
increase in the number of species.

In the Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest, plank buttress roots,
though they are sometimes seen (e.g. Micus glomerata) are not
common. Cauliflory, also typical of the Malaysian jungle and
common amongst the Figs of North Burma, is not otherwise
conspicuous (e.g. Mayodendron iqneum).

A species of Dipteroc arpus taller than the average tree, wh "
is common in the valley of the Eastern Irr awaddy (Nmai Hka), i
probably D. turbinatus: while all the way up the Mali its
occurs what seems to be D. alatus. Nor is there anything strange
in the two valleys having different species. There are factors
influencing the flora .of the eastern valley which do not operate
in the western. (1) The proximity of high. mountains coupled

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON.THE.BOTANY OF N, BURMA 383

with the fact that the Sino-Burma frontier ranges were glaciated
down to 26 N. lat. and further Hast. to 25°. (2) The proximity
of the Eastern Asiatic flora.

Other trees noted in this zone are: Altingia exceisa, Aesculus
assamica, Hibiscus macrophyllus, Betula cylindrostachya, Cedrela
Toona, Sterculia villosa, S. colorata, S. acerifolium the three last-
mentioned all flowering in the hot weather, Ficus obtusiloba,
species of Hngelhardtia, Acer, Lagerstroemia, Ulmus, Mangifera,
Nephelium, Milletia, Garcinia: several of these become more pro-
minent in the next zone.

Perhaps 10% of the trees in the narrow Nmai valley on the
hot sandy banks are leafless for a short time in the hot weather.
In April I noticed Gmelina arborea, Bauhinia variegata, Stereo-
spermum chelonoides, Sterculia villosa, and S. colorata, Erythrina,
Albizzia spp. Ficus spp.:and Cassia nodosa (?) bare.

Above the confluence there is shifting cultivation even so low
as 1,500 ft. and. big clumps of Dendrocalamus Hamiiioni are a
feature, perhaps planted, or owing their presence to burning of the
jungle. At any rate it is a plant which seems to thrive where
the jungle has been cleared. This species had flowered every-
where in North Burma in 1937 or 1938 and, all or nearly all, the
plants were dead. Patches of bamboo forest—not the Dendroca-
amus—also seem to result from repeated burnings; these of course
‘are easy to cut and burn again, but they probably indicate a soil
well on the way to exhaustion. A tangle of big climbing plants
is also quickly in evidence, notably Thunbergia grandiflora, T.
coccinea, Mucuna prunens Uncaria pilosa and Pueraria. Tall
grasses are good indicators of the same process and suggest an
impoverished or badly leached soil; Imperata and two other grass
species (Saccharum ?), with the fern Gleichenia also suggest a
hungry soil. Early comers—this before the clearings go over
completely to bamboo or gass—are Ficus cunia and other species,
Hibiscus macrophyllus, Callicarpa arborea, Macaranga sp. From
the outside the forest seems to be completely draped with large
sprawling creepers which hang almost to the ground in endless
festoons and curtains, but from within nothing is visible except
innumerable cords, ribbons, and corkscrews disappearing into the
semi-darkness above. Besides those previously mentioned we may
note: Hntada scandens, Securidaca tavoyana, Vitis angustifolia
and V. lanceolaria, Calamus (a few species) Dioscorea, Smilax
Hoya, Illigera, and various: Menispermaceae. On the tree trunks
many root climbers find support as for example Raphidophora,
Pothos, Freycinetia, Piper, and Ficus. Epiphytes include a few
orchids like Cymbidium and Dendrobium and the fern Drynaria.
The commonest epiphytic fern, probably Platycertum Wallichi,
Bedome records as ‘occurring from the Malay Peninsula south-
wards’. Owing to a combination of hot weather and drought in
winter, tree ferns are rare, being more CNAME of the next
zone.

The dena of the junele is cleraely due to undergrowth.
Enough light penetrates between the trees to encourage a thick

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. 46

growth of shrubs and herbs including bamboos. There are also
open spaces with tall grasses and shrubs—JMallotus philippinensis,
Maesa, Jasminum, Crotalaria, Rhynchotechum and others; in
damp places are seen Phlogacanthus curviflorus, Hedychium, Lasia
aculeata, Jussiaea, and various small Comellinaceae, Cyperaceae,
etc.

A sere sometimes seen on dry rocky slopes where the soil is
obviously poor comprises small trees and saplings of various
species, including Litsaea and Dracaena; no undergrowth.

The most interesting sere in this lowest zone however is that
in the river bed. In the shrub barrage at the top of the sand bank
close to high water mark, besides the shrubs previously mentioned
are: Photinia Benthamiana, Flemingia macrophylla, Phyllanthus
(Emblica) Griffith, Ligustrum massalongianum, Iicus glomerata
and F, hispida, Ardisia pedunculata, species of Cinnamomum,
Boehmeria, Saurauja.. Lower down in the riverbed where there
is shingle Pourthiaea argula, Homonoia riparia, Salix tetrasperma,
and the Rose previously mentioned are all submerged for a shorter
or longer period. Where there is more sand, the iern Goniopteris
prolifera is common, its runners many feet in length. Grewia
laevigata is another plant which can withstand submergence, as
can Ficus pyriformis found on rocks. Most of the strand plants
mentioned occur up to 3,000 ft.; some up to 5,000 ft. e.g. in the
Ngawchang valley. I have made no attempt to distinguish be-
tween tropical evergreen and subtropical hill jungle, so far as these
seres are concerned. All the shrubs of the barrage have close
growing interlacing stems which help to hold up floating vegetable
debris and increase the humus in the soil. They have tremendous
root systems to anchor themselves firmly against the current.

SUB-TROPICAL HILL JUNGLE (1,900-5,500 ft.).

As Previoushy pointed out there is a difference between tropical
rain forest at 2,000 ft. immediately above the Mvitkyina plain, and
the similar looking jungle 100 miles further north close to the high

ranges, as for example, in the Nmai valley. The same is even
more true of the next zone. In the neighbourhood of the snows,
plants which occur—if at all—only above 5,000-6,000 ft. in the
-south, are met with at 4,000 ft. north of Hort Hertz. In other
words there is a progressive lowermg of the zones as you proceed
north to the extent of 1,000-2,600 ft.—with however a difference.
At the Seinghku-Adung confluence im _ lat. 28° Temperate
Rain Forest begins at 4,000 ft. and Temperate Pine Forest at
4,500 ft. So also with Sub-Tropical Hill Jungle.

Additional characteristic, though not exclusively, hill jungle trees
are: Acer Campbellu, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Fagraea obovata,
Pithecolobium angulatum, Lonicera ovata (in flower in July), Cas-
tanopsis tribuloides, Ficus Roxburghu, F. bhotanica, I. nervosa,
(which starts as an epiphyte) Quercus xylocarpa, Q. Thomsoni,
(). fenestrata, Q. lamellosa, Melodcrum vrubiginosum, Schima
Wallichti, Saurauja fasiculaia, S. napaulensis, Hmblica officinalis,

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE BOTANY OF N. BURMA 385

Magnolia Griffithi, Croton caudatus, and species of Sapium,
Machilus, Dysoxylum.

I have mentioned earlier that many trees conimon in the Tro-

Ue Evergreen Rain Forest ascend into the hill jungle sometimes

5,000 ft. and that no sharp line of demarcation seperates the
oa Why then, it may be asked, attempt to distinguish between
them? The answer is that did we not do so we should be for ever
trying to analyse the first 6,000 ft. of jungle into simpler parts—
and at top levels the hill jungle differs widely from the luxuriant
tropical forest of the damp shady valleys; some division there
must be to satisfy the urge to simplify which seems to be inherent
in us. The one put forward seems reasonable, but it may not
be the best possible.

The more or less arbitrary contour of 2,000 ft. as the lower limit
of the hill jungle corresponds with an increase in the number of
epiphytes, a decrease in the number and variety of strangling figs,
an increase in the number and variety of Lauraceae, Euphorbiaceae.
Urticaceae, Acanthaceae, (especially Strobilanthes) Zingiberaceae
often gregarious, Araliacede, and other families, and of bamboos.
Separately these indications of a change in the vegetation do not
amount to much; but taken together they add up to something.
Besides Bucklandia, three other trees,—Quercus pachyphylla,
Rhododendron eriogynum, and R. stenaulwm mark where the hill
jungle passes into Temperate Rain Forest, with a still larger assem-
blage of epiphytes. Also noticeable in the hill jungle is the emer-
gence of a temperate hebaceous flora, as for example on roadside
banks. In the valley of the Nam Tamai at an altitude of less than
4,000 ft. one comes suddenly on species of Ranunculus, Thalic-
trum, an Umbellifer with finely cut leaves, Myosotis, Valeriana,
Anemone vitifolia Parochetus communis and of course species of
Hypericum Campanula (C. colorata) Lysimachia ramosa, and
Viola, nearly all of which are more or less ubiquitous in the tropics
but none the less plants of the Temperate zone.

Then at the lower limit of the hill jungle we find such charact-
eristic subtropical climbers as Hntada scandens and big scramb-
lers like Acacia pennata and A. caesia, etc. At higher altitudes
scandent bamboog are seen.

There is plenty of room for small trees and shrubs, especially
towards the upper limit of the zone and lining the river banks.
Often the forest is not dense, and here along with many species
of bamboo are shrubs and undershrubs e.g. Rhynchotechum,
Polygala ariilata, Osbeckia nepalensis, Clerodendron bracteatum,
C. infortunatum, small figs, Hurya, Hugenia, and others. There
is also a considerable herbaceous undergrowth of Marantaceac,
(Stachyphrynum) Musa, Tacca laevis, gregarious Stlrobilanthes,
Curculigo, ete. Epiphytes include Aeschynanthus grandiflora,
Ficus nervosa (which soon becomes an independent tree) Loran-
thus spp.

On roadside banks is found an unstable sere, the vegetation
Thetis constantly slashed and burnt. . There is a good deal of moss
in which many seedling trees come up; common plants are Lysio-
notus, Solanum, Corydalis, Torenia, Colocasia (a gregarious species),

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Polygonum capitatum, Pratia begoniifolia, Plectranthus Coetsa,
several Selaginellas. Between Fort Hertz and the Nam Tamai
Plectranthus macranthus is common along the edge of the forest.
A charming white flowered orchid, Diplomeris puichella grows on
rocks by the river.

But as previously remarked the most interesting sere is that
found in the river bed. In the rocky bed of the Tamai between
Pangnamdim and the Semghku confluence at 38,000-4,000 ft.
Rhododendron Simsu is still found occasionally. On rocks also
are Ficus pyriformis, Astilbe vivularis; at high watec mark in the
sand Neillia thyrsiflora, and Glochidion, with Equisetum, ferns,
erasses, Thalictrum, and Viola, but no rose. Nezllia thyrsiflora
really belongs to the next higher zone. Other commonly seen
plants i in the Tamai valley are C Jostus speciosus and Leucospecirum
canum,

It is not possible in a short article to give more than a faint
indication of this extensive flora; I have wherever possible called
attention to such plants as I collected or could name; another
botanist might produce a different list of names. But I have
also tried to illustrate—and justify, the several climax formations
I can recognise in North Burma.

SUB-TROPICAL PINE FOREST.

All the way up the Ngawchang valley between 5,000 and 6,000
ft. with Sub-Tropical Pine forest on one side and Temperate Pine
Forest on the other (if sufficiently sheltered) the river banks are
clothed with a great variety of trees, shrubs, and climbers both
woody and herbaceous, amongst which occur the following:
trees: —Michelia lanuginosa (replaced in the Adung valley by M.
Doltsopa, with Pinus excelsa), Ficus obscura, Juglans regia,
Quercus glauca, Castanopsis indica, Manglietia insignis, Adinandra
(4, Griffithii 2) Engelhardtia spicata, and Taxus sp. the only
other conifer. Shrubs:—Viburnum — stellulatum, Hypericum
Hookerianum, Ilex corallina and other species, Oxyspora pani-
culata, Ficus lepidosa and others, a second species of Adinandra,
several species of Rubus (PR. lineatus R. rosaefolius R. ellipticus),
Spiraea canescens, and species of Rhus, Ardisia, Leptodermis,
Eurya, Derris, Gaultheria, Hydrangea, several Rhododendron,
etc. Amongst climbers may be mentioned Leptocodon gracile,
Stemona Wardii (endemic), Clematis Buchananiana and C,
nepalensis, Heptapleurwm venulosum,

Other interesting plants are Boenninghausenia albiflora on turfy
limestone ridges, Primula densa (endemic) algo on limestone but
in deep shade, Prunus communis on open hillsides, but seen only
near villages so probably cultivated, Cynoglossum amabile, and
on the bracken clad hills Artemisia, Dipsacus, Swertia. TR may
be noted that in the Adung Valley, with Pinus excelsa instead
of P. insularis, Primula dumicola replaces P. densa just as
Michelia Doltsopa replaces M. lanuginosa. The plant associations
of the Ngawchang valley close to the Chinese frontier and isolated
from the sub- tropical Nmai Hka by the high Pyepat ridge, are

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE. BOTANY .OF N. BURMA 387

more Chinese; those of the Adung valley, more Himalayan and
Tibetan. Although 6,500 ft. has been taken as a convenient upper
limit of Pine forest, both at Hpimaw and at the Panwa Pass a
tew miles further south, Pines grow nearly a thousand feet higher,
associated with Rhododendron Delavayt (a species very similar to Lf,
arborewm), Salix, Quercus Griffithu, Rosa sericea. At the top
level there is not much about. the vegetation deserving the descrip-
tion sub-tropical, unless luxuriance and variety are to be regarded
as characteristic sub-tropical features; they are not exclusively
so. Variety of vegetative form there certainly is too—trees,
shrubs, epiphytes, climbing plants, herbs; but most of the species
have Temperate affinities, and the Sub-Tropical Pine. Forest has
already passed into mixed Temperate Forest (7000-9000 ft.) Below
the Panwa Pass, where the ground is bogey we find Primula
helodoxa, Iris, Parnassia, Caltha palustris, Aconitum, Geutiana, ete.
However Pinus insularis begins lower down than P. excelsa,
where the vegetation deservés to be called sub-tropical, and does
not ascend quite so high. It is therefore convenient to retain the
name Sub-Tropical Pine forest for the present at any rate.

TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST.

Taking the entire zone from 5,000 to 8,000 ft. the Temperate
Rain Forest is probably richer in species than any other zone of
equal depth in North Burma. Many trees regarded as_ properly
belonging to the sub-tropical hill jungle and pine forest actually
extend far into the temperate zone; and as already pointed out
it is unpossible to draw any hard and fast line.

An abundant climber of the warmer levels around 5,000 ft. is
Streptolirion volubile. Species of Clematis, of which there are
several, include C, Henryt and C. fasiculiflora. Epiphytes include
Aymenodictyon parasiticus, Medinilla, Loranthus.

Shrubs include Caryopteris grata and Leycesteria giaucophyila.
Figs are in general much reduced im size, as well as in variety—
Ficus foveolata, Ff, nemoralis, and the creeping I°, repens occur.

In forested gullies where bamboo undergrowth (Phyllostachys
and Arundinaria) is prevalent large colonies of Urlicaceae are often
conspicuous—generally some species of Elatostema.

Jn the cool temperate forest there is an increase in the number
of Acers, and probably also of oaks and Lex, as of Rhododendron.
Acer Hookeri, A. Campbellu, A. sikkimense, (generally epiphytic)
Quercus lanuginosa and @. Ilex are a few. In the temperate pine
forest we first meet with the Shortia-like Berneurxia tibetica (ascends
to 9,000 ft.) of the climbing Trychosanthes palmata and of a large
handsome yellow flowered Clematis with simple leaves, found in
the Adung valley. The Iris previously referred to as J. Milesii is
I. Watti,

Mixep TEMPERATE Forest,
Juniperus Coxti oecurs locally. It is a big. tree—endemic.

Taxus, though scattered, is not rare; it extends to 10,000 Ge
Another small tree found in this zone is Magnolia nitida; it is

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

apparently confined to the eastern ranges—I have never seen it
in the Adung valley. |

Between the Nam Tamai and the Tazu river the mountains are
covered with Temperate Pine forest below and with Abies forest
above; with nothing between. Along the 9,000-foot ridges a variety
of shrubs—Rhododendron Martinianum, R, triflorum, R. tephro-
peplum, R. megacalyx Enkianihus pauciflorus, Skimmia Laureola,
Daphniphyllum, Cassiope, Vaccinium glauco-album, Clethra, mark
the beginning of silver fir forest. On rocks grow small Liliaceae
(Tofieldia, Smilacina) Coelogyne, Carex, Ophiopogon, Luzula, and
other plants; and under the bushes here I found Cornus swecica
(now Chamaepericlymenum suecicum). A rough leafed Begonia
with masses of small pink flowers is the only species of this genus
to ascend above 7,000 ft. Rhododendron crinigerum and R.
oreotrephes, mixed with R. arizelum clothe some slopes where
mixed Conifers meet Silver Fir.

Chamaepericlymenwm suecicum is not, as previously stated,
the only Arctic species in Sino-Himalya (of which alpme Burma
forms a part); there are several others e.g. Androsace Chamae-
jasme, As far as broad leafed trees are concerned the Mixed
Temperate forest consists very largely of Rhododendrons (about 20
species including epiphytes), oaks, Jlex spp. Acers, together
with Birch, Schima, several Magnoliaceae and Lauraceae (the for-
mer very prominent), and a few Araliaceae. Both the species and
the proportion of deciduous to evergreen differs widely on exposed
ridges and on sheltered slopes. In fact at this altitude the ex-
posed and sheltered flanks of a spur support entirely different
formations; while the crest of the ridge is generally clothed with
sub-alpine scrub differing only in composition from that found nor-
mally 2,000 ft. higher. Which shows hew impossible it is to fit
nature into a straight-jacket. Such scrub, growing along the windy
spurs above the Nam Tamai, for example, and on the way to the
Hpimaw Pass, is composed largely of small Rhododendrons mixed
with Arundinaria and a variety of shrubs and stunted trees such
as Corylus ferox, species of Sorbus, Salix, Populus, Deutzia,
Daphne, Cotoneaster, Berbers, Juniperus, Huonymus, Coriaria,
Maesa, Eurya, Viburnum, and others. But from 8,000 ft. up-
wards NRhododendrongs are dominant along the rocky spurs. The
_Mixed Temperate Forest zone is as far as outposts of the true alpine
flora have penetrated downwards—-it marks, that is to say, the
limit of their descent. These scouts, which are none too happy it
would seem as they survey their chances of survival in a clash
with the Forest, colonise bare rocky outcrops, slips, gullies, screes
clearings, whether natural or artificial—in fact any place where
vacant possession can be temporarily obtained. A change of
climate might of course confirm their hold;—or on the other hand,
drive them out. In the Silver Fir Forest these intruders—and
opportunities for their expansion—become more numerous.

In the Adung valley, Primula sino-Listeri is occasionally met
with, on bare ground. Amongst Chinese Rhododendrons which,
like R. Delavayi, cross into Burma along the frontier near the
Panwa Pass are R. sulfurewn and Rk, yunnanense.

ADDITIONAL. NOTES ON THE BOTANY OF N.. BURMA 389

As for Moss Forest, one finds that many of the epiphytic shrubs
have drip-tip leaves, and at the opposite extreme are provided
with water-storing tissue in the shape of swollen stems (e.g. Aga-
petes, Vaccinium)! Other epiphytes are filmy ferns growing in
the moss, Leucothoe, Polygonatum. The habit is usually trailing,
with long pendent branches.

SILVER Fir Forest.

Epiphytic Rhododendrons include Rk. bullafwm and R. micro-
meres, the former one of the most beautiful of all Rhododendrons,
the latter one of the very few with repulsive small flowers of a
muddy yellow. It however makes up for this lapse by the vermi-
Ilion and gamboge colours of tts leaves in winter. Trees include
R. fulvoides and R. gymnogynum, the former with Rh, Beesianum
towards the upper limit of the fir forest. The rather scrubby Ace?
erosum (not A, candatum) is found as high as 11,000 ft.: perhaps
the last deciduous tree, other than Larch, unless some species of
Sorbus ascend higher.

Another Chinese plant found in the upper Adung valley is
Primula Uchiangensis is found at 10,000 ft. Nomocharis saluenensis
is scattered along grassy ridges in this zone, and N. pardanthina
is associated with Iris decora on alluvial fans, but is less con-
fined within limits than most species of the genus, being found
between 8,000 and 12,000 ft. With these two grows Aster
fuscescens. On a similar gravel chute I found a few plants in fruit
only of what may have been Cathcartia villosa though at the time
I took it for an unknown species of Meconopsis- It was growing
in high meadow at over 10,000 ft. altitude above the Nam Tamai
(19387). On rocks in the same gulley a charming dwarf Allium
was in flower in September; and under the bushes wag a single
large clump of an unknown Hypericum. None of these plants’
have been raised from the seed I collected, and future explorers
should look out for them. I came to the conclusion that there
must be many unknown alpine and sub-alpine plants in North
Burma waiting to be discovered.

Other plants of this zone are Clintonta alpina found under
bushes, and yellow flowered Helianthemum on bare stony slips.

The plant referred to as Ivis Delavayi in Part JIL is more
likely I. chrysographes.

Susp-ALPINE SCRUB.

In this zone woody plants tend to occur in large colonies. Not
only Rhododendrons and Birch grow gregariously, but also Salix
(several species). More scattered shrubs include species of
Lonicera. Streptopus simplex is common up to 12,000 ft. through-
out the sub-alpine scrub. It has attractive lily-of-the-valley
flowers, and an engaging fan-like habit.

Other alpine herbaceous plants are Meconopsis impedita (a red
flowered form grows on rocks in the Seinghku valley); M. integrifo-
lia, found only in the Seinghku valley where it is not common:

390 [OURNAL BOMBAY (NADU IRATE SELLS TASS O Glin TY eam Ona

Primula serratifolia, often amongst Arundinaria but ascending to
14,000 ft.; and, in meadow, species of Arisaema, Codonopsis,
Adenophora, Delphinium, and a variety of Compositae, Umbelli-
ferae, etc. Primula capitata on screes, is a late flowering species.

ALPINE TURF AND SCREE.,

Two species characteristic of this zone not previously mentioned
are Primula muscoides, and P. triloba, both tufted mat plants.
In bogey ground Primula Dickiena (Gamlang valley); Gentiana
grata, and G. stylophora, both high alpines, Oreosolen, and
Picrorhiza, the two last named genera peculiar to Sino-Himalaya
also occur. Lychnis nutans grows on screes, and on turt slopes
solid clumps of a fern, Athyrium felix-foemina are abundant, with
clunps of Iris Rumaonensis.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1.—A TIGER CLIMBING A TREE.

I am enclosing two photographs showing a tree, up which a
young tiger climbed and which incident is most interesting and pro-
bably unique in the history of such animals. The tree is a soft-
skinned one, commonly met with in the forests of the Khasi and
Jaintiah Hills of Assam. The total height of the tree is about
80 feet and the first branch springs from the stem at about 45 feet.
The girth at the bottom is about 9 feet. The cub was lying’ flat
on one of the branches about 15 feet higher than the first branch,
and was fired at with a shot gun by a local Garo who wounded the
animal in the first shot and then whilst the animal was coming
down backwards, he fired a ball cartridge at it but apparently
missed, The tiger jumped off the tree and made away into the
jungle, with a blood trail going for quite a long distance. My
brother, who is a forest officer, and I verified the statement by
examining the tree and the trail of blood. From the size of the
pug marks and the claw marks up the tree, it was quite obvious
that they were those of a tiger cub; probably driven up the tree by
wild dog's or its parent as the parents were seen by us in the vicinity
the week before.

As I am eager to know if such a case has ever been referred to
you before, will you please drop me a line, as this incident would
be one of general interest to shikaris bent on big game hunting,
and should be brought to more prominence amongst them. It
might incidently be the saving of some of their skins when out
sitting up on machans.

*“PEACHLANDS’,
SHILLONG, ASSAM. CH. pE tA LONGEREDE,
13th March 1946. Hon. Capt., RI.E., Indian Army.

[There are several instances recorded of tigers climbing trees.
In vol. xxxiil, pp. 196-197 of the Journal the editors reviewed the
literature available on the subject. The maximum height so far
recorded is 30 feet; the present instance doubles the known re-
cord. The photographs were unfortunately unsuitable for re-
production.—Eps. |

2.—A TIGER ‘RUNS AMOK’.

An article in the Calcutta Statesman of below date reads:
‘Man-eater kills 7 coolies, is then killed in battle with wild buffalo.’
It then proceeds to give details which appear to me to be incon-
sistent.

A man-eater is reported to be usually a sneak thief and kills

for food alone due to some incapacity, old age, and sometimes
from inheritance. No wholesale slaughter such as described above

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

is committed at one time, and that in the presence of an audience
presumably in daylight in or near a village and railway station.

Further and fuller and correct details would be very instructive
to individuals interested in the study of the psychology of the
Carnivora.

From the report as it appears, the tiger is incorrectly described
as a man-eater, and there is reason to conclude that there is some
other phenomenon which has caused this tiger or tigress to ‘rua
amok’.

Your opinion and those of the members would be a valuable
contribution.

CORONATION CouRT,
4 WeEsT RANGE, PARK CIRCUS, CALCUTTA.
goth February 1946. S. AS CHRIS#PORE ERS

A PANTHER WITH TWENTY CLAWS.

On closely examining a panther that I had recently shot I dis-
covered something unique about the claws. On the hind feet it had
two extra claws corresponding to the Dew claws in front. Not a
malformation, for these claws were fully developed and retractile.
I had never met with such an unusual case, nor have my friends,
and it must be very rare in feline animals.

It is probably ‘the experience of all big game sportsmen that
no two animals are identical, but it would be most interesting to
know whether such cases of twenty claws instead of the usual
eighteen, are rare enough to be freaks.

I wouldn’t say that my panther beats are always productive of
interest to naturalists, but even if I shoot another hundred animals,
I think I shall find no less interest in my sport than on previous and
less exceptional occasions.

LUNAWADA, VIRBHADRASINH,
14th February 1946. H.H,. Maharana of Lunawada.

[There are at least three records in the Journal of panthers hav-
ing twenty toes. In vol. xxx, p. 909 a photograph appeared illus-
trating such an abnormality. —Eps. |

4.—TIGER KILLS LIONESS.

A tragedy took place recently in the Chamrajendra Zoological
Gardens in Mysore City, South India.

Tigers and lions are kept in a large cage in the Zoo, each
species in separate compartments. There is an open enclosure with
a deep trench all round, and tigers and lions are let out into this
enclosure alternately.

Recently a large tiger was let out into the enclosure. The
keeper, when cleaning the cage in which the lioness was, ad-
mitted her into her adjoining cage without noticing that the door

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 393

giving access to the enclosure was open. So the lioness went into
the open enclosure into which the tiger had already been admitted.

The tiger at once attacked the ones. A terrific battle ensued
and the lioness put up a brave fight for her life. But she was no
match for the tiger and everything the keepers and others could do
was futile, so the poor brave lioness was soon killed.

Even a full-grown lion has been known to be no match for a
full-grown tiger, the lioness therefore had even less chance, and the
poor creature lost her life through the carelessness of a keeper.

MySsoORE,
23rd January 1946. CHARLES THEOBALD, F.z.s

s.—A\ QUEER ANIMAL HABIT.

I should be glad to be enlightened as to the purpose, and its
reason or cause, to which had been put some small, smooth, cone-
shaped rocks which I found in two and far apart caves, while shoot-
ing in the N. Chanda Div. before this war, and referred to in my
diary as ‘wiping stones’ (for lack of a better term to suggest the
use to which they seemed to have been put by animals, but of whose
identity I am still in doubt). Perhaps if I narrate the circum-
stances in which I found the stones, while describing them, someone
might be able to suggest answers to the obvious questions—while
an authoritative explanation will be all the more welcomed.

The first cave was shallow and wide open—formed mainly by-a
projection of the floor to form a narrow ledge outside and which
was not completely overhung by the roof, so that the interior was
exposed to much of the southern sky; it was situated on the south-
ern face of a rocky spur projecting westward from a low tableland.
I had been informed that this cave usually harboured a bear during
the hotter part of the day (summer). I never found this cave
occupied, nor any visible tracks on the floor, for the surface of the
rock that formed it was covered with a thin layer of fine grit. It
was during my first visit, while awaiting the return of the eccupier
(if any) that I noticed a conoid outcrop of rock close to the entrance
at one side—because its upper surface was black. I found that it
was thinly and fairly evenly smeared—almost glazed—with a black,
tarry, substance (but quite dry) which, when I smelt it closely, stank
like the faeces of the larger carnivora. Just beside it was a low,
smooth, and slightly convex outcrop of rock which bore smudges
and smears of the same foul-smelling tarry substance. When
questioned, my Gond companion merely muttered ‘Reech’ (Bear).
As our ‘lingua franca’ was a smattering of Marathi on both sides,
I left it at that—though pondering the fact that the excreta of many
bears I’d examined in that block consisted mostly of residues of
fruits and black ants, also that I had seen the fairly fresh faeces of
a panther on the crest above us, while stalking the cave that fore-
noon. About a fortnight later, while examining the ground near
the toe of the spur for signs of the bullet that had smashed the
shoulder of a tigress there (which, though badly crippled, had
cleared out of that locality), I got a perfect ‘sitter’ of a shot at a

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

panther couched on a rock almost directly above the cave (and, as
so often with easy ‘sitters’—though here tempted by the offer of a
thick neck against the sky—missed). A troop of lungoors was
always in the jungle below and some usually sat on the toe of the
spur before the sun reached it. Of the numerous bears and many
solitary boars that roamed the block I saw, ‘here, only one bear,
three boars, one porcupine, one civet cat—and, animals unlikely to
use caves, sambar, chital and only 2 four-horned antelopes. A
pack of jackals found the uneaten carcase of a buffalo on the third
night after the tigress had killed it. And the only hyaena I saw
was more than a mile from that spot. ?

The other cave, much larger and deeper, was more than a
straight mile away to the south-east, where a nullah cut down
through a part of the tableland and omend its way out southwardly
through sheer cliffs. It was while first reconnoitring the block that
I found blurred tracks of a tiger in the gravel of the upper part of
the nullah. Losing. these tracks where the dry bed was bare rock,
the Gond told me that, further down, was a cave which a bear (or
bears) occupied during the hot hours: of the day (this the month of
May and the ‘Loo’ blowing down the nullah like: gusts out of an
open furnace). The cave was where the high~cliffs began; wide
and low of entrance it ran about 4o or.50 feet into the base of a
cliff, and two tunnel-like bolt-holes connected with the main passage,
from one side. After making strange noises here and then at the
mouth of the cave, we gratefully rested just within. the entrance
and without exploring the dim interior. Almost directly opposite,
but high in the other cliff,,was another small, oval, cave; the abode
of the jungle ‘Deo’ (god)—for long the legendary protector of the
two tigers I knew to be in the block then—and hewn:steps led up
to it and vermillion: paint daubed its arched entrance.: Just within
the lower cave, and to one side, was another—but more conical—
outcrop of rock, having a remarkable resemblance to a phallic stone,
smeared with the same stinking, tarry, substance. The light was
sufficient to reveal that the floor surface at the entrance ‘had been
lightly ‘disturbed’—no more than just that; but I could not find
footprints nor hairs, nor could I detect odour of animal or human
occupation (poachers were usually busy after moonrise and I found
two of their ‘hides’ in the jungle; apparantly, caves do not appeal
to them, though I often contemplated sitting up in one of these two
and refrained only because I was out for tiger and the chance of
success was too remote). To my enquiry about the use of that coni-
cal stone, my companion again ascribed it to bears—now making
a gesture to, and significant movements with, his buttocks. So
J wrote in my diary that night, ‘Found another wiping-stone there’.

I'd like to mention now that there were a few small, but deep,

cliff-caves further down that nullah and which certainly did harbour
ieee which same token I was’ without sufficient curiosity to
enter them. The wounded tigress was finally discovered lying just
within the entrance of the laree cave and was killed there; she had
caught and eaten a porcupine at the- first pool (stagnant) lower
down thé nullah, the night before. My Gond friend, naturally,
attributed the satisfactory conclusion of this anxious episode to the

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 398

fact that he had previously propitiated the ‘deo’ in the cave high up
in the opposite cliff; but he seemed to maintain that the large cave
was used only by bears and clearly did insist that the tigress had
had to come there to die because she was the protege, the ‘protected’,
of the ‘deo’ in the opposite cave.! To me an unsatisfactory explana-
tion of the conical stone; for, while measuring and photographing
the tigress, I reverted to the subject of that stone. And, from a
passing acquaintance. with many more caves of that size in India,
I had formed an opinion that the larger, more. ‘open’, caves. were
favoured by tiger and panther,.though rather as a ‘pied a terre’ and
on a tacit.understanding of ‘first come, first served’—bears inciud-
ed; and any small tunnels or burrows within, used regularly by
smaller creatures, e.g. porcupines. Indeed, in the southern spurs
of the Satpuras I was once shown an almost similar cave and told
that, every year, a tigress came there to whelp (probably not the
same one annually) and that one was using it then; and, as a matter
of interest, I did flush a heavy, sleeping tigress that morning and
within a hundred yards of the cave and, as she went lobbing and
crashing across my front, I did think she was. in cub. But
actually, she had been sleeping, heavily gorged, between two of
her natural kills. .

The stones mentioned still remain a puzzle to me. If used to
relieve an irritation caused by worms, surely the attempt would
have been made soon after defaecation (as in the case of dogs);
and, except for only the droppings of bats in the larger cave, there
was none of any kind in either. And while conceding that a bear
—because of its all-over shagginess—might be accustomed to thus
remove any soiling that had occurred during defaecation, I cannot
imagine the larger carnivora’ having need to do the same, nor that
their siesta would be disturbed, by such a desire. Yet, that tarry
substance stank of the faeces of tiger and panther, with the black
of a blood meal—and I cannot understand how those protrubing
(about six and eight inches high, respectively) stones were so evenly
smeared over all their upper surface and down to within a few
inches of their broad bases (roughly about 8” x 12”)!

SINGAPORE, a | K. BOSWELL,
1oth April 1946. ; Copii icAnME

{[Mr. R. C. Morris to whom Capt. Boswell’s interesting note
was sent for opinion, comments as follows :—

‘Bears do, I think, rub themselves on rocks on defecating after
feeding on the pods of Cassia Fistula (‘Indian Laburnum’).

I have observed this on certain rocks in dry river beds: and
the local Sholagas gave this explanation.

I have also frequently observed that stones in caves commonly
used by bears have a polished appearance; though I have never
smelt them. The pods of the Cassia Fistula contain, as you know,
a thick black tarry substance, which envelopes the seeds, and the:
Sholagas say that this-causes fouling of the hind parts of the bear
on defecation; and the animal then resorts to rubbing on rocks.’

. This may be the answer to Capt. Boswell’s query.—Eps. |

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

6.—DRAG MARKS’ MADE BY THE KYANG
(EQUUS HEMIONUS).

The yang or Tibetan Wild Ass is common and abundant in
the neighbourhood of the lakes Manasar6war and Rakhas Tal in
Western Tibet. On a recent visit (June-July 1945) I met with it
everywhere on the Barkha Plain (ca 15,000 ft. elevation) in troops
of 5 or 6, and large herds of over too animals. On the bare steppe
they frequented I was constantly coming upon curious drag-marks—
irregular wavy or meandering lines 2 to 2$in. wide and 10, 20 or
up to 30 yards long, looking exactly like those left by a frisky COW
that has a pole or faggot tied to its neck with the HOSE end trailing
on the ground between its forelegs.

There seems no doubt that these marks were produced by the
Kyang; exactly how or why is the mystery. The Tibetan yakman
explained that they were made by a stallion dragging one of his
hoofs along, but could give no reason or say under what circum-
stances it was done, so all I remarked in my diary at the time was
“Why is the ass Siok an ass?’

It would be interesting to know if something has been abseruce
in the habits of the Kyang to suggest the real or probable explanat-
ion.

33 Pari. Hitt, BANDRA, |
BOMBAY, 20. : eae SALIM ALI.

7.—AN ALBINO ELEPHANT FROM THE TRAVANCORE
- KORESTS.

(With a plate)

A cow elephant, captured from the Travancore forests in April
1945, has aroused much interest on account of its colour and other
attributes of a white elephant; and it may quite possibly be the
first time that an elephant having the characteristics of either
partial or complete albinism is observed in India.

This elephant, having a height of 5 ft. 11 in. at the shoulder and
whose age is estimated to be 10 years, was caught in a pit at
Karippanthode, about 13 miles from Koni, the headquarters of the
Central Forest Division. Rao Bahadur T. V. Venkiteswara Iyer,
Conservator of Forests, Travancore, examined the animal and end:
ing that it compared favourably with the Siamese White Elephants
sie has been brought over to the Trivandrum Zoological Gardens
for exhibition.

Maheswari, by which name she has since een known, has a
light pink skin with white hairs except at the tip of the tail, and
pearl eyes. The white hairs on the head are prominent and in
spite of them, the light pink background of the skin, gives the
elephant a pinkish gray colour. The usual black colour of elephants
is nowhere visible on its body.’ The mouth and palate are also light
pink. There are, as usual in ordinary elephants, eighteen toes, four
on each forefoot and four on each hind limb, but the toe- sails are

s1OSUPARIT WO, JURYdopsy UeIpuy OUIq[y uy

‘20 ISIE] ‘JUN Avqmog ‘umes

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A DYING ELEPHANT. Note the swollen foreleg.

2 Cee ae
‘
ies

aie eo eee

The same animal the next day—DEAD,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 397

of a lighter colour, rather whitish. In all other respects, there
1S mene to distinguish it from a normal elephant. She has been
under observation for about a year now, and it may be remarked
that no change in its colour has taken place during this period.

In a note ‘on White Elephants’ in the Journal “(vol. XXV1, 1918,
p. 285) Mr. H. Macnaughten refers to a white elephant calf in
Burma, which though possessing a light coloured skin at birth had
grown perceptibly darker as it grew up. Mr. D. F. Macfie also
records (Journal, Bomb. Nat. Hist. SOGs VOla xxii lo2 7-5 2i14))
the birth of a white elephant calf in N. Siam, and mentions the
chief points looked for in white elephants to be light red skin,
white hairs on body and tail, very light pink palate, eyes of a light
bluish pinky colour and white toe-nails. Evidently, a milk-white
colour is not to be expected; the ‘whiteness’ of an elephant 1 is there-
fore determined on the possession of the above ‘points’. On the
basis of this the Travancore specimen has all the attributes of an
albino elephant.

Albinism may be observed in any species or any locality and
“any inference from its distribution may or may not be true. The
singularity of the occurrence—though there is only the present
solitary instance—of the albino form of Elephas maximus on the
Malabar Coast, as it has been classically confined to S.E. Asia,
may perhaps be significant in affording another instance of faunal
affinity between these two regions, a kinship similar to that existing
among the Pig-tailed and Lion-tailed macaques, leaf-monkeys,
Jorises, and civets.

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS,
TRIVANDRUM, TRAVANCORE. E. S. SIMON,
2oth March 1946. _ Curator.

8.—NATURAL DEATH OF ELEPHANTS.
(With a plate)

The accompanying plate illustrates two stages, before and after
the tragic, natural end of an elephant. The upper of the. two
photographs appeared in the Phoenix Magazine under the. title of
a Dying Elephant, and was submitted by Major P. B. Leahy. The
photograph was taken in the Travancore jungles. Mr. F. Connell
drew our attention to this fine picture and we tried to get in touch
with the author for further details. Owing to the absence of Major
Leahy from India, Mrs. Leahy kindly replied and sent us the
following details as well as the photos :

‘Firstly, I am afraid I have no copy to spare of the slide but
will enclose the negative, and, perhaps you could have it done in
Bombay, exactly as you want it for reproduction in your magazine.
The other photo I enclosed shows the elephant dead, but, from my
point of view as a photographer, and, not a Big Game Hunter it
is a bad photo. However you may be interested.

_ We had heard the elephants making an awful noise in the
jungle a few days before this ‘subject’ was brought to my notice by
some coolies. I gathered there had been a fight between two

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

males, but, it was confirmed when I arrived at the spot where the
loser was awaiting death. His leg which was badly swollen made —
him completely immobile. It can plainly be seen in the photo.
If the popular belief about elephants going to the accustomed burial
ground be true, there 1s very good reason why this one couldn’t do
it as he couldn’t walk. However this is not the first elephant to
die in the ‘Civilisation’ of this District. There was another only
a few months ago, but, I have no information about that one. It
is quite possible that he was also wounded.’

It is a common belief that elephants, and several other animals,
anticipate death and accordingly retire to a common ‘burial ground’,
but though certain circumstances suggest this belief, such as the
discovery of the remains of several animals in one locality, there is
yet no proof forthcoming and must be treated as a popular belief
with no foundation. However, it seems possible that a wounded or
otherwise weakened animal may retire to a secluded spot in the
jungle, or as in the case of elephants, into a river or other marshy
ground; they do so not because they anticipate death, but as a
means of self-protection. The wounds in the meantime perhaps be-
come sceptic and the animal is impeded, or the ailment may increase
beyond recovery and the animal succumbs to its fate. The point of
seclusion may possibly be the only one in the neighbourhood and
on this account many animals may consequently retire to the same
spot and die. This would undoubtedly result in an accumulation of
remains which would naturally give rise to the secular belief of a
‘communal grave yerd’. But that this is not so is supported by the
fact that several animals have been recorded as found dead in the
forests.

In the Tropics the agencies of destruction under natural conditions
are so rapid and complete that even the carcases of large animals
soon disappear without leaving any traces. It is on this account
that dead animals are rarely met with in the jungles.

EDITORS.

g.—A LARGE WILD BOAR (SUS CRISTATUS).

In your letter you were good enough to inform me that the
average height of male wild boar at the shoulder is 36” and the
largest specimen recorded 383”. But in Mr. Burke’s statement
I find that a wild boar has been recorded up to 4o” in height. I give
below the measurements of the record wild boar given by Mr. Burke
in his Field Shikar Book :—

Length 68”.

Height at the shoulder and between peg’s 40”

Girth at the collar 433”.

Maximum girth 60”,

Tushes rot”.

Tail 12”.

What you mention as the record wild boar is smaller than the
record given by Mr. Burke. Probably it is due to the fact that
the shooter did not send any information to the Natural History
Society. | :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 399

A monster wild boar shot by me last winter is worth recording.
So I send you the following measurements, taken in the presence
of several reliable gentlemen :—

Length 67”.

Height between the pegs 39

Girth at collar 45”

Maximum girth 61”

Dushes 74”:

Tail 10%”.
PHUL-BAGH PALACE,
ManIsHADAL, MIDNAPORE DisT., Dies GARGAE
BENGAL. Kumar of Mahishadal.

29th June 1945.

10o.—SHAMMING DEATH’.

In an editorial foot-note to the account of a Sambar’s deati,
by Capt. Crawley, in Vol. 45, No. 3, you take exception to the
expression ‘Shamming death’. I myself have been subject to the
same criticism by Pocock, in his Mammalia, with reference to the
Hyaena. Mr. William Hornaday, Sc.D., A.M., for years Director
of the Zoological Park, New York, and author of a number of
books about animals based on years of experience in the field, has,
in his well-known book The Minds and Manners of Wild Animals,
published a picture of an opossum (p. 166) with the caption ‘An
Opossum feigning death’.

It is an observed fact, witnessed on hundreds of occasions,
that numbers of animals do ‘sham’ or ‘simulate’ or ‘feign’ death.

It seems to me that it is ‘up to’ our critics to supply us with
some other term which will adequately describe what takes place
and at the same time avoid offence to the hypercritical, as I can
think of none which more aptly portrays what takes place. The
assumption that the users of these terms are asserting that animals
are death conscious and make use of their knowledge cannot in
any way be sustained. The terms used accurately and concisely
describe exactly what takes place and do not go beyond this :
whether the animal’s behaviour is conscious or instinctive is entirely
another matter.

It is well known that birds will feign injury, to entice a danger-
cus animal from the vicinity of their young. Is this reasoned or in-
stinctive action?

What is to prevent an animal going a step further, and simulat-
ing death itself? Personally, I do not believe that animals are con-
scious of death. Time to them is infinite, and a dog lying’ sick
unto death, has no realization that he is about to die. Nevertheless
to ascribe the simulation of death to instinct alone is unsatisfying.
I think it possible, that an animal killed violently, while in full
health, may realise, in his last moments, that his dissolution is
imminent. When this happens a number of animais give a peculiar
cry, quite different from any cry they have ever made hitherto.
hess make it only once in their lives: immediately preceding death.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volkwae

It is significant that feigning death is often associated with im-
minent death by violence.

I have heard this death cry most frequently uttered by boars :
this is no doubt due to the fact, that when pigsticking the circum-
stances of death are such as to induce the cry. I can recall the
death cries of stags and horses. The latter is an excruciating sound
which haunts one.

How can one explain this death cry? Are we to be satisfied witir
instinct as an answer? Excessive fear is ruled out by the boar’s.
behaviour at the time.

The main purpose of this letter is to invite readers of the Journal
to record and publish any observed facts bearing on this most inter-
esting subject, viz. ‘Shamming death’.

ELGIN, SCOTLAND. :
6th January 1946. A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER.

t11.—DISTRIBUTION OF THE RED-CRESTED POCHARD
IN SOUTHERN INDIA.

On goth February 1946 when shooting at Tyravallur lake, about
30 miles from Madras, we got four Red-Crested Pochard (Netta
rufina), two drakes and two ducks.

When I returned to camp, I looked this species up in the Fauna
of British India (Stuart Baker) and found that he says that there
are hardly any records from southern India, so I thought I would
write to you.

On several occasions lately I have seen the Common Pochard
(Nyroca ferina) on various lakes round here but have not yet taken
any. I believe them to be rare in southern India also.

I have preserved two skins of the Red-Crested Pochard and
have done soft part studies of them, which I can send if confirmation
is required.

TI would be obliged if you could let me know what the status of
these duck is in southern India. On Tyravallur there were about
200 Red-Crested Pochard which regularly flighted from one end of
the lake to the other over some islands, providing ample opportunity
for observation.

82 SQUADRON, R.A.F., S.E.A.A.F.”
rith: February 1946. eG a UNIS DEINE

[According to the Fauna of British India, the Red-Crested.
Pochard (Netta rufina) becomes rare in southern India. In his re-
cent report on the Survey. of Eastern Ghats, Mr. Whistler
mentions that Mr. Stoney killed 12 Red-Crested Pochards in the
Vizagapatam District in the season of 1928-1929. There are two
specimens in the Madras Museum labelled Madras and Arkonam,,
but that he (Whistler) can find no other record for the Presidency.

The Cemmon Pochard (Nyroca f. ferina) 1s a scarce winter
visitor to the Madras Presidency. Mr. Stoney informs us that he
shot two in the Vizagapatam District in the same season, 1928-
Eps. |

1920.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 401

12.—' BIRDS ON THE HINDUSTAN-TIBET ROAD, N.-W.
HIMALAYA’—A CORRECTION.

In the list of birds given in the above-mentioned article, which
appeared in Vol. 45, No. 4, of the Journal of the Society, I regret
that by a careless mistake on my part ‘T'vochalopteron lineatum
lineatum (Vigors): Streaked Laughing-Thrush’ was omitted, and
remarks relating to that species were erroneously recorded under
“Trochalopteron variegatum variegatum (Vigors): Eastern Variegat-
ed Laughing-Thrush’. The latter was noted only at Thanedar and
Bagi, specimens being collected in both of those localities.

RAWALPINDI.
30th April 1946. \ FLV VALE ES.

13.—THE PARADISE FLYCATCHER AT SEA.

While on a trip from Bombay to Cochin and still roo miles
north of it and 15 miles from land, I noticed two paradise fly-
catchers, both cock birds in full plumage (white and black), on the
ship’s rail. They were first noticed at about mid-day and stayed
with the ship till it arrived in Cochin.

I have always been under the impression that these birds live
mainly in the north but it is possible owing to the proximity of the
Nilgiris that they are to be found as far south. They must have
flown from the land to the ship and as they are known not to be
long-distance birds, this has caused me considerable surprise and
I am writing to inquire whether what I saw was unusual or not.
I would be grateful for your comments.

PHOENIX BUILDING,
BALLARD ESTATE,

BomBay. INS SASSOON
28th March 1946.

[Finding Paradise Flycatchers under the circumstances des-
cribed is certainly most exceptional. The birds must obviously have
been blown out to sea. But there is, of course, nothing unusual
in the species occurring as far south as Cochin. In winter it is found
in South Travancore, and even Ceylon. | Eps. ]

I4.—SPRING PASSAGE OF PHALAROPES JIN IRAQ.

In 1925 Col. R. Meinertzhagen, reviewing the distribution of
Phalaropes, (Ibis, p. 325), wrote of the Red-necked Phalarope
(Phalaropus lobatus) ‘winters in the north Indian Ocean. ... May
records from Transcaspia and Shiraz, Persia . . . but still on the
.Mekran coast on 15 and 20 May’. On 23rd May 1943 I saw large
flocks totalling eight to eleven hundred near the edge of the flooded
Hor el Hammar, four miles west of Shaiba, Iraq. On 6th June two
to three hundred were seen. C. B. Ticehurst in ‘Birds of Mesopot-
amia’ (Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1921, Vol. XxXvill, p. 197
I3 A

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

et seq.) quotes no records other than Zarudny’s statement that the
species was a winter visitor.

Of Phalaropus fulicarius Col. Meinertzhagen wrote ‘winter
visitor off Mekran coast and south coast of Arabia .. . its passage
from Central Asia to Mekran coast takes place in huge bounds with
few records of intermediate rest’, On 23rd May I watched one
female in full breeding plumage at a distance of twenty feet among
the flocks of P. lobatus. C. B. Ticehurst knew of no Iraq record.
No specimens were shot, but I am familiar with both species, having
photographed them in Iceland.

Bw INI, COi%5 IN so SCs,

BENARES CANTT. May. P. I. Ro MACEAREINE
12th April 1946.

15.—L HE WHITE-WINGED WOOD-DUCK

ASACORNIS SCUTULATUS (Miller)

The following notes on the White-winged Wood-Duck are com-
piled from observations of a pair which were discovered on the
Dhunseri river at Manipur Road (Dimapur), Assam.

The presence of these birds was first brought to my notice by
Capt. P. T. French in February 1945. From his description of a
pair of duck he had seen flying down the river several times, and

White-winged Wood-Duck

also swimming and feeding in places, I had no hesitation in assum-
ing them to be Wood-Duck.

I was unable to observe them at that time, but on my return
from leave in July, I was able to spend two evenings on the river

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 403

in the company of Capt. French. He informed me that the duck
had not been seen for about 2 months, and only the drake was to
be seen, flying down the river every evening. It aparently spent
the day some distance upstream, since he had observed it at various
points at different times on the river up to 5 miles upstream, from
the bridge, and that it was most regular in its habit of reaching
the bridge at dusk, about 6.30 p.m.

On the 31st July we took up our position at a point about
too yards above the bridge. At 6.40 p.m. we heard the drake call
as it flew down stream towards us. It came into view about
too yards away and flew up into a tall tree on the opposite side
of the river, about 50 yards distant.

Capt. French stated that its normal practice was to perch in
that same tree every evening, watching the bridge until a suitable
lull in the traffic, whereupon it would continue its flight. As he
had seen it on one occasion at least 14 miles further downstream
still flying, it appeared to fly a fair distance each day.

We walked upstream, and when we were nearly opposite the
tree the drake flew out and upstream uttering a loud goose-like
‘honk’ of alarm finally perching again in another tall tree overhang-
ing the river about 100 yards away.

We took cover behind some bushes and waited for it to resume
its flight downstream; but although it commenced calling again
it refused to move, so when it was completely dark we abandoned
the scene.

The following evening we rao up a new position about 200
yards upstream from the tree in which it had perched the previous
evening.

I heard it call once some distance away, then it suddenly appear-
ed almost opposite my hide, flying low over the water. it saw me
the instant I raised my gun and giving a honk of alarm swerved
away, but a charge of No. 5 brought it down into the river from
which it was retrieved a few minutes later. The bird was a fine
male and apparently in nuptial plumage. Its crop was full of small
black pyramidical seeds of an aquatic plant which abounds in the
jheels in Assam.

When the two ducks were observed together earlier in the year,
they were in the habit of calling to each other using the low whistle
which appears to be the ordinary calling note. When alarmed the
note is a loud goose-like ‘honk’. It is probable that the drake
spends the day on some distant jheel or on the river and visits the
nesting duck every night; but as the nest has not yet been dis-
covered this cannot be confirmed. The female, when last seen,
closely resembled the male, whose description follows.

Weight, 6% ibs.

The bird orowned to be good eating though a trifle coarse. The
flavour was not marred by either a fishy or muddy taste. It would
have been improved considerably by sage and onion stuffing, though
this luxury was unfortunately denied us.

604 InpD. E. & M. Coy., I.E., S.E.A.C. a, (C, IBUOMICISUINI SON,
1st August 1945. Major, R.E.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

16.—DO SNAKES DRINK MILK?

While reading Marvels of Reptile Life by W. S. Berridge, F.z.s.,

I have come across the following interesting passage :—

‘All snakes drink very freely, and many of them are very fond
of milk. In India, the natives will place saucers full of milk near
the hiding places of cobras, or in the temples where they are
worshipped, in order to propitiate the reptiles; while the Racer or
Whip Snake, to quote the words of Lawson ‘‘haunts the Dairies of
careless Housewives, and never misses to skim the Milk clear of
Cream’’.’

I have experimented with two cobras and a saw-scaled viper
and I can assure you that none of these snakes showed the slightest
inclination to take this inviting drink. I have spent some years in
places where dangerous snakes, including cobras, are quite com-
mon, but I know no instance of any snake having even touched
a saucer of milk either offered to it or left by a careless housewife.
A learned friend of mine has positively declared that the belief that
snakes drink milk is quite erroneous and that milk forms no part of
their diet. I may add here that this friend of mine has kept many
live snakes.

You know well that Indian snake-charmers play upon the be-
lief of laymen that snakes have a strong liking for milk and these
garudiwalas induce the public to pay something to feed their reptile
pets on milk. I have more than once offered an attractive tip to
snake-charmers if they would feed their snakes on milk before my
eyes and I assure you that every time either they have failed or
refused to demonstrate on some pretext or another.

May I request you to let me know your views on this interest-
ing subject?

80 A, Kura Roap,

ANDHERI. VERVE NENSIGF
20th February 1946. Advocate.

[A thirsty snake will readily drink any liquid, be it water or
milk, to quench its thirst, but will show no preference for milk.
Milk is not a reptilian food.—Ebs. |

17.—AESTIVATION OF THE FROG RAMANELLA
MONTANA (JERDON).

At Khandala, Western Ghat, on the 20th January 1945 while
turning out the debris in a hollow of a tree, I turned out what,
at first sight, appeared to be two coleopterous larvae which had
been ruptured in the process, but on closer examination they proved
to be a pair of frogs, Ramanella montana. The hollow was about
two feet above the ground and its contents were slightly damp.
The behaviour of the frogs at the time of disturbance was certainly
curious. The short legs were stiffly, and well tucked into the body
and handling did not induce the animals to move them; the body
skin was thrown into numerous folds; a strong fold of skin across

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 405

the head forming a high ridge close behind the eyes from under
which the strikingly small, beady eyes peered out. In this condi-
tion the animals looked in all the world as though they were a pair
of ruptured larvae of the Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes sp.). In
general colouring they were a pale olive grey above and heavily
mottled with deep brown and grey below; a brownish, black
bordered band crossed the thigh, the middle of the leg, and a third
a little way below the ‘heel’. When the legs are drawn up the three
bands appear confluent; similar bands crossed the forearm and the
‘wrist’; a black, broken W-shaped marking was visible at the base
of the skull, anterior to this are two black spots and another nearer
the snout. The markings appear to be permanent and are still visible
in preservation.

On dissection the two proved to be male and female. Except
for size, and some paler patches behind the head and about the
loins in the male, there did not appear any marked external differ-
ences between the sexes. The female measured 45 mm. from snout
to vent, and the male 33 mm. An examination of the gonads indi-
cated that the ovaries were slightly enlarged and the ova distinctly
granular. The fat bodies were much enlarged and filled the greater
part of the abdominal cavity. The testes of the male were still small,
and like the female, the fat bodies were enlarged and occupied a
considerable portion of the body cavity.

Be it coincidence or otherwise, this was the first time I found
a pair, male and female, of this frog aestivating together. It is
well-known that some other species of frogs collect and aestivate
together in the same cavity.

BomBay NATURAL History Society,
BomBay, C. McCANN.
20th March 1946.

18.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF RANA LEITHII BOULENGER.

Judging from the fact that ik. letthii was represented by a
single specimen, the type, in the British Museum, Natural History,
up to the time it was ‘rediscovered’ by me at Khandala (vide Journ.,
B.N.H.S., xxxvi, p. 167) it would appear to be a rare species,
but since then I have been able to record it from various other
localities in the Bombay Presidency, viz. Gersoppa Falls, N.
Kanara; Kanari Caves, Salsette Island; Lingmala Falls, near
Mahableshwar; and recently I collected it at Matheran, the type
locality.

In most of the above-mentioned localities the frogs were fre-
quent, but at Matheran they were definitely very common at dusk
after the thunder showers on the 1oth and rith June (1945). There
were actually hundreds hopping about the roads, among the rocks
of the boundary walls and among the fallen leaves. When [I men-
tioned to my companion Mr. Manek Captain that the frogs appeared
to me to be the ‘rare’ R. leithu he rightly had the laugh of me,

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

for R. leithi it was, and it was there in its hundreds, and so I must
now substitute the word common for the word rare.
The Matheran specimens were in breeding condition.

BomBay Natura History Society,
BomBay, C. McCANN.

14th June 1945.

19.—STRONG ODOUR EMITTED BY THE FUNGOID FROG
(RANA MALABARICA).

In my articles on Reptilia and Amphibia I referred to Rana
malabarica as the Fungoid Frog on account of the close resemblance
of its colouring to one of the bark or wood attacking fungi. At the
time when I gave it this name, I was not aware of its ability to
enhance the camouflage by emitting a powerful fungoid odour. In
most cases I had dealt with it in the open. When on a short visit
to the Tansa Lake I found one of this species inhabiting the bath-
room of the bungalow. I closed the doors of the room and tried
to catch it. As soon as I chased it about I became aware of a
strong fungus-like odour in the room: for a while I could not
account for the smell. When I caught the animal the odour became
stronger than ever, and so I immediately suspected the frog as the
author of the scent. When I put it to my nose for confirmation,
there remained no doubt. To make sure I asked my companions
to verify my observations, they agreed that the frog did give out
a strong smell. |

The dorsal surface of R. malabarica is highly glandular ; in this
respect it is not the only species, and it will be interesting to know
whether the other species are also capable of emitting an odour.
In R. malabarica there appears to be little doubt that the odour
coupled with its colouring and habits afford it protection {rom many
a would-be enemy.

BomBay NATURAL History SOCIETY,
BomBay, C. McCANN.

20th May 1946.

20.—A RECORD MAHSEER.
(With a plate)

I enclose a photograph of a Mahseer I caught in the upper
regions of the Cubbany River on 22-3-1946 :—

Weight: 120 pounds.

Length: 66% inches.

Girth: 414 inches.

Mouth diameter: 10 inches.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

120 lb

te)

ver, My

the Cubbany R

Omi

(Barbus tor) fr

Mahseer

A Record

‘ " .
Lady edinecer baie.

1B ote Jor ne, mal iniper A mwohh buy

a Fc :
s Rb Ale ae Lee

aoe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 407

The previous record was held by Colonel Rivett Carnac, caught
in 1919:—

Weight : 119 pounds.

Length: 64 inches.
Girth: 42 inches.

The photograph was taken nearly 24 hours after the fish was
caught.
As this is the record Mahseer, its publication will be of interest.

“BISSAL MUNTI’,
Mysore, J. DEWET VAN INGEN.
tith April 1946.

21.—ON THE BIONOMICS OF THE INDIAN SPRAT
[SARDINELLA GIBBOSA (CUV. & VAL.).]'

The Indian Sprat, Sardinella gibbosa (Cuv. & Val.) is a
shoaling fish is of economic importants. It occurs in the Palk Bay
and the nerthern portion of the Gulf of Manaar, throughout the
year. It is captured by means of shore seine nets, cast-nets and
drift nets, and is chiefly sun-dried for export to the districts of
Madura and Trichinopoly, and to Ceylon.

Size.—About one thousand specimens ranging in size from 5
to 16 cm. were examined. The commercial catches consist mainly
of fish measuring 13 to 15 cm. long, but in April and May, large
numbers of young sprats, 5 to 1o cm. in length, are attracted by
night by torch-flares, into shallow waters, and baled into the canoes
with hand nets. This indiscriminate fishing, irrespective of size,
may have an adverse effect on the future fisheries. Sexual maturity
is attained when the fish reaches a length of 14 cm.

Food.—The diet of the fish consists of plankton. The following
organisms have been found in its stomach :—

Zooplankton.—Foraminifers, Sagitta spp., larval bivalves, Cre-
seis acicula, Spiratella spp., Nauplius larvae, Zoea larvae, Megalopa
larvae, copepods, Leucifer hanseni, Rhopalophthalmus egregius, and
fish-larvae.

~ Phytoplankton.—Coscinodiscus, Detonula, Fragilaria, Rhizoso-
lenia, Thalassiothrix and Trichodesmium.

Crustacean larvae, Pteropods and Trichodesmium form the chief
food of this fish. Its fishery will, therefore, fluctuate in accordance
with the paucity or profusion of the plankton. This fish ts also
one of the few which feed on the arrow-worms, Sagitta spp. The
presence of foraminiferan shells in the stomach of specimens

—_——— -_— = Fe

1 Part of work done by the author at the Krusadai Biological Station, Gult
of Manaar. Published. with the permission of the Director of Industries and
Commerce, Madras.

_# Specimens of Sardinella brachysoma (Bleeker) and S$. sindeisis, Day, are
also represented in the shoals in small numbers.

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST SO CIE LYS SViolaA76

examined on certain days suggests that the fish fed on some fora-
miniferan ooze. Fish-larvae were never numerous, though they
were frequently found in isolated specimens.

Spawning season.—The Indian Sprat has a single but prolonged
spawning period, from September to February. Specimens with
fully transparent eggs were obtained in December and January.
Specimens partly or fully spent were seen in January and February.

Eggs.—The ripe ova measure 0.56 to 0.60 mm. in diameter.
Eggs obtained from the plankton measured 0.58 to 0.64 mm. in
diameter. No attempt has been made to investigate the embryonic
and larval development.

Enemies.—Specimens of the Indian Sprat have been recorded
in the stomach-contents of the following fishes :—Chirocentrus dorab
(Forskal); Otolithus ruber (Bl. Schn.); Lactarius lactarius, Cuv. &
Val.; and Sphyraena obtusata, Cuv. & Val.

FISHERIES BRANCH,
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE, Pele CHACK@:

MADRAS.

22.—-MOVEMENT GCF A GROUP OF INSECTS IN INDIA.

Near the town of Vyara, in the State of Baroda, Surat District,
India, one day I noticed a smail group of insects moving across the
verandah floor. They seemed to be travelling in formation. At
almost regular intervals all stopped and started simultaneously.
There were approximately fourteen in the group and were arranged
somewhat as follows :—

O O Om 9)

o) 10)

I judge the distance they covered between each start and stop
was approximately one inch and the stops were of about one second
duration. By observation no detection of a leader could be made
for all seemed to start and stop simultaneously.

This kind of motion continued across the verandah, a distance of
about six feet until an ant came into the formation. This confused
them temporarily and they drew off into two divisions, but as the
ant moved on they gradually came back together regaining their
former rhythm and almost the same formation.

The insect was small in size, approximately that of a Drosophila,
or a bit larger. Its shape was somewhat that of a grasshopper. In
colour it was light grey or brown.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 409

The above data is given from memory after an interval of five
or six years but I think it is essentially accurate. The formation
and naotion of the group was so unique that it is difficult to forget.

EARL M. ZIGLER,
Missionary.

[The above note was sent to us by Dr. C. B. Williams, Head
of the Department of Entomology, Rothamstead Experimental
Station, Harpenden, Herts, for publication in the hope that
some reader may be able to solve the problem and obtain speci-
mens.—EDs. |

23.-—A ‘HERMIT’ SPIDER.

About the middle of November last, I bought a number of bota-
nical specimens from the Victoria Gardens. One specimen of
Memycelon edule (Melastomaceae) had an open cocoon of a moth
suspended from the branch and in it was lodged a beautiful yellow
coloured striped spider which has been identified by the Zoological
Survey of India as a female of a Olios sp. (The species could not
be identified as the specimen was immature.) This to my mind
is the first record of a spider inhabiting the cocoon of a moth,
and so I hasten to record it in your Journal.

WILSon COLLEGE,
Bombay, MOSES EZEKIEL.
rith April 1946.

[Spiders will often occupy any convenient cavity either as a
retreat or, as a ‘safe deposit’ for their egg-cases. We have known
them to occupy the ‘bore holes’ made by beetle larvae, Humble-bees.
(Xylocopa), and also the deserted cells left in the mud nests of
mason wasps.—EDs. |

24.—ABNORMAL FLOWERING OF CAREYA ARBOREA
ROXB. IN KHANDALA.

Careya arborea Roxb. is a very common tree about Khandaia.
Under normal circumstances, when the tree is in leaf, it is very con-
spicuous on account of the large size of its leaves; during the
flowering and fruiting season, the size of the flowers and the dis-
agreeable smell of the fruits cannot fail to draw the attention of
even the least observant of botanists.

New leaves begin to come out at the beginning of the rainy
season, when most of the over-ripe and evil-smelling fruits fall from
the tree. The leaves are large and of a bright green colour, until
the approach of the flowering season. Towards the end of February
leaves slowly turn from green into various shades of brick red, and
then gradually fall off, until there remains but the bare skeleton of
the tree. Buds appear shortly after leaf-fall, some time in the middle

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

of March; flowers may be seen from the second half of March on-
wards up to May.

On January 24, 1942, Mr. C. McCann and myself noticed a tree
on Behram’s Plateau near Khandala which showed very marked
irregularity in its flowering rhythm. One branch, about one-third
of the tree, was in full bloom and without a single leaf on; the rest
of the tree was still fully clothed with all its leaves and did not
show any signs of approaching flowering. On further examination
we found that a large fire had been lit just beneath the branch
in question, and that in consequence of the fire ail the leaves had
either been burnt or scorched; there resulted a general leaf-fall for
that particular branch, the scorched or. half-burnt leaves still cover-
ing the ground beneath the scorched branch. This particular branch
was at the time loaded with flowers and buds, exactly like any other
branch at the proper flowering time at the end of March.

The rest of the tree, which had not been affected by fire, only
came into flower at the end of March of the same year; by which
time the abnormal branch had normal ripe fruits. —

Two explanations occur which may explain this abnormal be-
haviour of Careya. Possibly flowering and fruiting is induced by
defoliation; or perhaps a considerable rise in temperature even for
a short time may be responsible for the sudden flowering of the tree.
These two points are easy enough to test experimentally, and may
be taken up in the case of Careya and similar deciduous trees; I
leave it to experimental plant physiologists to settle such an inter-
esting subject, from the solution of which we may expect to get an
insight into the agencies controlling the strange behaviour of some
of our Indian deciduous trees.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

Bomsay, H. SANTAPAU, -s.}.
12th March 1946. | |

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V, M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,
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EDITORS : S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN AND SALIM ALI, 6 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

THE

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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

30MBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

S. H. PRATER, 0.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.s., C. McCANN, F.L.s.
and SALIM ALI

VOL. 46

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing 3 coloured plates, 33 black and white plates, and
56 text-figures

Dates of Publication

Part 3. (Pages 411 to 566)

. December 1946
el ciated |

», 967 to 746) ... April 1947

LONDON AGENTS
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weer = f AGL

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46
No. 3

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
Part XXVear By eNeel BOT, Clin), MPS., DISCAMEL St,
LF.S., and M. B. Raizada, M.sc. (With 1 coloured plate
of the Coral Plant and 4 black and white plates)...... 1.0.20 +0

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XVI.
By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. c....cceeecesese

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER IN KASHMIR. By W. T. Loke.
(MUTA Gs UTTER ER AD to Sl a Nez, in tae ee deh

DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF FISHING IN THE RIVERS OF THE
HILL RANGES OF TRAVANCORE. By S. Jones, M.SC.......

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE Siercul7as OF THE BoMBAY
PRESIDENCY. By Charles McCann, F.Lis. (With 1
PUQLC) warvasnene ease eee soe one setlesteser jase estas as slots ese cee conte e:

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND
BRACKISH-WATER FisHkEs. Part II. By S. Jones, M.Sc.
(CVUZGEORPLAL ES covet ee cio cen canine s0ds cose oehihan ceases she's 0/06 o00 «se

THE Witp Ass or Kutcu. By Salim Ali. (With 2
PUGLES) eae Perera ois thes lite oo Feast. cto ch Ios fe tetoiioy Yo bin SE» vega tt ices 123 ser

SomE SUGGESTIONS FOR FIELD ORNITHOLOGISTS IN Post-
WAR BurMA. Part Il. By Lt.-Col. J. K. Stanford, o.B:z.,
Me Ge MeBtOs UE RG Suis auerewnses Tava dancnsancasteite Va. sree.

A Brrp PHOTOGRAPHER’s MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR. Part II.
By: Lt.-Col., B.-E...Phillips..... (W729. plates) wisi. ....05 0 fates

Tue LAMMERGEIER (Gypaétus barbatus LINNAEUS.) By
EB. H: N. Lowther, m.3.0.U., F.z.S.° (W2th 6 plates).........

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE Jallobhaga AND THE Hipfo-
boscidae INFESTING Birps. By M. Atiqur Rahman Ansari,

Somr BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN Coast. By Major
Cy IACI AlICe ie comer cette ee cern ee ee eta mes See aT AY

A New PEST OF SUGARCANE IN InpIA—Jcerya pilosa nardt
Green (Coccidae). By T. V. Venkatraman, M.sc. (With
PUDIGLES Var eRe seater eos Concrete Si dde6 den CLBdSo BSB Ecb duo atic

PAGE

411

413

431

437

445

453

472

516

524

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

A FisHeRy SurRVeEy OF River Inbus. By Dr. Hamid Khan,
M.SC:, LL.E-,,PH.D., FeNcl.,sheA.SC.) ((VIZ2L/0 3 PLAteS) weecterties

REVIEW :—

The new Fauna of British India volume on Snakes

AnsAppeal: cits. ees ee ere wcloes sic co Pease

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

ug;

Musk-shrew attacking a Bull-frog. By V. M.

Nesting habits of the Flying Squirrel Petaurisia
PAUEPDEUSISS. UBY WAcd Hep el Uti Nae eer ene

‘Record Elephant.’ By R.C. Morris, M.L.A.......

Death of six Elephants. By R. C. Morris,
Males

‘An “sri see ae Major E R. hie aums

Bird notes of the Arabian and Red Seas. By
Pa yOAR. SMaclaren’...nc scosesen cence one: ace
Babar the Great on Flamingos. By Se Ae
Akhtar... cee CRNA VLE OE at
Occurrence of Bal! fidaaed Goose sty znadicus
(Latham)] near Hyderabad City wey By
M. Rahimullah, D.sc.. ru
The Red-Crested Pochard Deke Dee in
Southern India. By F/O H. G. Lumsden..
Magpie Robin’s nest in a House. By F. Kingdon

eee eer coe eee , Fee eee eee ewe eee eeeeeseeesee ._ , See eeeseon

Bird notes on the Dhal Lake, Kashmir. By C.ck;
Milner

eeeeaeras sean see seosr see oes vooerreeseeereeeeuereaeeserores seas

. Anchylosed fangs and solid teeth in Snakes.

By F. Gordon Cawston

eee ees seeerceeors oer eeesee steer eossee

Consideration of the Successional Theory of
Meeths Bveh..Gordon Cawston.....- eee.
Habits of the Baka Fish [Barbus (Lissochilus)
hexagonolepis McCl.]. By R. M. Pizey..........
The giant freshwater Fishes of Asia. By
O. G. Kiernander
List of Crop Pests of the Bombay Presidency.
By DaiG. Sevastopulo,eRsRobis..cs..--cem acres

eeowewot ee NFS ewes ee see ecesneeeeerosensee see

536
538

SED)

556

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

17. Dragon-fly preying on a Scorpion. By J. A.
Hislop...

18. Sea Anemones as enemies of Bivalves ? > By TING
Subrahmanyam, B.A.. ah bd.
19. Malayan National Park. BS E. O. JeMineanen
20. Five-bunched Inflorescence of a Banana (Musa
paradisiaca Linn. var.) By ‘Trupapur A.
Davis. (With a plate)... teciinaees
21. A multi-headed Palmyra nee flabelliter yh.)
By Trupapur A. Davis. (With a plate)......
Variation in the numbers of floral parts in Jas-
minum malabaricum Wt. By H. Santapau,

19
~~)

No. 4

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
PAT GOOG cn sO Yaw Nemes Or, Cal.Es) MsAs, D.SC.,.'ReE.S:,
and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (Wzth 1 coloured and 6
UALS GLE THOR OILED ESO OO OO OO OO OOO

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XVII.
By wGe SEVaSlopulO yh. ReneS i seein a sh cere noe ioc est scat

GAs HUAN doyereA. GICNINC....2016. sensicece soasecken cas cetiees

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE OF S.S. Saneluzon.
By W. W. A. Phillips, F.L.S., M.B.O.U...... PS scikeeas

REPTILES OF COCANADA. By Garth Underwood. (With 2
TADS) See etoseerrl fas safe 8 Sh sto cteindh ve nGlaeels van Sarwoieielesoew ne *e0 nes

FIELD NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF TINNEVELLY, SOUTH
INDIA. By\G.iWiebb-Peploe. (Wzth a plate)...... .....

CAECA OF SOME INDIAN Birps. By J. L. Bhaduri and
B. Biswas. (With a text-figure)... s sore pet oa sabe orton Beats ly

FISHING CONTRIVANCES USED IN H. LE. H. Tur NIZAM’s
Dominions. By S. Mahmood, M.sc., and M. Rahimullah,
DSC, PZ SAPAS SA Re ae

Some CoMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANA-
TOMICAL CHARACTERS. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With
Si PLGLCS) ER Reset netrsart hehehe die Sabs SESS SIS ee eel ee weesbinns tes

STUDIES ON THE SPOTTED BOLLWORMS OF CoTTroN—Zayvias
fabia S., and &. znsulana B. By M. C. Cherian and M. S.
K ylaSama.e,.tererhen trios occa d asso AE GRY. LO ERI oF on. oe copes

PAGE

557

958

558

562

563

567

575
587

593

613

629

645

649

655

658

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

BIRD LIFE IN AN-ASSAM JUNGLE. By F. N, Betts..............

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BroLocy oF Aphis nerii (Fonsc.) By
Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura...............

Notrs ON SOME BUTTERFLIES FROM PENANG AND WELLESLEY
PROVINCE, MALAYA. By J. W. Rawlins... ...........00 cee eee

NoTES ON BIRDS COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA—1935 to
19454 BytAleGs Trott: Acree... ctetees. . ov eeiee

Tur MovEMENTS OF THE Rosy Pastor IN INDIA—(Pastor
voseus L.). By Humayun Abdulali. (With a map)

REVIEWS :— |

Memoir of the Angler’s Club, Madras, (R.W.B.).............
United States National Museum Bulletin 186. The Birds
of Northern Thailand ug LS \iitR. 2 23 RR Tes Aen ee
Far Ridges es McC, sen
APPEAL :-—
Research Rachest.

Comoeece toreoe®F to OBF oe e FSH EHH SOOHEOHMOH eset GH ase FOF POKES og

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. The sense of smell in tigers. By T. E. H.
2. Destruction of cattle by tiger ex masse. By
IRE Ce MOCLISt a acct scans are eee ee

3. Five shots within two hours at the same panther.
By. ElGibbOnn.. ssn ese

4. Reversal of feeding habits in a deer and a dog.
By Sivatosth Mookerjee...

5. Natural death of elephant. By E Fle Gibbon.

6. The size of Indian elephants. By P. D. Stracey.
7. The record Serow. By Van Ingen and Van

Ingen. (With a photo)........ Se roaios aces ent ss
8. *Shamming death’. By R.W. Burton...........
9. Spot-light shooting. By G. dela P. Beresford...

10. On the nesting of the Red-browed Finch [ Cadla-
canthis burtont Pe By ALY Bask:
Waters .

11. The status of the Pied-crested oun and Gres

Indian Bustard in Jasdan State. By Shree
Yuvrajtot Masdansrcercecstrricar:

Caonmocne

PAGE
667

684

687

691

704

709
709
(pel

712
(Be

113

714

715
716
717

718
719
720

722

123

13.

14.

5.
16.

18.

19.

20.

21.

(Me

23.

24.

gS ¥

26.

Ode

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

The Koel [Hudynamzs scolopaceus (Linn.)] as an
egeg-stealer. By A. E. Bagwell Purefoy.......
Breeding of the Blue-cheeked Bee-eater ((/ervops
superciliosus persicus Pallas) in Bhavnagar
State. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhii..........

Breeding of Palm Swift [Zachornis batassiensis
palmarum (Gray)| and Coot (fulica atra atra
Linn.) in Bhavnagar. By K. 8. Dharmakumar-
Sinh glo... ccastecn) steed a) oe

A swimming Peregrine. Fa W.’ als Toke. hae wees

Painted Sandgrouse and other game birds in
Mysore. By G. V. R. Frend........

Occurrence of the Malay Bittern (Gorsakius m.
melanolophus) in Mysore. By G. V.R. Frend..
The Kentish Plover (Leucopolius alexandrinus
Linn.) breeding in Kathiawar. By K. S.
Dharmakumarsinhgiviladslakecs PI. Jee:

Woodcock (Scolofax rusticola Linn.) feeding with
poultry. By E. G. Deeks..

Note on the migrations e jeunes: s Snipe
[Capella megala (Swinhoe)]| and Fantail Snipe
[C. gallinago oa M in Malaysia. By J. E.
Kempe... busts Wists s[eebVew apleh do eiointroc liens ee acon e es

Occurrence ee the mailsbober Swan eae cygnus
(Linn.)] and Great European Bustard (Of7zs tarda
Linn.) in the Punjab. By A. D. H. Bivar......

Recoveries of ‘ ringed’ duck. By Editors

Dawn-chorus in a South India forest. By C. G.
Wiel bsBeplocrsa vcmaes cece costes deste mien oer w ewes

Mango fruit—on the menu of the Common
Python eee ee By Sivatosh
Mookerjee... ,

Sex of Mahseer and Betae caught in N.E. “Tada
BYP mWiOolley Simithats mesercsews tones ecs os suece ce

Kraits’ method of defence against cat. By V. M.
Vasu..

Additions to the noe ee SEneadicer of the Simla
Hills’ published in Vol. XLI, No. 4 (see also
Wolea wi, No. 2). By M.A’ Wynter-

vii
PAGE

723

724
725

UES

Wer

728

729

730

735

Viii

28.

i>)
wm

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46

Additions to ‘The Butterflies of the Nilgiris’
published in Vol. XLIV, No. 4 and Vol. XLV,
Nios di-5y) McA a Wynter Blyth <atocmet. ...

Note on the butterfly Valeria valeria hippia
(Fabricius) 9 form philomela. By M. A.
Wy nter-Blyth.. asr2: ecto. Ace. sata cath oie

An aberrant form of Veptis hyplas astola. By
Bo Wi Maude ( Withia latent ia. 0. ics... ee

The male genital tube in Indian Lampyridae. By
J. Samuel Raj. (Wazth 2 diagrams).......0......

“Termite.Fungi.) 5By CuMcGann?. .A<tetee oA!

Randia corymbosa Wight and Arn. (Rubiaceae) :
a new record for the Bombay Presidency. By
© McCann, ... sosnsms: ho, 03). ongthden santas «c.ssce.

The genus Cevopegia—a comment. By R. Sesha-
ott Rac telsc. Mo: age. eeeetiomecerdle oh ieee owacoes 22

Notes on self-pollination in two orchids. By
B. G. L. Swamy

eamereereerese vee eeeFeneserseorteeseaeoneoe

PAGE

736

AUILI ALA AIBIE TEN CAE ISIE AOL A HOPI AMEN ES MOY gS)
VOLUME 46

Nos. 3 and 4

ABDULALI, Humayun, ‘The
Movements of the Rosy Pastor
in India (Pastor roseus L.)

(With a map) see
AKHTAR, S. A.; Babar the
Great on Blemineos By

ALI, Skim, The Wild Ass of
Kutch. (With 2 plates)

ANSARI, M. ATIOUR RAHMAN,
M.Sc., Association between
the MWallophaga and _ the
Hi phoboscidae infesting
Birds acc ben

Bien PURtoe fst) Digg

The Koel [Hudynamis scolo-
paceus (Linn.)] as an Ege-
stealer eee
BERESFORD, Maj.-Gen. G. de la
P., Spotlight shooting :
Betts, F. N., Bird Life in an
Assam Jungle cas
BHADuRI, J. L., Caeca of some
Indian Birds. (With a text-
figure) see
Biswas, B., see Deven J Uh
Bivar, A. D. H., Occurrence of
the Whooper Swan [(Cyguus
cygnus (Linn.)] and Great
European Bustard (Otzs
tarda Linn.) in the Punjab...
BOR, Nivly Crl.E-, M.A.; DeSCes
F.L.S., LF.S., and Raizada,
M.B., M.SC., Some Beautiful
Indian Climbers and Shrubs.
Part XXIV. (With1 coloured
and 4 black and white
plates) ee
Part XXV. (With
1 coloured and 6 black and
white plates)
Burton, Lt.-Col.
‘ Shamming death ’

Re Wes

PAGE

704

545

472

509

723

720

667

645

731

411

567

ls) &

CawsTOoN, F. Gorpon, Anchy-
losed fangs and solid teeth
in Snakes eee eee

Consider-

Successional

ation of the
Theory of teeth %.

CHERIAN, M. C., and Kyrasam,
M. 8., Studies on the Spotted
Bollworms of Cotton—avias
fabia S., and &. insulana B.

Davis, TRUPAFUR A., Five bunch-
ed inflorescence of a Banana
(Musa paradisiaca Linn, var.)
(With a plate)

A init

headed Palmyra (Sorassus

flabelliter L.) (Witha plate)...

DEEKS, E.G., Woodcock (Scolo-
pax rusticola Linn.) feeding
with poultry aS Yee

DHARMAKUMARSINHYJI, K. &.,
Breeding of the Blue-cheeked
Bee-eater (JMWerops super-
ciliosus persicus Pallas) in
Bhavnagar State

Breeding of

Palm Swift [Zachornis bata-

stensis palmarum (Gray) ]

and Coot (Fulica atra atra

Linn.) in Bhavnagar es

The ene
ish Plover (Leucopolius
alexandrinus Linn.) PaaS
in Kathiawar

Ep1rors, Recoveries of ee
ed’ duck is

FREND, G V. R., Painted
Sandgrouse and other game
birds in Mysore

————— Occurrence of mre
Malay Bittern (Gorsakius m.
melanolophus) in Mysore

—

PAGE
Gye)

D092,

658

729

723

726

732
725

727

GIBBON, H., Five shots within
two hours at the same
panther és bine

——_——— Natural death of
KK lephant Sah we.

GLADMAN, Major J. C., Some
Butterflies of the Arakan
Coast ; een es

GLENNIE, Ee eas; Cave
Fauna ...

Histop, Maior J. A. cone fly
preying ona Saciaion :
Hutton, A. F., Nesting habits
of the Flying-Squirrel Petaur-
ista philippensis

JonEs, S., M.Sc., Destructive
methods of fishing in the

Rivers of the Hill Ranges of

‘Travancore cae

Breeding nl De-
velopment of Indian Fresh-
water and _ Brackish-water
Fishes. (With 2 plates)

Kemper, J. E., Note on the
migrations of Swinhoe’s Snipe
[Capella megala (Swinhoe)]
and Fantail Snipe [ C. gadllin-
ago (Linn.)] in Malaysia

Kuan, Dr. Hamid, M-Sc.,
EBs, @PN. Dig) HeNelss tisAcSC.,
A Fishery Survey of River
Indus. (With 3 plates)

KIERNANDER, Major O.G., The
Giant Freshwater Fishes of
Asia.

KrnepokaWwaeen i, Magoic
Robin’s nest in a House

KyrasaMm, M.°8., seé Cherian,
M.C.

LoxE, W.T., A Bird Photo-

grapher in Kashmir. (W2th
4 plates) 300 on
— A ae
Peregrine 600 see a6
LowtTHER, E. H.N., M.B.O.U.,
B.Z.S., Lhe Tammerpeiee
(Gypaétus barbatus Lin-

naeus.) (With 6 plates)
LumspEN, F/O. H. G., The

Red-Crested Pochard (/Vetta

vufina) in Southern India ..,

PAGE |

714

716

516
587

957

539

437

730

529

555

549

431

725

501

548

LIST (OP CONTRIBORORS

MACLAREN, P.I.R., Bird notes
of the Arabian and Red Seas.
MagsMoop, S., M.Ssc., and Rahi-

muiJah, M. D.sc., F.Z.S., Fish-
ing Contrivances used in
H.E.H. The Nizam’s Domi-
nions... sis aoe on
Mauve, E. W.; An aberrant
form of Neptis hyplas astola.
(With a plate) Aes
McCann, C., F.L.S., Field
Observations on the Sterculi-
as of the Bombay Presidency.
(With one plate) es,
‘Termite Fungi’
Randia corymbosa
Wight & Arn. (Rubiaceae).
a new record for the ie ae
Presidency
MIENER,,.C. ,E., Bird notes on
the Dhal wats, Kashmir
MOOKERJEE, SIVATOSH, Rever-
sal of feeding habits in a
deer and a dog

Mango-
fruit on the menu of the Com-
mon Python ( Python molurus)

Morris, R.C., M.L.A. ; ‘ Record
Elephant’ ay ae eae

Death _ of

six Elephants

———

Destruction
of cattle by Tiger en masse ...

PHILLIPS, LiguT.-Cor. B.T., A
Bird Photographer’s Musings
from Kashmir. Part IL.
(With 9 plates)

PHILLIPS, Mayor W. W. Ne

_ pEsL.S., M:B;0.U:, ,the Omnitne:
logical Diary of a Voyage of
S. S. Samluzon

PizEy, R. M., Habits of ria
Baka Fish PRGA ( Lissochi-
lus) hexagonolepis Mcel.] ...

RAHIMULLAH, M., D.Sc., F.Z.S.,
Occurrence of Bar-headed
Goose [Auser indicus (Lath-
am)] near Hyderabad City
(Deccan) : Sr ke

See MAHMOOD, S.,

M.SC,

PAGE

543

649

738

445
739

740

550

714

487

593

554

548

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE

RAIzADA, M. B., M.sc., See
Bor, N. L., ¢.1.E5, Meavy Disc; ;
F.L.S., 1.F.S.

Ras, J. SAMUEL, The male
genital tube in Indian Lam-
pyridae. (With 2 dia-
grams )

RAGS SO Re Seen ician fy The

genus Cevopegia—A Comment

RAWLINS, J. W., Notes on some
Butterflies from Penang and
Wellesley Province, Malaya...

SANTAPAU, H., s.J., Variation
in the numbers of floral
parts in Jasminum malabart-
cum Wt. 500 Soc

SAYEEDUD-DIN, E., Some
Common Indian Herbs with
notes on their Anatomical
Characters. (With 3 plates) ...

SEVASTOPULO, D.G.., F.R.E.S.,
The Early Stages of Indian
Lepidoptera. Part XVI

The Early Stages

of Indian Lepidoptera. Part

XVIT ss

List of Crop Pests
of the Bombay Presidency ...
SHEBBEARE, E. O., Malayan
National Park.. aa ee
SINHA, MAJOR R. DF, An
albino Boar’ ane eae
SmitH, T. E. H., The sense of
smell in Tigers :
STANFORD, LiEuT.-Cov. J. K.,
O.B.E., M.C., M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S-,
Some Suggestions for Field
Ornithologists in Post-war
Burma, Part I
STRACEY, P. D., The size of
Indian Hepnants oes Oo
SUBRAHMANYAM, T. V., B.A,
Sea Anemones as enemies of
Bivalves ons aes
Swami, B. G. L., Notes on self.
pollination in two orchics ...

738

742

687

563

655

413

575

478

717

558

743

Trott, A. C,, Notes on Birds
collected and seen in Persia—
1935 to 1945... a eee

UNDERWOOD, GARTH, Reptiles
of Cocanada. (With 2
graphs) ... Op

VAN INGEN AND VAN ineises

Record Serow. (With a photo).

Vasu, V. M., Musk-Shrew
attacking a Bull-Frog

Krait’s method of
defence against cat... eee

VENKATRAMAN, T. V., M.Sc.,
A New Pest of Sugarcane in
India—Jcerya pilosa nardi
Green (Coccidae). (With 2
plates) a

WATERS, MUNFRIEL Pe De, Ora
the nesting of the Red- rowel
Finch [Callacanthis burtoni
(Gould) ] sa8 ene des

WEBB-PEPLOE, C. G., Field
Notes on the Mamniale of
South Tinnevelly, South
India, (With a plate)

—— ——_——. Dawn-chorus in a
South India forest ioe

WooLEY SMITH, F., Sex of
Mahseer and Bokar Caught
in N. E., India .... $

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A.,, Addi-
tions tothe ‘ List of Butter-
flies of the Simla Hills’ pub-
lished in Vol. xli, No, 4 eee

Additions to ‘ The

Butterflies of the Nilgiris’

published in Vol. xliv, No. 4

and Vol. xlv, No. 1

—_——

—— Note on the
butterfly Valeria valeria

hippia (Fabricius) : form
philomela
YUVRAJ, SHREE, of pesaen
‘The status of the Pied-Crested
Cuckoo and Great Indian
Bustard in Jasdan State

PAGE

691

613
718
539

735

721

734

735

736

722

LIST OF PEATES
VOLUME 46
Nos. 3 and 4

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs
Plate XXVI. The Coral Plant (A. Russelia juncea Lucc.; B.

Russelia sarmentosa Jacq.) $55
Plate I. Russelia juncea Lucc. New Forest, Dehra Dun
Plater Il: a - ie * y
Plate Ill. Ausselia sarmentosa Jacq., New Forest, Dehra Dun
Plate 1V. ste 99 ” 9 9

A Bird Photographer in Kashmir
Plate I. Eastern Baillon’s Crake (Porzana pusilla)
Plate II. Willow- Warbler
Plate III. Grey-headed Thrush
Plate IV. Pallas’s Fishing Eagle (Haliaztas encoey eras)
Field Observations on the S/erculias of the ua Presidency
Plate Gynophores of Sterculiaceae
Breeding and Development of Indian Fresh- wate and Breech! water
Fishes
Plate’ Ts Bisss I-12 oe nes oon
Plate Il. Figs. 1-14
The Wild Ass of Kutch
Plate I. Wild Asses on the Rann
Plate II. A rough and ready method of weigiment
Close-up of wounded female
A Bird Photographer’s musings from Kashmir
Plate I. The Little Bittern oY
Plate II. The Purple Moorhen. The Dabchick
Plate III. The Indian Great Reed Warbler
The Kashmir Paddyfield Warbler \
Plate IV. The Pheasant-tailed Jacana
Plate V. The Whiskered Tern...

Plate VI. The Turkistan Water-Rail aes mee Si

Plate VII. The Northern Ruddy Crake. The Eastern Baillon’s
Crake.. oe me ae

Plate VIII. The ileal winged Stilt. Hodgson’s Yellow-headed
Wagtail... a ,

Plate IX. The Painted Snipe
The Lammergeier (Gypaétus barbatus) Linnaeus
Plate I. ‘The goal of every disciple of Richard Kearton in Hindus-
| tan must be the photographing of Gyaétus barbatus
at its cliff eyrie’ ‘
Plate II. ‘One of the finest birds in God’s ereatiene
Plate III. ‘ The illustration gives a good idea of the precipitons
crag on which the eyrie was built’
Plate 1V. ‘ The noise of the focal plane shutter going off caused dhe
bearded vulture to look searchingly in my direction’
A tit-bit for the squab O00 ove cy eee

PAGE

411
412
412
412
413

432
433
434
435

446

470
471

472
473
473

488
490

491
494
495
- 496
497

498
499

502
503

504

505
505

LIST OF PLATES

Plate V. ‘Myefforts at portraying the Lammergeier arriving at
its eyrie were greatly simplified by the young bird
giving warning ot the parental approach’

Plate VI. ‘As the huge bird dropped with a roaring crash on to
its nest-ledge, a number of high-speed photographs were
obtained of ‘ The Flying Dragon’

A New Pest of the Sugarcane in India—Jcerya pilosa OIE Gren
(Coccidae).
Plate I. Figs. 1-20. Jcerya pilosa nardi Green
Plate II. Photos 1 and 2. Jcerya pilosa nardi Green
A Fishery Survey of River Indus.
Plate I. Fig. 1. Game Warden, Punjab and Survey Staff
Fig. 2. Survey Boat on River Indus :
Plate II. Fig. 3. Village Officiais and Villagers ex Fone
Fig. 4. Survey Boat with a Field Laboratory
Plate HI. Fig. 5. Fishing with Drag-net in a dhand of River
Indus :
Fig. 6. Fishermen of Bhakar on Bee: Tate with a
Catfish (Wallago atiu) . in ‘
A Five-Bunched Inflorescence of a Banana asa baradisiaca ihn.
var.)

Plate I. A7usa with five bunches, Monthan, Colachal, South

Travancore .
A multi-headed Palmyra eon assis flabeiiter L. )
Plate II. A multi-headed Palmyra, Muttom, South Travancore
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs.

Coloured Plate. Changeable Rose ( Aiéiscus mutabilis Linn.)

Plate I. Changeable Rose (A/zbiscus mutabilis Linn.) ... Coss

Plate If. The Coral Hibiscus (Afibiscus schizopetalus Mast.)
Hook. f.

Plate III. Chinese Shoe flower Hibs VOSA-SINENSIS el )

Plate 1V. an Pe

Plate V. Rose of Stretton (Hibiser cus Syriacus Linn.)

Plate VI. " " Fe ie

Field Notes on the Mammals of South Tinnevelly, South Trae
Plate Fig. 1. Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra)
Fig. 2. Indian Fox (Vulpes bengalensis) :
Some Common Indian Herbs with Notes on their Rereronicall character

Plate I. LExicostemma littorale Blume Ves

Platew i PA + i,

Plate III. #7

An Aberrant Form of Wefptis pela A ible.
Plate Fig. 1. Uppersides
Fig. 2. Undersides
The Male Genital Tube in Indian Bemba
Plate I. Fig. 1. Lamprophorus tenebrosus W1x.
Plate II. Fig. 2. A +9 eae see
Fig. 3. Luciola gorhami Rits
Fig. 4. Diaphanes sp.

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME 46
Nos. 3 & 4
PAGE PAGE
Acrocephalus concinens hokrae — syrviacus
Pl. IIL 491 Pl. Avi 574
—— stentoreus brunnescens Pl. VI ai 575
Py? Til 491 | Aimantopus himantopus
Amaurornis fitscus bakeri Ble Vail 498
Pl. VII 497 | Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Antilope cervicapra PANS LINN, 494
Pl. wats ... 634 | JLcerya pilosa nardi
Borassus tlabelliter Pig 524
Pl. II 563 Rie tt song TOLD
Caeca of some Indian Birds Indian Freshwater and Brackish-
Text fig. cestatifiess POSS water Fishes.
Chlidonias leucopareia indica Pl. I 470
Pl. V 495 Pl. If 471
Diaphanes sp. [xobrychus minuta
Pl. IL 739 eh 488
Enicostemma littorale Jasminun malabaricun
Peet 656 Graph 565
Pl. U 656 Lamprophorus tenebrosus
Pl. IL 657 ze é bi
Crore nyeeo 434 Luciola gorhami
Pi 739
Gynophores of Sterculiaceae Motacilla citreola calearata
Pi. | we pl. VIL 498
Gypaétus barbatus Musa paradisiaca
Plea 502 PL.I 562
Pl. Il 503 Natrix piscator
Pl. Ill 504 Graon
5 phs si 625
Pl. IV 50 Neptis hyias astoia
Pl. V 506
Pl. VI 507 a ie
is : Pastor voseus
Haliaétus leucoryphus Map 125 706
Pl. 1V 435 | Petaurista philippensis
Hibiscus mutabilis Text-fig. HOA wo» O40
Coloured Plate .. 567 | Podiceps ruficollis capensis
Pi. I 570 Pl. Il 490
schizopetalus Porphyrio poliocephalus
Pl. Il 571 Pl. Il 490
— vosa-sinensis Parzana pusilla
Pl. Il 572 Pi 432
Pl. IV ene 573 Pl. VIL 497

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS RV

PAGE PAGE

Rallus aquaticus korejewt Survey of River Indus fishing

Biv Sas ... 496 Pi Ay 49)
Record Serow head els, ol Sho ee OSU

Photo es a ALS Piet a Ko Hl
Rostratula benghulensis Vanilla planitolia

Pl. IX se «. 499 Text-fig. ae we» = 74S
Russelia juncea Vulpes bengalensis

ied ase Sr el Pi: ses .. 634

Pals ms .. 412 | Wallago attu

Pals se one Perit ace ses POS
—— sarmentosa Wild Ass of Kutch

Pl eee eal Piet eas Yen, “472

Pl. III see meal Jai it Ss ero a73

BIS tvs sak ... 413 | Willow-Warbler
Spathoglottis plicata 16) gd WE one w. 433

Text-fig. aes we «744

An 7
1 NPA! ai We a

Poy Ms a
yes sire k i by hata jt

1: ae Tan
Rect Soa ,
A gist ww

Ral la sai :
u i eae |

dita lade age wglinee To ana bitty, | Pi, VO mtalasange
Few rs 7 ” bir’ fs save Lis [fh * vee Det a At ad
ecb ok if ai sy | SAM nately) bum nimampagel® el
me cwonnony op RIMBOMT-OOYE | EUR. Dyce "4 |

; ri ae a 4 Yi LF | 1h Phas sebnias marae it
: Sy ‘hone yi i 2 . ut vou PD and : Bt A-saat re.
ah ia Ais lcarva Aiea manrelt ' Lo ; S

ay 1

he 7

| PRATIOM

‘4 718 Ded Topas AG NAKED Yreah neat : wud Brag aah
Ou es Git | writes Fisher, ; = |
ae or 1»)
A tat 4 COIN ee id ina al ! - 7% ui
- 2. f eee US | ee
. f hj ’ i oObrycaws yetnulae ; 5, gine
; reee e} y yoo [ :
‘ 2 7 oe
fae ri A i = ae
, |

= arian» A BSPMEN wR abr iC | oe.
J ' : A ae (raph aer tee us a

; Te tao
| Uh, sg | Lamdrophorep lenetwosus ie
4 : ‘7 | We I - saa “ite way
i t Fl. tI 7? seas
! a4

j sal | J motile: eer hae - t
vt is satel ° o 7 i=
= ‘ee t] . iy _
es : ‘ eo ra4 as i :
' Mefacia cilreota calcorata —
. ¥
i}; Vil .

t faradssuida

ha
4ipt?

"Sets
Nao
t prs bd y wate
riage: BA pines i 73

ssf j fae i r . ¢
SOCAL Pie (AGT a . ] ex teSig

og ame
; Cdiiatedl Pit oy, ?? | v liedis po tiepdlis tapenna ; Pane i
' Pp), I os wh 1 € yy os 400°
amar BCH pb to tp oli 1) Bueplyers pallocsphalus call

mn Le Rm ee ee aa

ova te
fora-sinanse aves, feanttle ’
Vi] Ty ae ane St My h
Mw LY " vn BPS PLWH

‘Abisara echerius angulata

|———-— kausambioides

/-——— neophron cheline

/Abutilon

——-- hirtum.. see

/—-——— indicum
—-——- spp.

Acacia arabica

——— pennata

——-— planifrons
‘Acantholepis frauenfeldi
Accipiter nisus nisus
Accipitur virgatus
‘Acentrogobius neilli

‘Achaea janata...

Acherontia lachesis oe

| ——— Sfyx ...
Acosineryx naga

Acridotheres ginginianus

--———- tristis
—— tristis
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius

Acrocephalus concinens hokrae

viridipunctatus

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

ny tL pied

690

; 690
ae S50. toleye:
eat 662, 663
662, 663

662, 664

473

s— 442

cere Oo)

685

700

i? 631
...462, 463, 466
462, 468, 470
BEY

979

557, 580

oe eelG
209, 647

675

647

733

499

—— stentoreus brunnescens 436, 494

Acronicta indica

Actia hyslinata
Actinidia fulvicoma
Acenema hyssopifolium
Adolias dirtea

Adris tyrannus
Aegithina tiphia
————- —-—- tiphia
Aigypius monachus
Aflurops villosus
AZromachus pygmaeus
AXthiopsar fuscus

i thopyga gouldiae
————— siparaja
——_—_—_— Sp,

Ageratum

Agrobates galactotes

jadeitina

419
663
416
655
689
520
Sens oh BAR?
sinlaiteed47Z1
647

701

473

eed 523

nie 675

... 676

476

eeloll ss—452
672, 673, 676,
679, 713
i696

Ahaetulla

———--—— {TiStiS)s.. ;
Alaemon alaudipes swzbsp.
Alauda gulgula

——-- ———- chamarum
Alcedo atthis pallasii
hercules
meninting
Alcemerops athertoni ...
Alcippe nipalensis
poicicephala

Alectoris graeca caucasica

— ——— koroviakovi ...
Allotinus horsfieldi
Alseonax latirostris
Althaea officinalis

Althoea rosea a
Amaurornis fuscus bakeri
Ambassis

—_——— lala

————— miops

———-— nama

ranga
Amblycephalus
Amblyonyx cinerea
Amblypodia abseus ... aes
——_—_—_———- agaba agaba
———_—__—- ——- aurelia
———-—— amantes amatrix
—-—-—__—_-— atosia ae
———-—--— centatrus centaurus
———_—-— eumolphus maxwelli
BS NTS khamti

gularis ese

Ampelophaga ... aac
Amphipnous cuchia .«.
Ampittia dioscorides

Amsacta moorei... obs ry!
Anabas testudineus...

Anamirta coeculus

PAGE

671,

436,

460,

688,

ooo

536
622
694
480
436
436
480
480
680
683
671
703
704
690
673
569
662
499
467
466
460
460
460
536
636
690
522
522
922 ©
690
922
690
522
690
694

704
704
416
47)
523
556
459
442

XViil

PAGE
Anas angustiros tris 702
—— platyrhyncha 732
——-Strepera ... ar 702
Andropogon ischiemum 475
————-—. nardus 524
Anguilla 653
Anopheles ay 469
Anous stolidus 945
Anser indicus 548
———- sp. a 701
Anthracoceros malaparicns 680
Anthus pratensis oe 695
——— richardi 710
——— rufulus 710
——— sinensis z 710
——— sordidus deans 695
——— trivialis trivialis oat 695
Antilope cervicapra 643
Aoria (Macrones) aor 469
——- ——— (seenghala) 469
Aphanius dispar 454
Aphis nerii 684
Apidae Se aes 447
Aplocheilus ue aes : 466, 467
— — blockii soon, 080 404, 455, 456
————-—. lineatus 454, 468
————__—. melastigma 453
———— panchax ons 454
Apluda aristata 475
Appias albina darada 518
—— lyncida hippcides est selelgoke
_— vasva 688
——— paulina adamsoni .., awe [OLS
Apus apus tee ont Go. HY,
Arachnothera magna ... 5 677, 683
Arceuthornis pilaris cor OLS
Ardea cinerea... ay sare 402
—— — cinerea... 604, 701
——— purpurea: purpurea. convene OL
Ardeicola botauri “p 910, 514
Ardeola grayi ote 436
- grayii bo 500
Argya ae ay us 670
gularis we 479
——- subrufa a 670
Arius jella ass coi 466, 472
Artamus fuscus “i 647
Astur badius dussumieri ry: 648
——-~ trivirgatus one ee 680, €84
AstyCcus augias augias ... on 524

——-— pythias bambusae

INDEX OF SPECIES

924, 736

Atella phalanta
Athene brama indica
Atretium schistosum

Autoba (Eublemma) olivacea

Axis axis aes
Azadirachta indica
Bacteria malvacearuin ...
Badamia exclamationis
Badis badis

Balanophis

Bandicota kok

' Bandikota malabarica ...

Baoris conjuncta javana
zelleri cinnara

Barbus ee
- soaenasine
-esocinus ...
———.- khudree ...

- (Puntius) kolus 4)
-(puntius) micropogon subsp. |
periyarensis ve 4g
- (Puntius) pahicesnatre » 43)
- schejk ‘ «3 OS]
- tor i 469, 53|
- (Tor) khudree ... wl Sl
- xanthopterus 55
Barilius bendelisis 47,
— gatensis ... 4%)
Bassus Sp. sae Lf 66)
Batasio travancoria 43
Berberis 6¢
Betta pugnax 46
——-splendens ... 45
Bhringa remifer ... 67,
Biduanda thesmia 69
Bignonia megapotamica 58
Bindahara phocides phocides ... 52)
Bitis aA ste toy)
——-- arietans 55,
Boarmla acaciaria 42)
Boiga trigonata ... & 62
Boleophthalmns boddaerti we = 46)
Bombax as 671, 675, 70
———- malabaricum 707, 706
Bombyeid oft 67.
Borassus dlchotoma ... 56
— ~ flabellifera 56¢
Botaurus lentiginosus 5] 4
—- stellaris 72)
a ———- stellaris an 1 AO)

- (Lissochilus) pexsconelepe 472, 5!

Manis
Vamarhynchus

iOS Qaurus

Virachydanio Aibolmentes ‘
}rachypternus benghalensis eer

| lensis

)irachypteryx pelea:
|iubo bubo ruthenus
Jpubulcus ibis coromandus
)—-——_- —- ibis

' julweria buiwerii
Jiungarus caeruleus
iuteo frondosa

meto rufinus rufinus
falandrella raytal
)allabraxas amanda

| Vallacanthis burtoni

} allichrous bimaculatus
vallidrepana patrana
valliope pectoralis
Nallyna contracta

Jalotes versicolor ss
‘alotropis gigantea
aureus

— variegatus
apella gallinago

gallinago

Vapella megala ... ante

nemoricola

)——_——— stenura ...
Sapparis aphylla

— sepiaria

Saprimuleus ane 500
i—--_——. europaeus, subsp,
Saprona ransonnetti
Sapsicum frutescens
varassius auratus
Darduelis cannabina bella
——— carduelis loudoni
Sarine noctua bactriana
carissa carandas 33

Carpodacus re
———— erythrinus coer
Dasarca ferruginea
Cassia fistula =.

———— javanica ...
glauca BoC
Castalius caleta decidia
——.—— ethion ...
——-—— ethion ...
—=——~ rosimon

— —— rosimon

PAGE
559, 642
466

647
485
609
649
604
597
628, 735
706, 708
700
450
427
oe, A
469
413
673
421
617
634, 685

». 634

510
mylnnt510
726, 730
bane 703
730, 731
TG
726, 730
706, 708
708
Peegy4si

699

736
eno

ssf O99
579, 582
693
693
702
584
wo 004
coe «= OSE
seen L
ono fe (ale)
OCS
690
921

INDEX OF SPECIES

xix
PAGE
Catachrysops lithargyria 522
— strabo 922
Catapacilma elegans 690
major emas zoe OG0
Catopsilia crocale 518, 689
— florella, gonma 518
———-——. pomona 518
———_—\-— pyranthe 689
————— minna 518
——-——— scylla 689
=—. —— J. bidotata ... 518
—— —-— v. catilla ons Bs) uellte:
Catla catla : 471, 531, 533
Celxnorrhinus asmara ... 690
Celestrina pellecebra 620
Centropus bengalensis ... 679
—~-——— sinensis 679
— sinensis, sinensis 648
Cepora nadina nadina ... 518
ae nerissa dapha 515
Cerberus rhynchops 628
eropegia blatteri 742
—~--——. odorata 742, 743
— - evansii : 742
Ceryle lugubris guttulata set 1456
rudis rudis 604, 699
Cethosia cyane 021
——-——. methypsea 690
Chalcites maculatus Ba = 678
Chalcophaps indica ods See 681
—_—~- — indica A oe GSS
Chaimarrhornis lencocephala... 436
Channa orientalis 456
Chaptia aenea... 674.
Chara ae eos ey eee I IMOS0
Charadrius alexandrinus
alexandrinus soe ZOZ
———-——. dubius curonicus .., is 703
Charadrius jerdoni wes eae 436
Charaxes polyscena hierax we «920
Charmion ficulnea 690
Charronia gwatkinsi ooo 634
Cheritra freja freja 923
Chettusia leucura aes ae 703
Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni 703
Chlidonias leucopareia 483
. indica 495
Chloris chloris A: s..50692
Chloropsis aurifrons ... sec} 671, 710
= — hardwickii ... 671
— ——~—-—— jerdoni cae tee 67]

XX INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE
——_——— Spp, an A Ri omad2
Chibia hottentotta us im, sen 7 4:
-——— hottentotta ae 4: w. 674
wae hottentottart samp (4504
Chilades laius laius As 28) se 22
Chilasa clytia onpape ... a8 soon SHY
——_—— Jv. dissimillima ee eo mt 197
Chilomenes sexmaculata BAS OSS
Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus pene (/7/
Chrysopelia us Pe Wy 30
Ciconia ciconia ... 1 ee eee? (1
Cidaria aurigena aah Ae wm HS
——-— delecta ... , a fe GVG25
Cidaria silaceata ... its ee 3248426
Cinclus cinclus caucasicus fie Tes 1695
Cinnamomea a vee bn $37 10430
Cinnyris asiatica = Ade FRIST 412, 676
——— Spp. ... +P cay weeA'5 2
— zeylonica 535 BS, O83
Circus macrourus Be 8 AS
melanoleucus ... ap HUIS
Cirrhina mrigala Ae a 468, 470,
471, 531, 533
—reba .., ite if ee A712
Cirrochroa fasciata we; os eee ogi
ae tyche mithila ry, Te 2/1
Citharexylum subserratum ... VEO ISS)
Clamator jaccbinus jacobinus epee O47
Clerodendron spp. oat 10g eet
Clethrophora virida ... i 460010421
Clupea ilisha a ay Aa ser =D
Cocciniay:. ae SE S8 i |
Coccothraustes eoseDthTAUstSs
coccothraustes ... RY $219 4692
Cocctlus macrocarpus ... Se 048 18423
Coleus Hoe a AAS ade ee 5S

Colisa fasciata ... i sie 458, 459
labios@ ... mh if eA 59
lalia MA ey, 458, 459, 467
vulgaris ... oa A SoA ga sye:
Coluber... a a th eet S7

Columba livia... ee, "509, 912; 513
— gaddi, 2:5 a enene7O2
——_-———_ —— intermedia Lk 509, 648
Columbicola columbae ... ar 509, 513
Conservula indica if res So vat
v. brunneum Y ert)
Coprotheres pomarinus ble OHS 45
Copsychus 40 O53 u vee ene.
— saularis Lat "549, 672, 710
et -—saularis ... eee O47

Coracias benghalensis ...

——-~—-—- garrulus garrulus
Carallarrhiza

Cordia rothii a
Corvus brachyrhyncos eepent is.
— brachyrhynchus nee
- corax

——- cornix

eee

Coruix ... AEG
sharpii ...

- corone :
~ frugilegus fieileots Ba
————- macrorhynchos

— sp. ;
—-— emienene jeoléntiens os
Coryllis vernalis ...

Carypha unbraculifera ...
Cosmotriche ac
Coturnix coturnix coturnix
Cremastogaster dorhni...

sp.

ee Oe

Crex crex ...

Criniger

——_—— gularis

Crocodilus palustris

Crocopus phoenicopterus

——-—— phoenicoptertis
phoenicopterus

Croton tiglium

- kloteschianus

Crypsirhina cucullata ...

— varians

Ctenogobius acutipinnis

Cuculus canorus canorus

nee

Cuon alpinus BE
Cupha erymanthis ets
Curetis thetis

Cyanocitta stelleri smlien
Cyanopica americanus ...
cooki
Cyanops asiatica

——

—--— — asiatica :

Cygnus cyenus ...

Cynopterus sphinx aac

Daemia eee

Dafila acuta aes

Danais agleoides wot au ee.
————-- aspasia ... Age 689, 736, ail

——-—- Chrysippus

- benghalensis.

-- macropterus macropterus ..,

)——-— —--——-—.. margharita
i -gautama gautama
i limniace mutina “OO
j}—--— melanippus

i—- == ‘indicus
— plexippus

- similis vulgaris ..
Janio aequipinnatus
}—-- (Danio) malabaricus
—- malabaricus

atura see

deficiens

i --__- hectica
———— interposita
— ——-— marginalis ...
/———-— rotundata
/—-——— simplex

SP. aoe ove
uncinosa :
elias descombesi 1susaeanena!
elias eucharis

hyparate matar aie

| hyparete hierte ...
Jelichon ;

Demiegretta asha

Dendrelaphis Lia
Jendroaspis augusticaps
Mendrocitta formosae

—-—— leucogastra
vagabunda

ens en

endrocygna fulva

javanica ...

MR croica bryanti

Dendrophasa bicincta Signetax
Picréphasca pompadora
pendrophis ogi aoe
Jermogenys puemantous

Jerris brevipes at vee
Jeudoryx epijarbas amatius ..
iaphanes

—— planus

= opie he

Jicaeum cruentatum

- erythrorhynchos
Jichocrocis punctiferalis
Jichromia quadralis

Jicrurus wee oe aes
macrocercus ...

510,

PAGE

510,

513,
SS;

510,

912,

vagabunda vagabunda ...

——eeeeee IMACTOCeErcCus Macrocercus ...

689
519
519
689
519
919
689
438
467
470
581
512
513
912
514
514
o13
514
514
912
518
576
688
518
479
613
536
oo
670
670
670
647
483
726
510
648
684.
536
468
443
523
739
738
738
676
677
557
423
452
479
647

INDEX OF SPECIES

Dindica polyphaenaria ... ane
Dipterart ee eee o
Discophora tullia al
Dissemurus bod ase

——— paradiseus ... a
Doleschallia bisaltide indica .,.,
Dolichos lablab ... eee ae
Donax scortum ... see ae
Drepanidae och ove as
Dryobates syriacus syriacus .,
Dryophis nasutus

Ducula badia sx8 ote are
Dumetella carolinensis .
HKarias fabia
—-—insulana ...
Kcetropis (Boarmia) bhurmit ra.
Egretta alba

————— SATZCttA” os.

——-— intermedia
Elachistodon oe ace
Elaphe... x
Elaphodus cephalophus
Elasmus johnstoni 4c
Elephas maximus eee ous

Eleusine flagellifera

Elymnias hy permnestra
—-— ——_—_--——- caudata
——-—— hypermnestra undularis
Emberiza aureola

calandra yy
——--—— citrinella erythrogenys
——-——- falcata

—-—-—— hortulana

—- melanocephala
Emberiza cia stracheyi
Emilia ok sas ee

Engraulistelera ... s
Enicostemma littorale ...
Enicurus maculatus maculatus
— schistaceus
Eragrostris amabilis

Ergolis ariadne pallidior
———- merione assama
Eriboea athamas

athamas athamas
Erionota taurus

-— thrax see
Erolia minuta ... oes
Erythacus rubecula aercantie one
Erythrina a see

Erythropsis aes

ooo

soo

a0_n

PAGE
424
686
520
675
674
521
582
558
413
699
627
6]

510, 513

ees

655, 657

658, 659, 661, 663, 665
658, 659, 661, 666

428
484
484
484
536
537
538
663
642
475
689
689
520
479
600
694
479
694
694
436
420
468

436
673
475
521
521
689
520
691
691
703
698

671,676, 6&0, 706
. 446, 451, 453

Erythropsis colorata ... eee
Eryx conicus wee a ace
——- johni wee

Estigena pardalis...

Etroplus coruchi

— maculatus

— suratensis
Eublemma olivacea ... “ee
Euchrysops cnejus nee

-—— pandava nendareil
Eucichla cyanura
EKudynamis scolopaceus one

Euchrysops cnejus se 550
Eugenia jambolana “a soe
EKumenes edwardsii Sic
Eumiyas thalassina __...
EKupatorium

Euphorbia tirukalli

Euploea alcathoe doubledayi ...
— core layardi

———— crassa crassa

— deione deione

renee diocletiana eoe eco
— diocletiana eae
Euploea godarti O00 a0

— klugii klugii ...
———=— mulciber

— mulciber

— %, plain apex upf _...
Eurema blanda silhetana

— hecabe 500

ne hecabe... aes
lacteola sarinoides

——— laeta
——_———. libythea

— simulatrix sarinoides
Eurostopodus _... aes see
Kurystomus orientalis ..
Kurytaphria bisinuata ... ses

Euthalia cocytina puseda
— evalina laudibilis

—--—- garuda

———— garuda garuda
———— jahnu jahnu
———- lepidea sthavara
———— lubentina

Eucopiichchys vacha
Everes diporides

Falco columbarius subsp
cme NAUMANN naumanni

PAGE

446, 452

620
620
578
461

461, 466, 467, 469, 470
461, 469, 470, 471, 472

557
522
922

510, 512

-—— scolopaceus scolopaceus...

eoo

486, 713

723
648
690
581
664
673

443
519
519
519
519
689
519
519
519
689
519
519
518
689
518
518
S18
518
518
710
679
427
689
736
689
520
520
520
689

531, 533

ope

736
700
700

INDEX OF SPECIES

——— peregrinus 500
——— peregrinus subsp.

——— subbuteo subbuteo
——— tinnunculus tinnunculus
——-— vespertinus vespertinus
Fascellina plagiata

Faunis arcesilans ae aes
Felis chaus

Ficedula hypoleuca Semmitoranate
Firmania colorata

Firmiana

Francolinus pintadeanne Sivan
————-— pondicerianus
Fregatta tropica melanogastra
Fringilla coelebs swbsp.

——— — montifringilla

Fulica atra

——— atra atra ... .
Funambulus palmarum
———_———— Sp. see
—————— subslineatus oes
Galerida cristata nigricans

—— cristata subsp., ar
Gallinago o0 eae eo
Gallinula chloropus
Galloperdix spadicea

Gallus bankiva

——— gallus murghi

Gallus sonnerati

——— sonneratii

Gambusia affinis

———-— holbrookii

——— -— holbrookii

—-— -—-— holbrookii ...
Gangara thyrsis thyrsis ...
Garra i
—_——— eovloneneis Ryclonenciem
—-—— mullya

Garrulax delessertii

wore moniliger

——_—— pectoralis

Garrulus leucotis

Gecinulus grantia

Gelochelidon nilotica

wo ee nilotica

Gennaeus horsfieldii
Gentianaceae

Gentianoideae

Geokichla citrina

Geometridae

Geospiza

703, 724

48)

468, 470:
438, 468
670.
670
670, 683
478,
678)
483, 544)
603, 607
682
656
656
672
424
510.

‘aracula religiosa
‘aypaétus barbatus

lsyps fulvus fulvus
|Halcyon juliae

i ———— pileata

|—— —— smyrnensis fusca

‘Haliaétus er
_———-— eee a
‘Maliastur indus ... ,
Haplocheilus panchax ...
Harpactes

[——-— --— ei tiroceenalis
fasciatus

Hasora alexis alexis
_—-—-— badra badra
__-—-— taminatus bhavara
Hebomoia glaucippe glaucippe
Heliothis armigera

—e—— - -

Heliotropium indicum ... a
Hemichelidon sibirica gulmergi
Hemicircus Canenteey iss 12
Hemidactylus brooki

- frenatus ..

- feecne na nit
Hemipus picatus
‘Hemirhamphus ... 600 wae
: — gaimardi
a veorgil ... on
-—— — limbatus Bee

Hemitragus hylocrius ..
Herpestes edwardsii
fuscus
———-—— sinithii

—— vitticollis
Herse convolvuli
Hibiscus

-- apelaiosetias &
———— cannabinus

——-—-— fortis ... 300 soe
———— fuliginosa 50C S00
izerydus boisduvali as

—— —— boisduvali assamensis
slossogobius giuris

xzobius we 0 cas soe
j——-— neilli

— ostericola

izolunda ellioti ... 500
iGorsakius melanolophus
/Gossypium

= ————»——_ smyrnensis

455, 456, 467

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE
513

her lO
690

521

462

466

vee 462
641
FeAl
568
675
501, 502
700

701

514

480, 648
648

648

481

681

454.

481

680

523
9235/36
523

519

658

S07

436

710
Oly
617

ssf OLA
674, 683
466

682,

455
455
mn 642
633
ayin634
ee
e634
stole) 5ST
568, 575
569
570, 662

Xxili
PAGER
Hibiscus esculentus . 570, 662-664
— mutabilis oa 572
———— panduriformis woe leu OO
— rosa-sinensis 571, 572, 573, 662
——— sabdariffa ... 570
——-— schizopetalus... 572, 573
————. subdarifa aoe bee = 662
——— syriacus ‘ 9725. 574
—— — vitifolius »-.662, 663, 664
Hidari irava Ab, 55 sa 691
Hierococcyx varius ‘ 647
Hilsa ilisha $32 as 467, 468
Himantopus TancOonS 496
Hippion orientale ae ae 655
Hippoboscidae re eee UG,
Hipposideros atratus ... Hr 638
——— speoris 638
Hirundo daurica er 76
——- — nepalensis Ra OV7LO
———— rustica 601, 603, 605, 608
————- ——-—- rustica Si 432, 436
Sa nn SUOSD, 698
———— smithii xs ri 480
—_——— striolata 480
——_—-—- —_-—— - substriolata 2 O70
———— tytleri .. 480
Hodgsonius phoenicuriodes 435
———— phoeni-
curoides... 436
Homalotylus flaminius im 527, 528
Horaichthys setnai 455, 470
Horsfieldia anita arracana 522
Huhua nipalensis 680
Hyaena striata 636
Hydrobates pelagicus 602, 606
Hydrophasianus chirurgus eee +495
Hydroprogne caspia 703
Hylocichla ualabatus swainsoni lta SUL
———--— ustulata ustulata ... 510, 514
Hypericum sf. 427
Hypolais pallida ... con =: 6002
Hypolimnas folina te a S21
——-—— misipus use 521
Hypolycaena erylus himavantus 523
Hypopicus hyperythrus a> 67S
Hypothymis azurea 673
Hystrix leucura ... : 642
Ilambrix salsala salsala 223
—— salasla ... oan see 690

Icerya pilosa nardi
——— seychellarum v, nardi...

.. 524, 527, 528

524

XXiV
PAGE
Ideopsis gaura parakana dat see OCD
Impatiens spp. 418, 426
Imperata 561
Iodis argutaria 424
Irena puella 675
Ismene aedipodea. newita 736
——— mahintha feat 23
Issoria sinha sinha Be ng ben eeiy al
Ixias pyrene latifasciata aoe 518
lxobrychus minuta 494
- - minuta 436
— minutus minutus .. 701
Jamides alecto curysaces 522
— bochus bochus 522
celeno celeno ... 522
— cleodus pura .., 922
Jasminum spp. siptherapecoko)
--—— malabaricum 563, 564
Jatropha curcas ... eee rs woe «= 442
Kasi johnii 630
Kerana nigrita 690
Kittacincla S$ eee LO
macroura. ... ay 672, 683
Koruthaialos xanites os 690
Labeo calbasu ... eels veo OSL
SOULUSHarcee eee 466, 471
rohita Ay dts 0474) / 53118 £933
Lampides boeticus eee 522, 690
Lamprophorus lutescens = 738
-- tenebrosus 738
Lampryridae nee nce ee 738
Lanius collurio ... eee a5 696
—- cristatus ... ay ait see MLOZS
- nigriceps 673
——-- schach .. ‘ 673
——- - erythronotus ... 436
- Sip. eae ee Bo see O73
Lantana camara ah bod 708
Larus argentatus cachinnans ...598, 599, 600,
601
te Ssmithsonianus .. 595
»——~ brunnicephalus ... con «= 044
cachinnans aA 944
fuscus 544, 545, 604, 608
gvenei oe tee 601, 603
hemprichi . 605, 606, 607, 610,
612, 613
hemprichii 544, 545
-———-~—leucopthalmus ... 544, 604, 606, 607
marinus .., 603

w—— ridibundus 544, 603, 608

INDEX OF SPECIES

Lates calcarifer ... vee wae
Lebadia martha attenuata
Lebistes reticulatus
Lepidocephalus thermalis
Lepidopygopsis typus
Leptoptilus javanicus ...
Leptosia nina malayana
nina
Lepus nigricollis

Lethe nicetas

— rohria rohria
Leucopolius alexandrinus

—_—_——

oe ee

nus

ye a ee

Ligustrum lucidum Sho
Limenitis procris milonia a,
—_———-— ——— procris
trivena hydaspes
———-— ——— pallida
Lisissemys punctata
Lobipes lobatus ...
Lobivanellus indicus aigneri
Lophophanes melanolophus ...
Loranthus

Loris tardigradus ;
Loxura atymnus continental

| ———- ———— fuconius
Luscinia megarhyncha africana
——--—— svecica subsp.

Euciolaw <-

——— ——

————— gorhami
— vespertina cee
Lycaenesthes emolus
—— emolus
———-—-— ——— goberus ...
Lynchia sp.
———— botaurinorum ...
———- maura oD
Lycodon striatus
—— travancoricus

Lyncornis aoe
Lymnocryptes minima ...
Lyroderma lyra }...

Mabuya carinata

Macaca radiata .. 500 Soe
-— silenus

Machlolophus santioncny

Macrones gulio ... 466 |
Macropodus cupanus 458, “468, 4 AZO.
— -————-—-dayi«.

°- aleacerae

seebohmi ...

458

-— opercularis
|Macropygia unchall —...

| Maesa chisia... ids See
-Mallophaga

Malva

. Malvastrum

— Soromandelianam
, Malvaviscus :
'Maniola lupinus cheena
Manis pentadactyla

( Marmessus lisias

| Mastacembelus pancalus

| Matapa aria ce wes

' Medasina albidaria

| Melastoma normale

' Melcha nursei “a;
mMeliope ... ey ee
'Melipona sp...
Melospiza melodia maSlodia
_ Melursus ursinus 268 Binees
| Mergus albellus ...

| Merops apiaster ... a

| ———-. orientalis biludschicus

| ——— ———--— orientalis
es superciliosus ... sen
— ————--— _persicus...
Metaponia pusilla

Microbracon greeni

hebetor

lefroyi
'Micropternus brachyurus
'Micropus apus subsp.

| - melba melba

'Microscelis ane sas
| Milvus migrans eee
—- aegyptius
— ——--- govinda
———_ ———-- lineatus
— —- migrans

_Mimusops hexandra
Molopastes cafer bengalensis
Molpastes cafer
—~———— leucogenys

leucotis

Moma champa

—— ludifica

Monticola saxatilis sb
Montifringilla nivalis alpicola
Moschothera civettina

Moschus moschiferus ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE
458

681

425

sod aL OS)
567, 568
568

662

568

235

644

690

467, 470
523

430

920

415, 428
soem O69
745

450

.. 510, 513, 515

636
a.cile702
699
699
648
680
723
693
664
.. 663
663, 664

678

698

698
Feet Ar9
481, 681
Ver -603
431, 648

431

700
706, 708

647

671

486

436

419

697

694

633

538

663,

Motacilla alba

— —— persica
—-——. alboides alboides
———— cinerea melanope
—-~—--— citreola

——_—-— ——~—- calcarata
— flava sudbsp.;
———— ——- feldegg
———— trivialis trivialis
Mugil parsia

woe ak Sp. 3 ee° 200
Muntiacus muntjak aureus
Musa paradisiaca ene

Mus booduga

—— musculus ...

—— platythrix

Musicapa striata neumanni
Mycalecis fuscum
————- mineus
SS mineus
———-—- perseus blasius
———-— visala neovisala

Myclois pectinicornella see
Myophonus caeruleus temminckii
—-————- temminckii

— ————-~ horsfieldii
Mystacoleuces ogilbu

Mystus aor 4 Fae
Nacaduba curava euples see
———-—— hermus nabo

—- nora nora |...

Naja

naja

Nandus nandus

Narosa dosenia

Natrix 8%
——-— piscator ...
——— stolata ts
Neophron percnopterus
Neottia oe AY,
Nephele didyma ies
Nepheluim litchi

Neptis columella ophiana
——— hordonia hordonia
——— hylas oa ves
—-—-— adara

——= —-— astola eee
=——hyplasastola «.
——— jumbah jumbah
Neptis nandina susruta
——— soma soma

XXV

PAGE
480
695
435
436
676
499
695
695
695
471
459
643
562
640
640
640
696
689
689
519
9519
519
586
436
673
673
472

931, 533

522
522
922
951
628
460
584
536
§22
624
700
743
581

978, 586

520, 738

520
921
690
520

738
520
521
921

EXV1
PAGE
——— vikasi omeroda ... ace 680
Nesomimus carringtoni eee 510
= —— parvulsus ... 510
Netta rufina bps 548
Nettapus coromandelianus ... 726
Niltava macegrigoriae 673
Noctuidae 419
Notocrypta paralysos 690
Notodela leucura 673
Notosontidae aol Se on6 we «418
Notopterus ae 16 65], 652
-—— notopterus Pn ra'69
Novius guerini eee 527, 528
Nyctanthes aoe Wee “se 581
Nymphula depunctalis oa 556
Nyroca ferina ... 0 one ged 549
— -——~— ferina 318702

543, 594-599,
602, 605, 605, 608-611

Oceanites oceanicus

Oceanodroma castro 597
——— —leucorhoa leucorhoa. 595, 597
Ochlandra sf., iy tos 642 |
Odina wodier aut 450
Odontoptilum angulata sura .. 523
Oecophylla wee ae 711
Oenanthe chrysopygia 697
—— deserti subsp. 697
———-— finschi barnesi 697
-—————. leucomela leucomela 697
—— oenanthe oenanthe 697
Oenopopelia tranquebarica tranque-
barica 649
Ophicephalus ae te het ~A56
Ophicephalus gachua ... a; e457
oo — marulius : 456
——— punctatus 457, 471
——— striatus 456, 457
Ophideres fullonica 557
———--— materna ese S57
Ophiocephalus marulius 53151533
ee —-— striatus 469, 470,
471, 472
Oriolus oriolus ee 675
- kundoo 436
——— oriolus 692
— xanthornus SPC TS
Ornitheza metallica 510, 511
Ornithoeca sf. a ace tee 7509
— spuilla 5105" 512
Ornithomyia avicularia 510, 51],

012,513

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE
——comosa ... es 511)

—_—.—_-.—- fringillina 510, 514,
——.-—_———— sp. | ep a 3. SUS
Orsotrioena medus 689 |
recuse 520
Orthopxtus phaneus 690 |
Orthotomus sutoriuss¢s001, ~~~... 67am
Oryzias a aes eS 466 |
— melastigm on ... 453, 470, 471 }

Osphronemus goramy ... __... 457, 458, 466.

... 468, 470, 472.

——_—_—-~ gourami 469
———~ olfax 458 |
Osteoscma sanguilineata 4 425.
Otis tarda or wee eee 731.
Otocompsa emeria «671, 572, 683 |
—— flaviventris cee 672, 683 |
—-—— jocosa emeria 647
Otocorys alpestris alpestris ... oe 6958
— ———-- penicillata ... 2... 695
Otus bakkamoena marathae 648 |
Oxalis corniculata eT re see OY
Oxyurichthys striatus 462
Padraona mxsoides 691 |
Pampulla comma indicofusca 726 |

Panchax blockii a's
«-. 404, 467, 468

454 |

— lineatus
—-—— panchax 454, 469
———-— parous 6 454, 455, 456 |
Pandion haliaétus 481, 700 |
Panthera pardus ah au sca 632m
-—-—-—- tigris 1y 631: |
Pantoporia asura idita... 689
—_—_— —-— cama 520
ee — nefte inara... 520 }
Papilloagamemnon ... PE . 688 |
—— antiphates itamputi 688
———- aristolochiae 68854
Papilio demoleus 557, 576 |
— —— —— demoleus 517
—_- ———— malayanus 517, 688 |
— helenus Bae 688
— iswara : .. 6885]
-———- memnon agenor 517, 688
————- paradoxa eae oor st" 68S
~_——--— polytes OT MOTO NTO
——_—-— ——— romulus 517, 688 |
——-—- sarpedon 688
—varuna : 688
Papilio dandeus v. cyrus 517 —
—~<—- p, stichius fe 517

INDEX OF SPECIES XXVii

PAGE PAGE
/Paradoxurus hermaphroditus... .... 633 | Philopterus sf. S09, S10¥ 5125513
_———-—— jerdoni ... bas ln 633 — sturni pet bs
'Paraechinus micropus ... 7 ... 637 | Phoenicopterus minor ... ous a. O47
/Pareas a an ee 5S36 — ruben iy fi mmm: fo)
Pareronia valeria hippia 519, 736 | ————----—- — - aariquonin 603, 701
(Paridae AA 22M GAO —————- --——— roseus ... 546, 547
,Parthenos sylvia Pep sits ae ... 520 | Phoenicurus erythronotus BR Pde OSV
Pp ee STACI AEE Rereiedtdmmnne RRO - ochrurusy eae a fe PING 98
‘Parus major #2 436, 670 | Phoenix sylvestris a My oe 0S
— — blanfordi ... im ... 696 | Photoscotosia miniosata ae 2°46
a caschmirensis ... .. 435 | Phthonoloba decussata ... oat wee AQ6
‘Paspalum ae StHAMBTA HIN S60! || Rhylloscopus ...434, 436, 675
Passer domesticus 595, 676 —-— occipitalis... br POVEASG
/\——— —=-——— biblicus... va —- 604 |i Rica” picar”™s.: ah as ae eqamen he)
eS niloticusiea st b= 603 —— bactriana see 692
= hispaniolensis transcaspicus ... 694 —=—~ Pican nee see Be MZ
——— montanus subsp. a2, .. 694 | Picumnus innominatus ie wet tiG7s
Pastor roseus oe 692, 704 | Picus canus ... ae bs 677, 683
'Pathysa antiphates pompilius... Lar -5D7 — chlorolophus ht au sone OU
/——-— nomius swinhoei ry .. 517 | Pieris canidia indica 8 ne we ols
'Pavonia de 7; S100568 -- napi a, ep fe G0
-Pelagodroma marina ... fe .. 611 | Pingasa (Pseudoterpna) ruginaria ... 585
'Pelates quadrilineatus ... qe ... 460 | Pipistrellus abramus oes ve 638
' Pelicanus es H. ... 482 | Pithecops hylax corvus Hu 90690
-Pellorneum ruficeps 671, 683 | Pitta brachyura... Pe ve SFO
_Penthoceryx sonneratii bis ill 678 cyanea” .:3 snd on 677, 683
'Peratophyga aerata... a oe 8427: nipalensis oes sa see O77
' Perdix perdix canescens we .. 704 | Planesticus merula merula .,,512, 513, 514
Pericallia ricini ... oe es a» 557 |'Platyedra gossypiella. ... ie EHUTESS
| Pericrocotus fammeus ... .. 674 | Plegadis falcinellus a ot eee ONL
| ——— peregrinus peregrinus .., 647 | Ploceus passerinus wes ok 676, 683
| ——- speciosus... 390016748) \ —=-—- philippinus ‘philippinus sve 1647
| Periophthalmus cantonensis pearsi ... 463 | Plusiodonta coelonota ... ie so 423
Perisoreus barbouri eee ax .. 513 | Podiceps ruficollis capensis ... 436, 492
—— canadensis ... 512; 514 | Polia (Hadena) consanguis 420

_ Petaurista philippensis ..539, 540, 639 | Polyacanthus cupanus .., PASS
-Petronia petronia exiguus 694) || == signatus ... Be a57
Petroscirtes we eos 466 | Polydorus hector 739
bhattacharyae 463, 470 | Polynemus paradiseus ... 460

Phaethon indicus 609, 610 | Polyodaspis compressiceps 663
| -— lepturus ee st 606 | Polyplectron bicalcaratum 682
emma -lepturus ...607, 608, 609 | Pomatorhinus horsfieldii 671
-— rubricauda 606 we schisticeps 671
Phaethon aethereus ¥ 545 | Pongamia glabra 586
Phalacrocorax auritus auritus.. «» O95 | Porphyrio poliocephalus oes 492
-— carbo 482 | Porzana pusilla 498

Sea aEEIERIEREREEee sinensis 613, 702 pusilla ... 436
= fuscicollis _ 613 | Posoqueria ee 440
—- pygmaeus 702 | Precis almana almana ... 521
Phaleropus fulicarius 945 | Precis alamana javana ... 690
Phasianus colchicus talyschensis 704 | ——-— atlites “521, 690

XXvViii
PAGE
———hierta magna ... soe violgroazil
iphitaiphita ... te ome
horsfield ... Re oe ettr690
——— lemonia’s lemonias 921
——— orithya ... Se et Oennacee 6
——— wallaci ... Reis os se OO0
Premna coriacea 33 ee S9108/06
Prionailurus bengalens‘s a Sop neato
———---— rubiginosa... he ¥. O32
Prodenialitura ... a a. OS /
Prunus communis 419
Psammodynastes pulverulentus 536
Pseudogyps 506 sf aac se P7100
—-——_—-— bengalersis... mae Peet GS
Pseudolynchia canariensis $509;511., 512
Pseudoxenodon ... oe ces r= 530
Psiloreta obliquilinea ... Mw ser aay |
Psittacula columboides ... Men ee TRULEY)
———-— cyanocephala cyanocephala 648
———-—. eupatria nipalensis...: eon MO48
——— krameri ces eee AE 679
———--— manillensis ... wn: 18261648
Psyra spurcataria eds nt eee e4Zs
Pterocles orientalis $33 we: 890997. 2
Pterodroma aterrima ... 3 seul S43
Pterodroma hasitata ... ac tn) ogo
Pterygota ... 446, 451
———— alata az 446, 451, 453
Pteropus giganteus sek ie PE DIVGS7
Ptyas als ic a eee LOST
—-— mucosus ... at. SERIO 21
Puffinus assimilis Dealloen ate 609
—_—- ———_—. baroli a MSIE
——-— carneipes boc 9: Bock wae key KO
——-— gravis 995, 596
— griseus ... ee aN iS weeks)
——— kuhlii borealis ... ee 596, 597,
598, 599
——_— kuhlii ... 599, 600, 601, 602.
603, 607
——— pacificus sie 543, 607
——— ——_— hamiltenii 607,608,
609, 610

. 543, 610, 612
596, 597, 609, 610

——= persicus
——- puffinus

——— ——— mauritanicus ... 598, 599
——— ——— yelkouan .--601,'602, 603
Puntius. ..<. a's onc 504 ay) 056
Pycnonotus gularis ae ee 072

———-——. leucotis meropO ree 04 /41696
Pycnosoma ee ae a0 it .448

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE
————_— flavipes... ai vee 447 Wf
Pyromelana orix nigrifrons ... cee olla

Pyrotrogon wardi O00 556 «- = 485 If
Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 692 |/
419) #

Pyrus communis
_ Python molurus ... se? a RS) ||
Querquedula crecca crecca... sree 17.02 |
| ———-——. querquedula or -.. 649)8
| Rabila frontalis ... 658 |
Rallus aquaticus korejewi_... -» 4977)
Ramphalcycn capensis gurial oe 648
Randia brandisi ... Boe eee nulag74ll
——— candolleana 740, 741
——— corymbosa 740, 741
——-— deccanensis it 500 o /4T
——— uliginosa a ete ohne!
Rapala dieneces dieneces__.... hee 523m
——— jarbas sts 523, 690 ©
——— pheritimus DetORiats fis a 523mm
——— suffusa ... a te :.2 ~690m
Rasbora daniconius 438, 471 |
Rathinda amor ... : 577
Rattus rattus Baeccenal Le -. 640
——— wroughtoni see --. 640 |
Ratufa maxima. 638
Regulus ign eepilice jonieapilins 696
Remiz pendulinus one oes id GIS)
Rhagastis albomarginatus ... Are, be allS
——-—— olivacea 50C it Ke ey,
Rhinoceros sondaicus ... RY 2 Sola
—_———_—— sumatrensis eee ce OO
Rhipidura .. a0 fas bch eve) |
——-—— Albicollig = St 52. 673

—— aureola 673, 710
Rhodonessa caryophyllacea ... wee «= 484
Rhodapechys sanguinea sanguinea... 693

Rhogas aligarhensi O08 a oe «- 663
Rhopodytes tristis see a0 679, 684

viridirostris abe Or,
Rhyacornis fuliginosa fuliginosa oh v4.36
Ricinus communis to 415, 584
Riopa albopunctata 619, 620
——— punctata 5A dee ee OG
Riparia rupestris 500 set 0 698
Rita rita of 09315533
Robinia pseudoacacia ... us wees 433
Rostratula benghalensis .. 436, 497, 726
Roussettus leschenaulti eee sme 637
Rubus sp., sae ae 422, 424
Rusa unicolor ... 500 ae 642
Russelia .., ee by ug coe 4 Th

INDEX OF SPECIES xx1x

PAGE | PAGE

— coccinea coe oe .. 412 | Spalgis epius epius sy we Hoy sz
equisetiformis aut ... 412 | Spathoglottis paulinae ... as .. 744

juncea sa at 411, 412 —— plicata ... ../43, 744, 745

multiflora hy. abo .. 413 | Spatula clypeata aD Sas 506 AU

— sarmentosa ... Bt 411,412 | Sphelaeornis souliei ... a, sen) 400
‘Saccharum 5 ot 300 368 .. 61 | Sphenocercus apicaudus Be ea OO
|-—_——— ravennae ... Ae .» 029 | Sphenocichla roberti ... eee ASS
spontaneum ef .. 925 | Sphingidae aus aa a sean 416
‘Salmo faris, vee ae a8 ... 470 | Spindasis clima uniformis ... 0
Pealsola ... } 18 386 mn R473 —— lohita himalayanus oa ee
Salvadora elonides: SGC Pe .. 706 | — Syama peguanus ... SE OSL
—-—— persica om si 706, 708 oe terana eB eee sOOU
Samia cynthia ... a mt .. 414 | Spinus spinus: ... ae se w. 693
'Sancus pulligo ... vi sie ... 690 | Spodoptera mauritia ... ane see) 900
—— a eapiasciatus tat ... 023 | Stauropus alternus ves a eemDOS
| Sapium indicum . ee ads ... 443 | Stercorarius parasiticus... wee 605, 612
| Sarangesa dadantnna Misses, .. 923 | ———————- pomarinus es .. 604
| Sarcogyps calvus te p! ... 681 | Sterculia ... — 445, 446, 447, 452, 453
Sarkidiornis melanotus $k 20 —— alata ... ies wae Sea
Saroglossa spiloptera ... ii ww. 675 | ——— 446
Sasia ochracea ... ses sd. 2.6 -678 | —— colorata os ey .. 446
Saturniidae on ot j2— 414 || —__—"_. foetida ... ... 446, 445, 451, 453
Sauropatis chloris chloris 445 .. 648 | ———— guttata... ... 446, 448, 451, 453

| Saxicola caprata burmanica ... ..» 710 | ———— populnifohia .., = w. 446
leucura ... ae 43 vw. 9479 || ——_—- urens ... bite ..446, 449, 453

—-——. rubetra noskae ae eno 97. |) ——___——. villosa’... oe: 446, 450, 453
torquata Aas 4! ... 479 | Sterna albifrons ... ue ...044, 603, 613

ie —— indica ae 2.436 — albifrons EAR ae 603
| Saxifragaceae ... at A So elle 1 — subsp. Fe , T7003
Scatophagus argus ie ia wi 461 | — anaetheta ae 1Y Je ode
Scolopax rusticola A 482, 725, 729 | ——— —— fuligula ...605, 606, 607,
ees pusticolatety: ee 703 608, 609
Scotophilus kuhli Bi a .. 638 | ———bergii ... a pp ww. O44
Scrophulariaceae 500 ae .» 411 | ——— dougalli korustes ie .2/ 991606
Scymnus Spp. Be on .. 685 | ——-— paradisaea pe eh WB I1S5 97,
Semnopithecus entellus... 335 L631 || ==" 'repressa Be AX 544, 607
Sericulus chrysocephalus ese ston O12 | Strepera versicolor ee os HP 28ID12
Serilophus rubropygius... bs ... 677 | Streptopelia chinensis ... Lip ee OS2
Sesamum indicum O00 Bh 581 | ——— ———-— suratensis HO as)
Sida cordifolia See as .. 662 | ————— decaocto decaocto... .. 649
Sillago sihama se tee «. 460 | ————— senegalensis cambayensis 649
Sinthusa nasaka amba.... ve .. 690 | ———-—— turtur ae ... 098, 599, 602
Siphia strophiata 33 a ww. 673 | ————— arenicola ... neya702
Sitana ponticeriana ... MA .. 617 | ————— turtur =... -. 602
Sitta castanea et, 8 .. 673 | Sturnia malabarica eae oie tsug1075
——— €llropea persica... iB oe 696 | ——-— ——. blythii att sab eO7D
—— neumayer rupicola... a . 695 | —-—— —— malabarica woe GAZ
—— tephronota aes cee .. 696 | Sturnopastor contra... 500 675, 683
Slevogtia maritima a - vee O55 contra ~ Wr . 647
Solanum spp... 2 & «« 081 | Sturnus malabaricus nemoricola ... 711
Somera viridifusca 600 b3¢ «1 418 - vulgaris caucasicus ... een O92

XXX

Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris

Sula bassana

bengalensis benvalenbis fs
—— dactylatra melanops
—— leucogastra

—— piscatrix

Suncus caeruleus

—_—— Sp. 356 500 oc
Surniculus lugubris

Sus cristatus nee res
Sylepta derogata

Symplocos sp. «. aes
Syntarucus plinius

Sypua curvilinea bi
Tachornis batasiensis palmarum
Tadorna tadorna ses aes
Tagiades atticus khasiana
—_—__——. obscurus meetana
Tajuria melastigma

Tatera indica cuvierl

Tchitrea paradisi =
———- ——_—- leucogaster ..
Tecoma stans
Tephrodornis gularis

sylvicola
——_—_—_———. pondicerianus ..
Tetraogallus caspius caspius ...
Tetrao tetrix

Thalasseus bengalensis...
= ——_——__— heneeiencs

—_—__—_—_-- bergii bakeri
velox

Thecia ziha

Therapon jarbua

——__—_— therapces

Thereiceryx lineatus

viridis ay
zeylanicus caniceps
Theretra clotho

‘Thespesia ;

————— populnea
Thysanoptera

Tinospora cordifolia

Tiracola plagiata

Tngisdes gana aha

‘Tor i

‘Toxotes ahater eus

Trabala vishnu

Tragulus meminna
Travancoria jonesi

a a et et

...607, 608, 611

607, 608

PAGE
523 53
598

607

545
£45

702
523
523
523
639
479
436
581
674, 683
674
710
703

312 |

604

613
608
736
460, 469
460
678
678
€47
582
568
662
450, 452
557
420
693
556
461
557
643
438

INDEX OF SPECIES

Trichogaster labiosa
—————- trichopterus
Tringa hypoleucus

——-— ochropus ochropus
——— totanus subsp.
Trochalopteron cachinnans
Troglodytes troglodytes hyrcanus
Troides helena cerberus
Tropidonotus ceylonensis

Tros aristolochiae goniopeltis...
—— hector

‘Turdoides otis
————- somervillei ...

— terricolor
Turdus boulboul .
——— ericetorum ericetorum
——— —____— philomelos
——— imerula aterrimus
——— iigratorius

——— ruficoilis atrigularis
———— simillimus

——— unicolor ...

‘Tylophora asthmatica ...

Tylosarus strongylurus... a
‘Typhlops braminus

Udaspes folus

Unkana attina

Upupa epops epops ove
——— —--— orientalis... wae
Urena lobata re
Uroloncha punctulata ...
————- striata

Utetheisa lotrix ne
———— puichella eee wos
Valeria et ose
——— valeria rhage
Vallisneria ade slo oes
Vandeluria oleracea ae ae

Vanellus vanellus
Vanilla planifolia

Wapera) susselliims..
Viscum eele
Vitex necundo -... eee

Viverricula indica
Vulpes bengalensis
Wallagonia attu
Xantholaema haemacephala ...
—————— _ lutea
————-—-—- malabarica
Yoma sabina vasuki

Ypthima baldus

470, 471, 531,

PAGE |

459. |

458, 466 |

436 |

703
703

670 |

698

517, 688 |
536

517
517

670 |
670 |
647 |
672.
513
696 |
696 |

514

697 |

672

«. 436 |]

684
455,
620

923 |

“oo t29

699 |
648
568

sold676
676, 683

557 |
557 |
en AY) |
w. «=. 736 4]

530.

640
secre 7 08R
745, 746 |
Py: |

677

581

633 |
635 |]

533

678 |

647
678

521 |
689 |

467 |

———— _— -----—_ — —

— huebneri
Ypthina asterope 500
—-—— baldus baldus ...
———- huberni huberni
——-— inica ion
Yuhina sf. aa ase

Yungipicus nanus brunneiceps

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE
689
735
520
519
735
671
647

Zemeros flegyas indicus

Zetides agammemnon agammeminon
——— doson axion

Zizeeria lysimon

——-— maha

———- otis :

——-— -— otis... aoe ocr

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—8-11-]949, ©€149

XXX1

PAGE
byl
syily/
only
522
7
690
522

‘

t ,

p. 5A

Vol. 46, No, 3. DECEMBER, 1946, Price Rs. 12 nett.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natura History Sociry

EDITED BY

S. H, PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., C, ., MCCANN, F.L.S., AND
SAM ALY.

ly #) .
.4
we.
5

;

JUN2 6 ee

Nv, wh
Load iH

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
114 (6) Apollo Street, Bombay.

% A 4
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SALIM ALI

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about 200 species of birds commonly seen
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LIST OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO BIRD STUDY.

How To RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE
FIELD.

USEFULNESS OF BIRDS.

BirRD MIGRATION.

BIRD WATCHING.

SOME NESTS AND NESTING BEHAVIOUR.
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FULL DESCRIPTIONS OF 197 SPECIES.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46, No. 3.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXIV. By
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THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XVI. By

D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ee O00) ae see

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER IN KASHMIR. By W. T. Loke. (With 4
plates) eos we ae ae eee oO

DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF FISHING IN THE RIVERS OF THE HILL
RANGES OF TRAVANCORE. By S. Jones, M.Sc. 000 see

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE Sterculias OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.
By Charles McCann, F.L.S. (With 1 plate) ses ooh cee

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND
BRACKISH-WATER FISHES, Part II. By S. Jones, mM.sc. (With 2
plates) Bd 000 500 ose Bs vas

THE WILD Ass OF KuTcH. By Salim Ali. (With 2 plates) ... O00

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR FIELD ORNITHOLOGISTS IN Post-WAR BURMA.
Part I. By Lt.-Col. J. K. Stanford, 0.B.E., M.C., M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S....

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR. Part II. By Lt.-Col.
B.T. Phillips. (With 9 plates) wes Bes AGE ee

THE LAMMERGEIER (Gypaétus barbatus) LinNazuUs. By E. H. N.
Lowther, M.B.0.U., F.Z.S. (With 6 plates) ... oO

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE WMallophaga AND THE AHAippoboscidae
INFESTING BIRDS. By M. Atiqur Rahman Ansari, M.Sc.

SOME BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN Coast. By Major J.C. Gladman,

A NEw PEST OF SUGARCANE IN INDIA—/cerya pilosa nardi GREEN,

(Coccidae). By T. V. Venkatraman, M.sc. (With 2 plates) 000
A FISHERY SURVEY OF RIVER INDus. By Dr. Hamid Khan, M.Sc., LL.B.,

PH.D., F.N.I., F.A.Sc. (With 3 plates) poo
REVIEW :—

‘The New Fauna of British India Volume on Snakes, oe oan
AN APPEAL ... bs ee be ps We clits

10A

PAGER

411

413

431

437

445

453

472

478

487

524

529

536

538

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46, No. 3

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Musk-Shrew attacking a Bull-Frog. By V. M. Vasu (p. 539). 2. Nesting |
Habits of the Flying-Squirrel Petaurista philippensis. By A. F. Hutton
(p. 539). 3. ‘Record Elephant’. By R. C. Morris, M.L.a. (p. 541). 4. Death
of Six Elephants. By R.C. Morris, M.L.A. (p. 541). 5. ‘An Albino Boar’.
By Major R. D. Sinha (p. 542). 6. Bird Notes of the Arabian and Red Seas. By
P. I. R. Maclaren (p. 543). 7. Babar The Great on Flamingoes. By S. A.
Akhtar (p. 545). 8. Occurrence of Bar-headed Goose [Amnser indicus
(Latham)] near Hyderabad City (Deccan). By M. Rahimullah, pD.sc. (p. 548).
9. The Red-Crested Pochard (Vetta rvufina) in Southern India. , By F/O
H. G. Lumsden (p. 548). 10. Magpie Robin’s Nest in a House. By
F, Kingdon-Ward (p. 549). 11. Bird Notes on the Dhal Lake, Kashmir, By
C. E. Milner (p. 550). 12. Anchylosed Fangs and Solid Teethin Snakes. By
F. Gordon Cawston (p. 551). 13. Consideration of the Successional Theory of
Teeth. By F. Gordon Cawston (p. 552). 14. Habits of the Baka Fish [Barbus |
(Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McCl.]|. By R. M. Pizey (p. 554). 15. The
Giant Freshwater Fishes of Asia. By Major O. G. Kiernander (p. 555). 16.
List of Crop Pests of the Bombay Presidency. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.
(p. 556). 17. Dragon-fly Preying on a Scorpion. By Major J. A. Hislop
(p. 557). 18. Sea Anemones, Enemies of Bivalves? By T. V. Subrahmanyam,
B.A. (p. 558). 19. Malayan National Park. By E. O. Shebbeare (p. 558).
20. Five-bunched Inflorescence of a Banana (Musa paradisiaca Linn. Var.).
By Trupapur A. Davis, (With 1 plate) (p. 562). 21. A Multi-headed Palmyra
(Borassus flabellifer L.). By Trupapur A. Davis, (With 1 plate), (p. 563).
22. Variation in the Numbers of Floral Parts in Jasminum malabaricum Wt.
By H. Santapau, s.J. (p. 563).

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. | PLATE XXVI.

LR RVRLWWWARON

ARR

THE CORAL PLANT.

A. Russelia juncea Zucc.
B. Russelia sarmentosa Jacq.

(3 Natural Size.)

JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Natural History Society.

1946. VoL. 46. No. 3

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
| BY
NF BOR CalcEsy, MoAG, sD. SC, belsSey LSEsSe,
Forest Botanist
AND
M: B. RAIZADA, M.SC.,
Assistant Forest Botanist,
Forest Rasaaneh Institute, Dehra Dun.
OR | PIPYUN RT Or
(Contitiued from Vol. 46, (194), p. 216).
(With one coloured and 4 black and white plates.)
‘Russelia Jacq.

(A genus belonging to, the family Scrophulariaceae named in
honour of Alexander Russel, an English physician and traveller,
who died in 1768.) |

A genus of shrubby-,species, Mexican in origin, which are
favourite plants in Indian gardens on account of their showy
flowers. The leaves are opposite or whorled, often reduced to
scales. The flowers are red and are arranged in many-flowered
cymes; calyx gamosepalous, cleft into five lobes; corolla-tube :cylin-
drical with five lobes spreading at the mouth; stamens four; fruit
a capsule.

KEY TO THE SPECIES. c

Leaves scale-like or very small; corolla 3 in. long. a. RR. juncea,
Leaves well developed; corolla less than 4 in. long. e KR. sarmentosa,.

JUN 1 71947

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Russelia juncea Zucc. (R. equisetiformis Cham. et Schl.)
The Coral, Fountain or Fire-cracker Plant.
(Juncea means rush-lHite, in Latin.)

Description.—A much Granened tee ub up to 6 ft. tall with glab-
rous, noded_ stems. Branches -whorled, noded, smooth and
glabrous, angled and grooved, nodding at the tips. The leaves
are ,opposite or whorled, petioled, very small, < q ovate- ay cake Or
linear- obtuse, sometimes ‘spathulate, offen krerate, up.tQ fin. long,
but usually reduced to mere scales at the nodes. In the ‘latter case
the whole task of _photosyn nthesis_ Is. undertaken by the _stems and
branches. — fs ry 3 eats

The inflorescences are produced:at the tips of whorled branches.
The flowers are arranged on 2-3 flowered peduncles and are pro-
duced in profusion all the year round. Pedicels” very ‘slender, about
+ in. long. , Calyx 1/10 in.. long, . bell shaped, cleft. into five, ovate-
acute, imbricating lobes, greenish-brown* or reddish in colour.
Corolla tubular in shape, of a beautiful clear red colour, $ in. long,
ending above in five rounded imbricating lobes, glandular inside
at the base. Stamens four perfect, one. rudimentary, inserted on
the corolla near the base, reaching to the mouth. Anther cells
divergent but at length confluent. Ovary seated on a fleshy disk,
2-celled, with many ovules on central placentas. Fruit a globose
capsule.

Flowers.—Throughout the year. Does not set seed in this
country. 7

Distribution.—Indigenous to Mexico. Very commonly grown
in gardens in the plains throughout India.

Gardening :—An exceedingly common and at-the same time a
very graceful plant with long rush-like, ribbed, green stems and
scarlet flowers. It seems to grow readily almost anywhere and
is propagated by cuttings or divi ision of the roots during the rains.
It is quite suitable for OWNS in a rock eaeen and in hanging
baskets. (2.iwie 3%

The brightly coloured flowers and generous production of nectar
are indications that the flowers areadapted to cross pollination by
insects or birds, In this country, however, the Russelias appar-
ently never set seed and ‘are always: propagated by other means.

In Dehra Dun the sun bird, Cynnyris asiatica, is a very frequent
visitor to these. flowers. Instead of doing its: jOb- in the proper
way, this sun-bird bores a hole through the base of the corolla
and: steals the. nectar and the transferente of pollen. from, one shrub
to BnCuIeE is” Vavoided. ue

“Russelihl Sarnientosa a Jaca. [R R- “coccinea: (Linn. ) Ww ettst. J
(Sarmentosus. means full of twigs | ‘or eral branches, fete).
Description.—An erect twiggy shrub “reaching 5 ft. in hemht

Branches. angular (often octangular) in cross-section,,.smooth and
glabrous.; ‘\Leaves well, developed, often: in, “fours: at, the. nodes,

‘und eiyed ‘ysaI0.q7 Moan
‘OoMZ vaaunl nyassny

gL USEOL eo Aq o}04g

a
Ye

Journ., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 11,

Photo by M, B, Raizad

Russelia juncea Zucc,

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

“Dpvziny “FT “We

ELA

Hips

‘und eiysqd ‘4soloyqy MON
‘boef vsojuamavs vuyassny

£q 0704g

BET

rr bee nl fat eS PA

O
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WN
a0)
a
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a
a
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=

M. B. Raia

Russelia saymentosa J
New Forest, Dehra Dun.

THE BARLY: STAGES OF INDIAN’ LEPIDOPTERA 413

petioled, ovate acuminate in shape, 2-4 in. long, coarsely ;toothed,
with nerves deeply impressed on. the -upper. surface, - prominent
beneath. Upper. surface and. petiole. more or less covered..with
coarse short hairs, under surface hairy. on the nerves only. The
under surface between the nerves is deeply pockmarked with eve
dular pits. | 3

Inflorescence “in congested, bracteate ‘dichotomous cymes.
Bracts, bracteoles, peduncle. and pedicel, sparsely covered with
coarse hairs. Calyx divided almost to the base into 5 lanceolate-
acuminate lobes, dark red in colour, sparsely hairy, ;4 in. long.

‘Corolla red, tubular, divided above into 5 lanceolate-obtuse lobes,

1/3—1/2 in. long. Stamiéns four with widely divaricate anthers ; fila:
ments arising from the base of the corolla. Ovary seated on a
disk. At the insertion of the stamens towards’ the. base. of. the
corolla is a narrow ring of club-shaped yellow glands. ~ There is
another line of glandular rod-shaped hairs running down from the
mouth towards the base.
Flowers.—Most part of the year. Does ‘not. set Seed in this
country. .
| Distribution. —Indigenous to } Menica ascending to 8, 000 ft., now

grown in gardens throughout the tropics.

_Gardening.—A handsome erect plant with. deep scarlet flowers
borne in Srowded bunches along the stem. Propagated. by. divi-

sion of the root as cuttings are less. successful. This species is

also known as R. muliflora Sims.

(To be continued.)

THE EARLY [STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. _
“oh - BY . PY ,
D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.
%: Piri XVI°
(Continued from Vol. 46, p. 260).
HETEROCERA.
DREPANIDAE.

Callidrepana patrana : Moore.

‘Head black,” bifid above. Body, “dark olive ‘green, the lateral
and subdorsal ‘areas of the thoracic somites, all the 4th, and a lateral
blotch on the 9th somite, black:’ 5th somite with. an olive tinged
oraiige lateral spot. -A lilac line at. the base’ of the’ 3rd and 4th
pairs: of prolegs. Thoracic Somites~ expanded” Jateralty into bifid
lobes: ‘5th ‘to. 8th somites with: slight, double, dorsal humps, “11th

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

somite with a dorsal tubercle. Anal somite produced into a long
process, anteriorly thin and hyaline, then thickened and grey, the
junction of the two parts olive. Legs black. Prolegs grey, the
anal pair absent. The surface of the body shining as if oiled.
Resting attitude with the head and forepart of the body curved
along the posterior in a U and resembling a lump of wet snail ex-
creta. |

Pupa formed on a pad of black silk spun on a leaf and with a
few strands of black silk spun across the posterior somites. Shape
short and stout, the thorax keeled and. with a dorsal keel on the
2nd to 4th abdominal somites. Colour bronzy black, a burnished
blotch on each side of the thoracic keel.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 6-vi-44, pupated 9-vi-44 and a female emerged
17-V1-44.

Psiloreta obliquilinea Hamps.

Head purple black, divided above into two blunt points. Body
blackish purple, a black lateral stripe on the thoracic somites, a
black dorsal blotch on the 2nd and 3rd, a black dorsal line from
3rd to 7th, and a black lateral stripe from 5th to oth somite, this
latter straight below but coming to a point above on the 7th somite.
3rd somite with a short, backward-curved, dorsal process, a double
dorsal point on the 7th somite and a black dorsal tubercle on the
11th. Anal somite produced backwards into a long, upcurved
process with a white median ring. Venter olive black. Legs olive

black. Prolegs purple black with the body immediately above.

expanded into a short flange. Anal prolegs absent.
' Pupa in a thin cocoon in a rolled leaf. Dark chestnut brown,
the 4th to 6th abdominal somites tinged: laterally and ventrally with

vellow. The pro-thorax and the anterior half of ‘the meso-thorax

covered with a white, mealy powder and with smaller lateral patches
on the meta-thorax and 1st abdominal somite.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 4-vi-44, spun 12-vi-44 and a male emerged
22-V1-44.

SATURNIIDAE.

Samia cynthia Drury.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 16. 1892.
Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 505. 1928.

Ovum—Very pale buff, longitudinally striped with darker.
Micropyle a dark spot. Barrel-shaped, the ova deposited on their
sides. Laid in small batches. Hatched 12-vi-44.

Ist instar—Head black. Body yellowish. A black dorsal
plate onthe 1st somite. 2nd somite backwards with two tramns-
verse series of black dots on’each somite and with a subdorsal,

THE EARLY STAGES OF. INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA ALS

lateral and sublateral series of setiferous, black tubercles. Moulted
18-vi-44.

2nd instar—Head black. Body yellow, Each somite with a
dorsal, subdorsal and lateral series of two black spots. A black
setiferous tubercle between each series of spots and an additional
sublateral tubercle. legs and prolegs black. Moulted 23-vi-44.

3rd instar—Head black. Body white with a dorsal, subdorsal
and lateral series of two black spots on each somite. ist to roth
somites each with a subdorsal and a lateral white, and a sublateral
black, setiferous tubercle. 1rith somite with one dorsal and a later-
al white, and a sublateral black, setiferous tubercle. 12th somite
with a transverse series of four, and 13th with two, white tubercles.
Legs black. Abdominal prolegs white banded with black. Anal
claspers black. Moulted 20-vi-44.

4th instar—Similar, but the head yellow with a black stripe
on each side posteriorly and the legs and-prolegs yellow. Moulted

3-Vil-44.
5th instar—Head greenish yellow. Body very pale blue green
covered with a white mealy powder. Tubercles as in previous

instar but bluish tn colour and the sublateral series with a black

basal ring. The subdorsal and lateral tubercle on the Ist somite
very small. Spiracles black with a small black spot immediately
behind in addition to the paired black spots of the previous instars.
A series of two black streaks on each somite below the sublateral
tubercles. Legs yellow with a black spot at the base. Abdominal
prolegs pale blue with an oblique black line. Anal claspers and
flap yellow outlined with blue. 12th somite yellow dotted with
black. Spun 10-vii-44.

The larvae are gregarious for the first two instars but separate
in the third. A few larvae had a 6th instar, similar to the 5th
except that the subdorsal tubercles on the 2nd to roth and the dor-
sal one on the 11th somite were pale pink instead of blue.

Cocoon of tough, yellow-brown silk, the Eri silk of commerce,
roughly spindle shaped, frequently spun in a leaf with the leaf-
stalk covered with silk attaching it to the twig. Pupa pale chestnut
brown, the thorax and abdomen darker on the dorsum. Abdo-
minal somites contracted. ‘Antenna sheath very large in the male
pupae. Wing cases with the hind-wing projecting considerably
beyond the forewing. A male emerged 4-viil-44.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica 1. I have also reared it on
Ricinus communis in Calcutta.

Described from larvae bred from ova found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District).

Hampson’s description is ‘Larva pale green or whitish, with
one dorsal and two lateral pairs of darker spines. Cocoon pale
brown.’ Seitz describes the ovum as being white, slightly black-
dotted, and states that the ‘young larva is darker, then lighter
yellow, yellowish green, and at last bluish green, all over covered
with fine black dots, and with a dense white bloom on it...it
also exhibits on each segment 6 coniform points.’

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

SPHINGIDAE.
Acosmeryx naga Moore.

Mell, Biol. uw. System..der Sudchin. Sabine. e, 225 Ble xviii, figs
Sel OK. (ole Soave, I, NS, * UO De. : :
Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, X, 550. 1929. es:
Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 292, pl. iy, ieee
2, pl. xiv, fig. 14. 1937. Ao)... nn
- Penultimate instar—Head green, a central paler green stripe
and a lateral yellowish stripe, which joins the subdorsal body stripe.
Body green heavily speckled with yellow’ along the secondary seg-
mental rings. A subdorsal yellowish stripe on the rst to 3rd
somites, which becomes lateral on the 4th somite and continues
to the base of the horn, the colour of the stripe from the 5th somite
backwards being white shading into deep pink above. A spirac-
ular series of oblique yellow stripes. 4th somite expanded .sub-
laterally into a slight lobe, the lobe yellowish edged with dark
brown below. The spiracle on the 4th somite set in a black. ring.
Legs purple, the base black. ‘Venter and prolegs green. Horn
purplish at base grading into yellow at the apex, and covered with
minute black tubercles, long and slightly upcurved.
Final instar—Very ‘similar. . Spiracles black with an orange
pink rim. Legs dark brown. . Horn shorter, down—curv ed, purple
ai tuberculate. eee:

Pupa in a. slight web. amongst litter. Dark purple-brown,
the lateral and ventral areas blotched and niottled | with yellowish-
buff and with a yellowish-buff crescent in front of the eye. The
front edges of the abdominal somités punctate. | Rear edge of, thie
zth abdominal somite strongly undercut, so that~ the succeeding
segment appears much inset. 8th, and succeeding, abdominal: so-
mites deeply pitted. | Cremaster black, a bul ending” ana stout
spike with bifid tip. Spiracles black.

Food-plant—Virginia Creeper. ~~ > Bee Se YS tp :

Described from a larva found ‘at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling
District) 13-vi-44, pupated 26-vi-44 and a male emerged 20-Vil-44i

Seitz’ description is ‘Larva very similar to that of Ampelophaga,
dark green with a yellow subdorsal stripe and lighter: or darker
green, hardly noticeable oblique stripes below it. The 4 first rings
are defined on the dorsum in the shape of ‘a thoracal shield which
is bordered by yellow and behind it by red-brown. The: horn of
the grown-up-insect is small, green, curved below. Ons Actinidia
fulvicoma, perhaps also on sfx, Bell & Scott give an, excellent
figure, except that the horn is shewn as a pale blue, in spite of
the detailed description stating that it is purple. They also men-
tion the occurrence of brown form, but I have not bred it.

Rhagastis albomarginatus Roths., albomarginatus.

Manson, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxvil, 753. 1921.
Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x; 569. 1929. |; +)
Scott, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxv, pl. il, fig. 7. 1931.
Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind,, Moths, v, 479, pl. vii, figs. 1-3,

pl. xv, fis. O87.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 417

- Penultimate instar—Head blue. Body green dotted with white
atoni: the secondary segmental rings. | A dark blue-green dorsal
line and a white subdorsal stripe on the thoracic somites and .a
series of oblique, white, lateral stripes on the abdominal, the last
stripe not reaching the base of the horn. 4th somite with a. pro-
tuberant ocellus, the pupil blue speckled with darker blue, the iris
white and the whole rimmed with dark blue. | Horn dae grey
blue, down-curved, slightly compressed from side to side, tapering
gradually from base and finally expanded into a knob and with a
double row of black points along it. Legs, prolegs and anal flap
greenish blue. Venter bluer green. :

Final instar—Similar. The head more tinged with green.
The ocellus with the pupil dark blue ringed with paler. Spiracles
white. There is a considerable difference in the shade of green,
some larvae being much more tinged with blue than others.

Pupa in a slight web among litter. Colour pale brown, the
head, thorax and wing” cases tinged with olive. An interrupted
black ventral line on the alnalonatiaell somites, and a fuscous latero-
ventral and dorsal stripe. Some fuscous shading on the spiracular
area. Cremaster triangular, hollowed out below, and ending in
two stout spines with bifid tips, and with two dorso- lateral black
spines above. Tongue case projecting slightly ventrally. Legs
and wing cases. along the veins, with small raised points.

Food-plant—Cultivated Hydrangea (Saxifragaceae) and on an
unidentified wild plant of the same order.

Described from a larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling
District) 22-vi-44, pupated I-vil-44 and a male emerged 23-vil-44.

Seitz’ description is as follows :—‘Larva grey, sham-eye on the
4th ring not..so large as in the other larvae. known of Rhagastis.
On the sides very thick and long white oblique stripes, the last
of which. begins at the horn and extends to the last prolegs. The
horn itself is slightly flawed and with an insignificant swelling
above the base. On Dichroa febrifuga or Hydrangea and other
plants.” He thus omits to. mention the most distinctive feature’ of
the larxa, the moghestee prcheloaence of the ocelli on- tine 4th somite.

Rhagastis olivacea Moore.

Mell, Biol. u. System. der Sudchin. Sphing., 324, pl. xii, ‘figs.
23-27, pl. xix, figs. 29, 30. 1922. o PU Fer! i

Seitz, Seits Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 569. 1939.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit Ind., Moths, v, 476, plo vie Ss 177,
iB, Ol, Savy We Go ees on

Ovum—Milky white tinged with green, ovoid. Laid singly on
the underside of leaves of the food-plant. Hatched 28-v-44.

Ist instar—Whitish green, unmarked. After feeding becomes
darker and, in the case of larvae feeding on purple leaved balsam,
tinged with purplish, Horn long and straight, black, the extreme
base orange, the tip bifid. Moulted 1-vi-44: |

2nd. instar—Very similar to previous instar. coioracic somites
tapered and 4th somite somewhat swollen. 4th somite with an

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTs SOGIETY, Vol. 46

indistinct subdorsal ocellus consisting of a yellowish ring enclos-
a a bluish pupil. Traces of oblique white lateral stripes. Moulted
ae instar—Similar to preceding with the markings all more
defined. The ocellus with the pupil from front to rear a quarter
blackish blue, a quarter dark blue and half blue-green, surrounded
by a ring, white anteriorly and yellow posteriorly, edged with
black. The secondary segmental rings speckled with white. Horn
stouter, straight, purplish and tuberculate. Moulted 9-vi-44.

4th instar—Head green. Body yellow green speckled with yel-
low along the secondary segmental divisions. A dark dorsal line,
and a white subdorsal stripe on the thoracic somites. A series of
oblique white lateral stripes edged above with darker green from
4th somite backwards, the last stripe joining the base of the horn.
The ocellus on the 4th somite with the posterior half. of the pupil
bright green containing two white dots, the anterior half very dark
blue in front shading into bright blue behind, the surrounding ring
white anteriorly and yellow posteriorly and edged with an indigo
line. Horn deep yellow, stout, the apex pointed, minutely tuber-
culate. Legs, prolegs and venter green. Spiracles cream. Moult-
ed 13-vi-44.

Final instar—Green form very similar to previous instar. The
horn medium in length, slightly down-curved and purple-brown in
colour. The brown form with the markings similar to the green.
form but with the ground colour a rich tobacco brown, speckled
with white along the secondary segmental divisions. The ocellus
with the pupil very. dark olive, almost black. The lateral areas
suffused with lilac. Horn olive brown. Pupated 25-vi-44.

Pupa in a slight cocoon amongst litter. Head, thorax and wing
cases dark chocolate brown. Abdomen with the lateral area dark
chocolate, the venter and dorsum paler brown streaked and
speckled with darker. A dark dorsal stripe. Intersegmental areas
olive green. Proboscis sheath projecting slightly frontally and
ventrally, rounded. Leg sheaths with small raised points. Crem-
aster excavate below and ending in two forked spines. A female
emerged 17-vii-44.

Food- -plant—Impatiens spp. Bell & Scott add Vitis and Aroid-
eae.

Described from larvae bred from ova found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District).

Seitz’ description is as follows:—‘Larva leaf green, with a large
yellow-edged sham-eye on the 4th ring; from this eye to the head
a yellow longitudinal line. In the sides white oblique stripes
alternating with green triangles.’

NOTODONTIDAE.

Somera viridifusca Wk.

Head greyish white, the clypeus filled in with pale olive . and
with a pale olive streak on either side not reaching the vertex. An
inverted J-shaped black lateral streak, which joins the subdorsal
body stripe, with the front filled in with Javender and with a short

THE EARLY STAGES Of INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 41.

cherry coloured bar below. Body with the dorsum yellow-green’
bounded by a white stripe and with a double yellow dorsal. line:
The white subdorsal stripe shading into yellow on the rst somite,
edged above with black on the 2nd, with a large cherry-red spot
in it on the 7th, in some examples with smaller cherry-red spots
on the 3rd, 5th, 6th and 8th somites, and edged above with purp-
lish shading into black posteriorly on the 12th and 13th somites,
the anterior and posterior portion on all somites tinged with
yellow. The area below the subdorsal stripe green. Spiracles.
cream, edged behind with black and with a white spot above and.
to the rear. Venter, legs and prolegs bluer green.

Pupa subterranean. Dark purple brown and very shiny. Apex
of abdomen blunt and armed with two fine spines. Wing cases
short,

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 21-vi-44, buried 22-vi-44 and a female emerged
3511-44.

NOCTUIDAE.
Acronicta indica Moore.
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 755. 1941.

Examination of further larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) in May 1944 has revealed a small error in the
above quoted description. The triple subdorsal tuft of black hair
is placed on the 4th somite, not on the 3rd as originally stated.

Food-plant—Also on Rose, Salvia sp., Melastoma normale Don.

Moma champa Moore. f
Gardner, Indian Forest Records, vi, 265. 1941.

Head olive brown. Body dark slate blue, a dorsal and sub-
dorsal terra-cotta line, the area between from 4th to roth somite
speckled with white. Each somite laterally with an anterior
oblique terra-cotta stripe and a posterior erect one. A subdorsal
series of tubercles each bearing a few long dark hairs, the tubercles
on the 2nd and 11th somites much larger, the former clothed with
golden brown, the latter with dark brown pubescence. An inter-
rupted white sublateral stripe with a fringe of snow white hair.
1st somite with a lateral tubercle with a pencil of long white hairs.
Spiracles white. | Venter blackish with a median purple stripe.
Legs blackish. Prolegs pink.

Cocoon of whitish silk and spun among leaves. Pupa shining,
dark red-brown, the intersegmental areas olive. <A pale vellow-
brown central spot on the head.

Food-plant—Rose. Gardner gives Pyrus communis and Prun-
us communis.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 4-vi-44, spun tr1-vi-44 and a male emerged

28-vi-44.

This larva differs considerably from the figure of that of Moma
ludifica L., given by Hampson (1913, Cat. Lep. Phal., xiii, 336),

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

which shews a larva with longish subdorsal tufts, of hair and the.
fore- and hind-part raised. My Jarvae all rested gripping: with the.
true legs, abdominal prolegs and anal claspers.

- Polia. (Hadena) oxorpsarnats Guen!
Head brownish olive, minutely reticulated w ith Reiige and with
a dark stripe outlining the median suture and clypeus.’. Body
blackish grey, traces oF a darker dorsal line and a paler subdorsal
stripe, edged below with an interrupted black line. A pinkish-buff
sublateral stripe, between which and the subdorsal stripe there are
three indistinct dark-edged paler lines. ae black. - Venter,
legs and prolegs blackish grey. ;
Pupa subterranean in a slight earthen cocoon. - Chestnut brown,
the abdominal somites with the antertor edge darker and punctate.
Wing -cases paler. Cremaster a double, divergent spine.
Food-plant—Grasses.
Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 29-v-44, pumed 4-vi-44 and a female emerged

24-Vi-44.
Tiracola plagiata Wk.
Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ili, 34, pl. 148, fig. 1a. 1884-7.
Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 283. 18094.

Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal., v, 259. 1905. :
Warren, Seits Indo-Austr.. Noctuidae, xi, 74. 1913.

_ Head .red brown, darker frontally. Body black, minutely
streaked and speckled with grey and with the dorsal area tinged
with olive. A black dorsal line, most distinct on the thoracic

somites. ‘A very pale greenish-) =yellow lateral blotch on the 4th to
6th and 1oth to r1th somites, in some examples with traces of a
cream lateral stripe between, A few colourless hairs arising from
minute warts, a dorsal pair on the 4th, 5th and 6th somite rather
larger than the others. 11th somite humped and with two large
dorsal, warts. Legs red brown ringed with black... Venter and
prolegs dark olive: tinged with reddish. At the beginning, of the
instar the ground colour is distinctly black, as the instar progresses
it becomés more and more tinged with olive.

-Pupa subterranean in a slight earthen cocoon. Dark chestnut
brown, a dorsal line and the intersegmental areas. darker. Crem-
aster a fan of four stout spines, ‘with two more. slender spines
above.

Food-plant—Polyphagous, eating a faree ananaver of rattled
low plants and shrubs. All previously published descriptions give
Emilia as the food-plant.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 4-vi-44, buried 1o-vi-44 and a NOUELE emerged

3-Vil-44.
All published descriptions seem to be based on Wows s which
is as follows:—‘Larva dull violet-brown; with a few fine dorsal

hairs, a few scattered grey dots, and a sublateral pale olivaceous
band from fourth segment; head small; head and legs violet grey ;

“THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN. LEPIDOPTERA | 4a1

twelfth segment conical... Pupa’ dark red.’ The figure is. most
unlife-like’ and shews a dark. purple larva with a sublateral: pale
olive stripe edged above by a. white line from the 4th somite back-
wards, and with a° brown head and legs. ;

Conservula Pee Moore.

Head pale brown, reticulated with darker. Body golden brown
minutely speckled with. darker. An orange dorsal stripe, a dorsal
series of darker brown.V-shaped marks, and a subdorsal series of
slightly oblique orange stripes. A white spiracular line, edged
below narrowly with orange. §Spiracles white ringed with dark
brown. . Venter and prolegs golden brown. Legs pinkish.

Pupa subterranean in a. cocoon of brownish silk covered with
earth. Bright chestnut brown, shining. Cremaster two. stout,
outwardly curved, spines with some smaller spines ventrally.

-Food- plant=-Bracken.

Described from a full fed larva erent at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 22-v-44, buried 28-v-44 and a male emerged
21-V1-44. :

Warren (1913, Seitz Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 155) describes
the larva of the closely allied C. v-brunneum Guen. as spinning up
in a slight cocoon among the fronds. My larvae quite definitely
buried.

Callyna contracta. Warr.

Head black, edged behind with yellow. Body black. 1st
somite with a subdorsal yellow streak joining a transverse yellow
stripe and sublateral yellow speckling. - 2nd somite with -two
transverse yellow stripes which join on the lateral area,, and sub-
lateral yellow’ reticulations. 3rd somite with a transverse yellow
line anteriorly: 4th somite with two white transverse stripes with
a white line, with two streaks behind it, between. them. 5th to
“th somites.each with two transverse white stripes with two streaks
between them. -8th somite with the two transverse ‘stripes. only.
oth somite backwards transversely. striped with yellow, three stripes
per somite.. A yellow. lateral line with white and yellow streaks
above it. Venter black, minutely streaked transversely with: yellow
and whitish. Legs black. Prolegs yellow with a black central
streak. A few longish colourless hairs. —

‘Pupa ‘subterranean in a~ tough cocoon coerce He. eel.
Mahogany brown, the venter paler. Thorax with a slight. dorsal
ridge. Cuticle punctate. Cremaster: a double ‘outcurved spine,
with shorter straight spines below. ibe

Described from a full fed larva found at quien (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling Distriet) 25-44) buried 28-v-44 and a female emerged

27-Vi-44.

Clethropho ra virida Heyl.

Pupa’ Tea ‘long spindle-shaped cocoon of pure white, tough,
papery silk, longitudinally wrinkled. Pale green, a broad, dark
brown, dorsal stripe on thorax and abdomen. Apex of the abdom-

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

en blunt. Both the cocoon and pupa are very Lasiocampid-like in
appearance, the cocoon could quite easily pass for that of a Cosmot-
riche but for lack of the protruding larval hairs.

Described from a cocoon found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling
District) 15-v-44, from which a female emerged 29-v-44.

Sypna curvilinea Moore.

Head yellow green. Body yellow green, minutely dotted with
reddish, and with a white dorsal stripe tinged with purplish on the
rath somite. Skin between the head and first somite black but
only visible when the head is extended. 1st somite with two trans-
verse series of white dots. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse
series of four white dots. 4th with two subdorsal and a lateral,
and a larger subdorsal dot between it and the 5th somite. 5th to
gth somites each with two subdorsal, two lateral and two sublateral
white dots. roth with two subdorsal and three lateral. 11th with
two subdorsal and one lateral. Venter green with a double whitish
stripe. Legs pinkish. Prolegs orange, the first pair much _ red-
uced. Spiracles reddish with a white centre.

Pupa in a spun together leaf. Very dark brown, almost black,
the wing-cases and intersegmental areas paler. Cremaster a bunch
of hooked spines.

Food-plant—Rubus sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 18-v-44, spun 22-v-44 and a male emerged

13-Vi-44.

Adris tyrannus Guen.

Head olive black. Body purple-black with a dull purple-pink
subdorsal stripe, paler at the edges and darker centrally, and a
similar lateral stripe, most marked on the thoracic somites and
interrupted by the ocelli and lateral markings on the gth and roth
somites. Ist somite with two bright blue dots at the base of the
leg, two sublateral yellow dots, the anterior one with a blue dot
above it, and a lateral blue dot. 2nd somite with an anterior
transverse series of six and a posterior series of eight blue dots,
one at the base of the leg and a sublateral, yellow, open ring. 3rd
somite similar but with the yellow ring replaced by a yellow streak.
4th somite with a subdorsal triangle of three blue dots, a large
yellow lateral spot, a sublateral triangle of three blue dots, with
an irregular yellow spot below and two blue dots below that.
5th and 6th somites each with an anterior and a posterior sub-
dorsal blue dot, a large lateral ocellus consisting of a black pupil
containing a blue crescent below, surrounded by a ring, wide and
cream anteriorly and narrow and orange behind, a sublateral triangle
of three blue dots with a few minute yellow streaks and two more
blue dots below. 7th and 8th somites each with a subdorsal triangle
of three blue dots, rather paler than the others, with a yellow
streak between the basal pair, four sublateral blue dots with a
reticulated yellow marking and one blue dot at the base of the
proleg. gth somite similar but the yellow reticulations extending:

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN ‘LEPLDOPTERA 423

over the lateral and sublateral area, enclosing the blue dots and
speckled with black. roth somite with a subdorsal yellow streak
joined to the patch on the a somite, a subdorsal triangle of three
blue dots and two slightly larger lateral and two sublateral blue
dots with yellow streaks between. 11th somite humped, the top
of the hump crimson, with four blue dots and a yellow blotch at
the side, an anterior subdorsal, three lateral and two subdorsal
blue dots. 12th somite with a double dorsal blue dot, a lateral
triangle of three and a sublateral pair, with an elongate yellow ring
between, and a cream mark posteriorly extending to the side of the
anal flap. Venter, legs and PERE black, the first pair of prolegs
aborted. :

Pupa in a slight cocoon spun sbetween leaves. Very dark
mahogany ‘brown, the cuticle minutely punctate but shining, the
wing-cases rugose. Apex of the abdomen longitudinally wrinkled.
Cremaster a bunch of hooked spines.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 18-v-44, spun 26-v-44 and a male emerged
14-V1-44.

Plusiodonta coelonota Jol.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ili, 75, pl. 153, fig. 1a. 1884-87.
Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 578. 1894.

Young larva—Head deep yellow. Ground colour of body
greenish grey, 1st somite with a black subdorsal spot, 2nd and 3rd
each with a black lateral spot, 4th to 12th somites each with a
black subdorsal spot. Legs and prolegs pale grey, the first two
pairs of prolegs obsolete. |

Full grown larva—Head orange. Body blackish. 4th somite
backwards streaked and speckled with greyish blue. 4th somite
with a lateral white spot, 5th with white reticulations dorsally, 7th
somite with the dorsal area grey, the rest whitish, 11th somite
with a white lateral blotch.

Cocoon of whitish silk covered’ with fragments’ of ‘chewed leaf,
shuttle-shaped. Pupa dark purple brown. ine cremaster a broad
transverse ridge with a slight point at each end.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 14-vi-44, spun 15-vi-44 and a male emerged

I-Vli-44.

Moore’s description is ‘Larva with twelve legs; violet-black,
with grey speckles and streaks; a purplish patch on eighth and
twelfth segment; head reddish. Pupa narrow, purplish-black, en-
closed within an elongated _ burplish-grey streaked cocoon... Feeds
on Cocculus macrocarpus.” The figure shews a_grey- speckled
blackish larva with large white patches. Hampson’s description is
as follows :—‘Purplish black with grey specks and streaks; the 7th
and rith somites with -pinkish patches ; head reddish’. .

Dichromia quadralis Wk.

Head yellow, two transverse series of eight black dots above
the jaws, above which is a larger central spot, and then two further

A24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

series of four and two. Body .dull green, a blackish dorsal and
lateral stripe, the latter. edged above and below with yellowish. The
4th to 6th and 11th somites banded. transversely with ‘blackish. 1st
somite with two transverse series of ‘six black dots, 2nd and 3rd
each with four and a sublateral triangle of three. -4th to 11th som-
ite with an anterior and posterior subdorsal black. dot and a
sublateral triangle of threes; 12th somite with an anterior
subdorsal dot anda posterior transverse’ series of six. Anal flap
with two anterior and six posterior black dots. All the black dots
giving rise to: colourless hairs... Legs black. Proleg’s green, the
first pair obsolete, with a black spot at base and an external black
streak. Anal claspers yellowish dotted with black. Venter green
with transverse series of. black: dots.:

Pupa in a spun together leaf. Pale cABSEAUE Ania Head
with a median black spot, a bar on the eye and a spot above it.
Pro-thorax with a subdorsal black spot. Meso-thorax with a sub-
dorsal black lunule, a lateral streak and a sublateral spot. Meta-
thorax and abdomen with black transverse bands. _ Leg and: wing
cases streaked with black. Cremaster a bunch of hooked spines.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 8-vi-44, pupated 11-vi-4q4 and a male emerged
23-Vi-44.

Gromereipar,

ED ipdien polyphaenaria Guen.

Head green, rectangular - and cin oasis’ above. - Body
leaf green minutely shagreened with white points. A. subdorsal
whitish-yellow line. and a lateral white line from the base of the
third pair. of legs backwards. . Very obscure oblique white lines
between the subdorsal and lateral lines. A narrow yellowish vent-
ral: stripe with a.series of “oblique yellow lines between it and the
lateral line. ist and 2nd pairs of legs green, the 3rd pair pink
with the base dark brown. Prolegs green. Anal flap produced
into. a blunt point. Spiracles dark red.

~ Pupa in a spun together leaf... Dull olive Ro, the wing cases
greener... Head and prothorax each with. a. small double dorsal
tubercle, A lateral pit between the 4th and 5th, abdominal somites.
Cremaster a stout spine.

_ Described from a-full fed larya found at Tukdah (5,000, fite
Darjeeling District) 24-Vi-44, , spun AR Yr 744. and. a female merece
10- Vile g ge’ ’ BEN yea Ara OS ey olipavs t mp vege geo Ug

“Todi arg utaria WwW lk.

Head: green, bifid © Above, the points purplish. Body green,
suffused ‘on the dorsum with purple; the suffusion most: pronounced
on the intersegmental divisions. Shape: very ‘long and'slender, the
anal flap produced to a point. =

Pupa in a slight web among leaves. Bright: leat: green, “the
dorsum slightly darker. Head. truncate. - Owl). yy Oievn INGE

‘Beod-plant—Rubus: spi fonireo seat s ae destilyy ce

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 425

Described from a full fed larva, found at- Tukdah (5,000. ft.
Darjeeling ENS) 22-V-44, spun 27-v-44 and a female emerged
10-Vi-44. : a no

' Osteosema sangutlineata Moore.

Head greenish, rounded. Body euriouely knobbed mivinee ane
impression of a catkin covered with small galls. Ist somite with a
transverse series of six very small knobs anteriorly and a larger
subdorsal and lateral knob posteriorly. -2nd somite with a double
dorsal,- a- very large subdorsal and a lateral knob. 3rd somite
similar. 4th with three small dorsal knobs, one anterior and two
posterior, a very large subdorsal, a lateral and a sublateral. 5th
to 8th with a divided dorsal knob anteriorly and a double’ one
posteriorly, a large subdorsal, a lateral_and_.a sublateral. gth and
toth with a small paired. dorsal knob, a large lateral and a sub-
lateral. 311th somite with a transverse series of four large knobs.
Colour greenish, the knobs, particularly the large ones, more or
less tinged with purplish. Traces of a dark dorsal, lateral and
ventral line. Legs and prolegs greenish.

Pupa in a leaf spun together with thick strands of brown ‘silk.
Head truncate, shape fairly stout. Colour green, the wing cases
darker. A dorsal series of minute purple specks on the abdomen
and a lateral series of small raised purple spots: . The veins of the
wing cases raised. ag :

Food-plant—Maesa chisia Don. | Pees

‘Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 2-v-44, pupated 14-v-44 and a female emerged
3-Vi-44.

Cidaria delecta Btlr.

Head .. -yellow green | ecerounded by a brownish ring. Body
green, a blackish dorsal and a white subdorsal line, the latter with
two black specks above it on each somite from 4th to 8th. ‘A dif-
fused pinkish sublateral stripe. Venter with a blackish median
line and transverse series of white specks. Legs green, the 3rd
pair tinged with pink. _ Prolegs green tinged with pink. Those
larvae that feed on creeper. with pink leaves are. suffused with pink,
the dorsum from ist to 9th somite less than the rest of the body.

Pupa in a spun together leaf. Yellow green, minutely streaked
with blackish and suffused with golden.. A blackish: dorsal, and
ventral line and a dark V southning. the meso- -thorax, _A subdorsal
series of black dots. : ; , as

*F ood-plant—Virginia- Creeper. Oe ag. ;

Described’ froma full fed’ larva found at’ Tukdah - (55608: ft.
Darjeeling Disttict) 8-vi-44, spun’ 1r3-vi-44 and a seu car
25-Vi-44. eth is ie

Cidaria aurigena Btlr.

Head green, ,with. a: black-brown central Riv. Brody deneppcon
blue-green, . a, dark. pulsating dorsal line..and a.dark line..which
appears subdorsal when seen from’above and lateral when seen

426 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

from the side. A white spiracular line. Venter transparent green
with a dark median stripe due to the contents of the intestines
shewing through. Legs and prolegs green. Shape tapered from
head to anal somite.

Pupa in a spun together leaf. Pale green, the thorax and wing
cases a transparent, glassy green. Cremaster a spike armed with
hooked brown spines.

Food-plant—Impatiens sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 28-v-44, spun 1-vi-44 and a female emerged

I2-V1-44.

Cidaria silaceata Schiff.

Head yellow green. Body purple, each somite with a median
and posterior transverse series of minute white specks on the dorsum
and venter. A dark lateral line edged below with paler. Venter
with a median whitish line. Legs yellowish green. Anal claspers
with an anterior white stripe, posteriorly tinged with greenish.
Anal flap purplish tinged with green.

Pupa in a spun up leaf. Green, the dorsum on the abdomen
tinged with pink and with a sprinkling of minute black specks.
‘Venter with a black streak. Cremaster pink, triangular, ending
‘in. a bunch of hooked spines. :

Food-plant—Impatiens sp. a

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 18-v-44, spun 24-v-44 and a male emerged
7-V1-44.

Photoscotosia miniosata Wk.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist., xl, 691. 1939.

Among a number of normal larvae collected at Tukdah, one had
the green colour replaced by golden brown, the dorsal oe
almost obsolete.

Usual mode of pupation is in a subterranean cocoon, not in 2
spun up leaf as previously described.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 20-v-44, pupated 23-v-44 and a male emerged

7-Vi-44.
Phthonoloba decussata Moore.

Head very slightly bifid, the prominences blunt. Colour of head
and body a clear orange pink, the intersegmental areas darker and
with traces of a dark dorsal line. Venter whitish. Legs and
prolegs pale orange pink. Anal claspers each with a backward
pointing tooth.

Pupa in a slight web among litter. Bright, pale, orange brown,
the wing cases tinged with green.

Food-plant—Rose.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 it.
Darjeeling District) 30-iv-44, pupated 5-v-44 and a female emerged

19-V-44.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 427

Callabraxas amanda Btlr.

Head green, suffused with pale mauve and minutely speckled
with black. Body mauve, minutely speckled with white, the dorsal
area increasingly suffused with green from the 7th somite back-
wards, the lateral area from the 7th somite backwards yellow
green. Venter green from the 9th somite backwards, 2nd and
zgrd somites each with four black dots arranged in a diamond
dorsally, 4th to 7th with three and 8th somite with two only, but
larger. Prolegs green. Legs mauve.

Pupa in a, spun together leaf. Pale yellowish green, the wing
cases yellow. Pro- and meso-thorax each with two _ transverse
series of minute black specks. 2nd to 6th abdominal somites with
an interrupted black dorsal stripe. The subdorsal area with two
lines of black dots. A double lateral series of black streaks and
dots. An interrupted black ventral stripe on the 5th and 6th ab-
dominal somites. Cremaster and terminal somite black, cremaster

a stout spike ending in a double reddish spine.

Food-plant—An unidentified plant belonging to the Saierag a.
ceae.

Descibed from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 26-v-44, spun 4-vi-44 and a female emerged
24-V1-44.

Peratophyga aerata Moore.

Head brown, some examples with a broad, blackish, central
‘stripe. Body blackish, some examples tinged with green. <A sub-
dorsal line of white dots on 1st to 3rd and oth to 12th somites, 5th
and 6th somites with a white subdorsal spot anteriorly. A_ buff
lateral stripe from 5th to 8th somite. Venter blackish with a dotted
white central line. Legs black. Pyoless buff. Shape short and
stout.

Pupa in a slight cocoon among hitter possibly subterranean in
nature. Dark reddish brown, the thorax and wing cases dark olive.
6th and 7th abdominal somites with a transverse. raised ridge.
Cremaster a stout spine.

Food-plant—Hypericum sp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,o00 ft.
Darjeeling District) 16-vi-44, pupated 18-vi44 and a male emerged

I-Vii-44.

Eurytaphria bisinuata Hamps.

Head small, green with a blackish V-shaped mark. Body
green, the intersegmental areas silvery, with a dark dorsal stripe
tinged with purple on the thoracic and posterior somites. 2nd and
3rd somites each with a dark crimson lateral speck. 5th to 8th
somites each with a double sublateral dark crimson speck. Legs,
prolegs and venter green. Spiracles set on black spots.

Fupa in a slight earthen cocoon. Pale chestnut, tinged with
olive. The wing cases olive green. Cremaster a short, bifid-tipped
spine. l

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 1o-v-44, buried 15-v-44 and a female emerged

27-V-44.
Ectropis (Boarmia) bhurmitra Wk.

Head triangular, flattened above, pale brown with a darker
lateral line. Body dark brown. ist to 4th somites with a darker
subdorsal line, 5th somite with a darker dorsal V-shaped mark
with a pale buff streak in front of each arm, 7th somite with a
darker subdorsal line, edged below with paler. A pale diamond-
shaped dorsal blotch on the 8th somite. 11th somite slightly humped
and with a double, dorsal tubercle, a subdorsal pale mark ending
at each tubercle with a very dark brown bar below. A pale streak
along the abdominal proleg. Venter dark brown with a whitish
median line. Legs dark brown. Shape fairly short and stout.

Pupa subterranean without any perceptible cocoon. Dark red-
dish chestnut, the wing cases olive. Cremaster a stout spike
ending in two spines.

Food-plant—Maesa chisia Don., Symplocos sp., Melastoma.
normale Don. and a number of unidentified shrubs.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 14-v-44, buried 15-v-44 and a female emerged
4-V1-44.

Psyra spurcataria Wk.

Head olive brown. Body olive brown, blotched and mottled
with darker. Dorsal area of the 1st to 4th somites greenish with
a dark median stripe. 5th and 6th somites dorsally bright chestnut
speckled with canary yellow, the anterior edge of this area defined
by a brown V-shaped mark with the apex directed forward. 7th
somite with a greenish yellow triangular dorsal mark, the posterior
portion of the somite dark brown, which continues as a narrowing
dark brown dorsal stripe on the 8th and oth somites after. which
it divides and runs to the anterior edge of the anal clasper. Venter
tinged with greenish. Legs and prolegs olive brown. There is
considerable variation in colour, some examples having the ground
colour distinctly olive green and the dorsal marking on the 5th
and 6th somites bright yellow green speckled with red brown, the
dorsal mark on the 7th somite yellow green. One larva, which
unfortunately was parasitised and so I cannot be absolutely sure
of its identity, had the ground colour dull grey and the dorsal
markings obsolete with the exception of a V on the 5th somite
composed of brown-ringed white dots and traces of a similar V on
the 6th somite. Shape peculiar and distinctive, the 5th somite
anteriorly with a very short dorsal tooth, 6th somite with a long
dorsal process bifid for the greater part of its length, and 7th
somite with a short subdorsal tooth. Resting attitude with the
head and first two somites folded back along the dorsum, the 2nd
pair of legs holding the support and the 3rd pair the body near the
abdominal prolegs, and the body humped so that the head is tucked

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 429

up against the dorsal tooth on the 5th somite and the process on
the 6th somite stands erect.

Pupa in a slight cocoon among leaves, possibly amongst litter
in nature. Very dark olive brown, almost black, the intersegmental
areas paler. Wing cases with the veins raised. Cremaster a stout
spin, the apex bifid.

Food-plant—Rose and a number of unidentified shrubs.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 15-v-44, spun 21-v-44 and a female emerged
8-vi-44.

Fascellina plagiata Wik.

Head purple brown, slightly bifid above. 1st and 2nd somites
dark chestnut, slightly paler laterally. 3rd and 4th somites dark
chestnut dorsally with a subdorsal lilac line, olive brown laterally
and paler chestnut sublaterally. 5th somite olive brown, a sub-
dorsal lilac line, the sublateral area pale chestnut, and with a bright
orange-brown dorsal projection with the tip bifid. 6th somite with
the dorsal area lilac speckled with olive, shading through olive
into pale chestnut sublaterally, and with a similar dorsal projection.
7th somite chestnut dorsally with a lilac dorsal stripe posteriorly,
the subdorsal and lateral areas dark purple brown with a white
sublateral spot. 8th somite with a heart-shaped yellow dorsal mark,
two white subdorsal specks and a white sublateral dot. 8th to rath
somites with a broad chestnut dorsal stripe, the lateral area lilac.
Venter dark chestnut on 1st to 4th somites and dark olive brown
thereafter, a blackish median line on the 1st to 8th somites and
white on goth somite backwards. Legs black. Prolegs lilac. Rest-
ing attitude with the head thrown back, the 3rd pair of legs extended
and the others folded flat, the body slightly humped.

Pupa in a spun up leaf. Very dark olive brown, almost black,
the wing cases and intersegmental areas paler. Cremaster a bunch
of hooked spines.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) g-vi-44, spun t1o-vi-44 and a male emerged
27-Vi-44.

Boarmia acactaria Bsd.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ili, 415, pl. ror, fig. 1b. 1884-87.
Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 265. 1895.

Head buff, speckled with darker, rounded. Body leaf green,
the intersegmental areas yellow-brown. 5th somite with a red
brown subdorsal tubercle and a square dorsal spot edged with whitish
on each side. 6th to roth somites each with a subdorsal white
dot anteriorly. rith somite with a double white dorsal tubercle.
Legs pinkish. Prolegs green. Venter green with median white
speckling. Spiracles purple with a white centre.

Pupa subterranean in an earthen cocoon. Olive green tinged,
except on the wing cases, with orange. 2nd abdominal somite
with a subdorsal orange red blotch, 5th with a lateral black blotch.
Cremaster a stout spine, bifid from about the middle.

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Food-plant—Rose and Garden Pansy. Moore gives Cinnamomea,
etc.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 20-v-44, buried 24-v-44 and a male emerged
I2-V1-44.

Moore’s description is ‘Larva with 1o legs; green; with two
purple-brown biconical dorsal prominences on sixth segment and
two dorsal white spots on twelfth segment; head and legs pale
purple-red; anterior and anal segments in male laterally black
speckled, spiracles black ringed. | Pupa red, greenish in front.’
Hampson’s description appears to have been based on that of Moore.

Medasina albidaria Wk.

Head triangular, slightly bifid above, dark brown mottled with
paler. Body dark olive brown, the lateral area of the 2nd to 4th
somites greener. 4th somite with a buff, heart-shaped, dorsal
mark. 5th somite expanded into a subdorsal tubercle and with a
greenish-buff triangular mark dorsally, the mark containing two
minute dorsal tubercles. 8th somite with a greenish-buff, heart- —
shaped dorsal mark. 11th somite with a _ transverse, raised,
greenish-buff band. 8th to 11th somites marked with greenish-
buff laterally. Spiracles red brown ringed with buff. Venter with
the thoracic somites dark brown, 4th and 5th paler with dark
mottling, 6th somite with a minute double tubercle centrally, 6th_
to 9th somites dark brown with an obscure paler median stripe, roth
and 11th somites whitish with a dark median tine. Legs brown.

Pupa subterranean without any visible cocoon. | Thorax and
wing cases very dark olive brown, the abdomen chestnut with the
intersegmental areas darker. remaster a stout spine, bifid at
the tip.

Food-plant—Cherry, Rose.

Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft.
Darjeeling District) 1o-v-44, buried 12-v-44 and a female emerged
5-Vi-44. :

(Lo be continued.)

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER IN KASHMIR.

BY
Vienne OKE.

(With four plates.)

Photographing birds in Kashmir has great advantages; the
weather is cool (at least in the earlier part of the summer) and the
native inhabitants have quickly come to realise that mad people
who pursue birds have their economic potentialities. This latter
is not an unmixed blessing. The advantage is that there is a
small body of shikaris who cater (for a sum) for the needs of the
ornithologist and are pretty good at their work; the rub comes
because of the grasp-all, beg-for-everything policy of these same
gentlemen. You hire a man for, say, Rs. 50 a month (1 speak of
wartime prices) only to discover within a day or two that he finds
it impossible to work without the help of his cousin who promptly
demands a preposterous wage. During the course of any opera-
tions you will also discover various hangers-on in the shape of
small boys and other ragged men who are always said to have’
rendered service of one sort or another and, of course, have to be
paid. Finally, you are constantly reminded by your own men that
their clothes are wearing out, their chaplis coming to pieces and
that surely there must be unwanted (but to them welcome) crumbs
falling daily from the master’s table. Moreover, all Kashmiris are
of the unshakeable opinion that the middle name of any ‘sahib’
must be ‘baksheesh’. You will, at first, be inclined to lose your
temper with all this, but will mind less when you find that the
rogues are nevertheless pleasant, humourful rogues. Any out-of-
ordinary attempt at extortion can always be checked in the most
miraculous way by an offer, in the cause of justice, to place the
matter before the Visitors’ Bureau.

I began operations in the third week of April of this year (1944)
which was perhaps a little early for birds’ nests, although there
were certainly plenty of signs of nuptial activity. Kites (Milvus
migrans lineatus) were, of course, well advanced in their breeding
activities. Numbers of Chenar trees contained their huge, rag-
decorated nests of agglomerated twigs. Sparrows often took
advantage of the lower storeys of these structures in. which
apparently to place their own nests, for I have seen as many as
a dozen birds collected there, some of whom appeared to be in-
cubating eggs. Kites (both Miluvus m. govinda and lineatus) seem
indeed to be very tolerant towards the presence of other birds
about their nests: I have seen a mynah displaying within a foot
or so of a sitting kite on a palm tree in Bombay, and in Kashmir
I once saw a hen-sparrow jump perkily on to the rim of a kite’s
nest and disturbing the owner’s long tail—the kite obligingly

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

moved its tail away! Against its own kind, however, the Kashmir
bird would appear to keep a considerable area of territory. In
the whole of the Shalamar Gardens, for instance, I saw but one
new nest of a kite, although the gardens contain many fine, desir-
ably-tall Chenar trees. Of the more common birds actively prepar-
ing for the breeding season among others, I noticed:—Starling,
White-eared Bulbul, Hoopoe, Pied Kingfisher, Indian Grey Tit,
Jackdaw, Oriole, Pied Wagtail, Jerdon’s Little Ring-Plover, Red-
wattled Lapwing, European Swallow. The list should include many
more but the ones above are mentioned because I took, or tried to
take, photographs of most of them during the last days of April. The
Swallows (Hirundo r. rustica) need a little more mention because of
their engaging, ‘domesticated’ habits. Their yearly nesting on the low
ceiling of the Srinagar post-office is already well-known: the com-
ings and goings of the clerks who work below them do not bother
the birds in the least. It is also usual for them to select the prow
of a houseboat for a building-site, and I myself saw a pair roosting
nightly in the ‘sitting-room’ of a small, two-roomed houseboat
among the beams of which they eventually built their nest. The
birds took little notice of the human occupants of the sitting-room
and could easily have been touched with the hand as they sat
closely together on a loop of electric cord!

The chief problem for the bird-photographer in wartime
Kashmir is the difficulty of transport. Motor-taxi fares are pro-
hibitive and so recourse must be had to the bicycle, tonga and
shikara’, all of which are distinguished by varying degrees of slow-
ness. The bicycle is perhaps the best and most convenient vehicle. I
have cycled 20 to 30 miles a day loaded down with a heavy 6 cm. x.
g cm. Graflex camera, but it needs almost fanatical enthusiasm to
achieve this! Consequently it 1s well to live as near one’s area of
operations as possible. For this purpose Ganderbal—a village at the
north end of Anchar Lake—must be one of the best situated. From
here Anchar Lake may be reached by shikara with reasonable
ease, Woyil Bridge is not too far away, and the lower reaches
of the Sind River and the marshes of Ganderbal close at hand.
Anchar Lake is a paradise for the ornithologist. It is especially rich
in water and marsh birds: Pheasant-tailed Jacana, Turkestan Rail,
Dabchick, Ruddy Crake, Eastern Baillon’s Crake, Painted Snipe,
Paddy Bird, etc., all breed here. The lower reaches of the Sind
River and its branch channels will provide many of the tree-nesting
birds: Golden Oriole, Tickell’s Thrush, Rufous-backed Shrike,
Paradise Flycatcher, doves and others. Woyil Bridge and the
environs of Ganderbal will give you many of the birds of mountain-
stream and open hills: Jerdon’s Little Ring Plover, Red-wattled
Lapwing, Chukor, Sandpiper, Plumbeous Redstart, Meadow and
White-capped Buntings, European Bee-eater, White-capped Red-
start, Stonechat, etc. 7

1 ‘Shikara’ must not be confused with ‘shikari’. The Jatter is a hunter;
the former Kashmir’s version of the gondola, always advertised as having
‘best spring seats’,

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Photo by W. T. Loke.
Willow-Warbler.

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER IN KASHMIR 433

I moved out to Ganderbal in a small houseboat in the second
week of May and spent three busy weeks there, going to
work by shikara, bicycle or on foot. In Ganderbal the houseboats
are anchored on the snow-waters of the Sind River so that the
temperature here, at any given time, is far lower than in Srinagar.
My three weeks at Ganderbal and the preceding three weeks in
Srinagar were days enlivened by a number of adventures. Walk-
ing about a Kashmir marsh, for instance, I can perhaps best liken
to walking on the surface of one of those ‘Lilos’ or rubber-
mattresses beloved of sun-basking, peacetime swimmers, with the
further addition that the rubber is decaying and oneself in con-
stant danger of falling through to the murky waters below! There
are also patches of muddy ooze set in the midst of these marshes
and if you are unlucky enough to strike a really soft patch (as I
‘was) you will find yourself up to the hips in. sucking mud _ before
you know where you are. Sitting in the hide, balancing cne’s stool
on a narrow board held under water by one’s weight and with
one’s legs immersed for hours almost up to the knees in water is
another of the prices to be paid for pictures of marsh bird cele-
brities. The Painted Snipe, indeed, kept me waiting five days for
his! On the reed-fringed margin of Anchar Lake I had my most
interesting and exciting experience so far as a bird photographer.
While waiting for the return of a dabchick to its nest, I had the
supremely good fortune to see a young bird breaking out from its
‘shell, and later being transported to safety on the back of its
agitated parent. Another experience—this time near Woyil Bridge
—was having a 2 lb. headless fish dropped on me by an osprey
which had alighted unsuspectingly on the top rim of my circular
hide. I must, however, own to a certain dissatisfaction because
the fish turned out to be only a ‘churoo’ and not a trout!

A piece of carelessness on the part of one of my shikaris earned
him the name of ‘the cuckoo’. We had found a nest of the Golden
‘Oriole attached to a slim branch of Robinia pseudoacacia and had
pulled it down to remove a small twig which came directly between
the nest and the camera. Whilst doing this, the shikari allowed
the branch to slip from his hand with the result that all the eggs
were catapulted into the air. Quite unperturbed by this accident
the shikari disappeared into the jungle and soon returned with
another three Oriole’s eggs which he had stolen from another nest
and these he placed into the excellently situated nest I was trying
to photograph. The Orioles never noticed the substitution and I
had the pleasure of coming back to the same nest some days later to
photograph the unsuspecting foster-parents feeding the young birds.

When the weather became warmer, I moved up to Sonemarg
(about 9,000 feet) which guards the entrance to the valley leading
to Baltal and the Zoji-la Pass. Here I lived in a tent for five weeks
and spent the happiest time of all. In Sonemarg one lives in a
field surrounded by mountains, woods and streams and in the
midst of breeding birds. Meadow Buntings are exceptionally
common and their nests to be found with no difficulty. Choughs

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

(both red-billed and yellow-billed), Snow Pigeon, Dipper, Grey Wag-
tail, Sandpiper, Goldfinch, Greenfinch, Rosefinch, Hodgson’s Pipit,
Grey-headed Thrush, Blue-headed Rock-thrush, Kashmir Wren,
various Warblers (the Large-crowned Willow-wren being most
common), Stonechat, Hodgson’s Shortwing and a host of others live
and breed all round you.

In the thick and dark woods of Sonemarg I had an Pero tli,
of trying out photography by means of sunlight reflected from a
mirror—flash bulbs being, of course, unobtainable in war time.
Results were mostly poor due to films of very slow speed but the
reproduction in this article of a picture of a Grey-headed Thrush
taken by this method shows what can be done with a not too shy
bird and fast film. The woods swarm with various species of
Phylloscopus which usually place their nests in ill-lit places; they
are by no means shy birds and to their photographing the mirror
technique might well be tried with success.

Mention of photographic technique leads me to a discussion on
photographic methods. I am convinced that no one method will,
by itself, be completely satisfactory. The usual way of photo-
graphing from a hide still seems to me to be the best although
the use of a distant release should also produce good results in
many cases. Certainly Col. Phillips of Srinagar, who I believe
uses this method exclusively, has some fine pictures to his credit.
Flashlight, both the ordinary press-type and the new spotlight,
should be extremely useful on occasion. Problems calling for a
flashlight may often be met by the use of a mirror; it is a method
with the advantage that it is cheap and probably less likely to
frighten the bird. Up till recently a confirmed miniaturist, I have
found a 35 mm. camera in India entirely unsatisfactory for bird
photography. Grain-free prints at high magnifications seem almost
impossible to achieve and enlargements nearly always suffer from
loss of definition. This applies to films processed in Kashmir
as well as (or even more so) to those processed in the plains.
True, I have been unable to do my own processing due to inability
to buy fine grain chemicals but it still seems to me that where
you have such a small image to deal with as, for example
that of a Sooty Flycatcher, your bigger negative is bound to score.
It is certain that I have not regretted selling my miniature and
replacing it with an old fashioned type of reflex-camera using size
6 cm.<x 9 cm. (2$ ins. x 3% ins.) film—the Graflex. With the
latter camera I am entirely satisfied. The shutter, or rather the
mirror release and shutter mechanisms together, is no doubt
excessively noisy but it is surprising how soon a bird can get
used to noise. Besides, in photographing an incubating bird it
is no disadvantage to have it off the eggs every now and again.
In spite of my noisy shutter, I still have, on occasion, to employ
my shikari to drive the bird off its nest. All my pictures from
Kashmir were taken from hides. Of these I have two; one I call
my ring hide which was designed by Mr. Salim Ali, the other

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Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Iv

Pallas’s Fishing Eagle (1 aliaetus leucoryphus).

These birds are common about the lower reaches of the Jhelum River, near Wular Lake, |
where this picture was taken. |

A BIRD PHOLOGRAPHER IN KASHMIR 435

an ordinary shaped oblong tent 4 feet long, 3 feet wide and 4 feet
high. The former consists of two circular metal rings with a
thin material stretched between them and is of ample dimensions
making it eminently suitable for use under hot desert conditions.
The top ring is supported on three metal rods driven into the
ground; the bottom ring hangs loose and serves to keep taut the
cylinder-like body of the hide. The ring hide is useless in a
high wind. The tent hide is nothing more than a small tent
attached to the ground by means of guy ropes and pegs. It is
made of heavier material than the ring hide and consequently flaps
Iess in a strong wind. I found it very useful in Kashmir, Both
hides have been camouflaged with green and brown paint with the
hopes of making them look more a part of the landscape: the measure
of success achieved I should perhaps refer to the lady who one day,
when the hide was erected beside a nest of Hodgsonius phoent-
curoides, came up to within 30 feet of it, looked carefully round to
see that no one was near and... . is still to this day perfectly
satisfied that no one was.

The two shikaris working for me were good at their work and
understood my requirements well. It was, however, difficult to
impress upon them the undesirability of flat lighting and that to
have the sun shining from behind you directly upon the subject
will not help to make a good picture. They also have a favourite
trick of tying captured young birds which have just left the nest
to a stick in the ground by means of a length of string. You are
taken next morning to photograph the parents coming back to
feed their young, but you will usually find that the wretched little
thing has broken its legs in its frantic attempts to get free.
Needless to add, you should whenever possible prevent the shikaris
from doing this.

With wonderfully cool weather, the help of trained shikaris,
ideal temperatures for fine grain film development, working among
magnificent scenery and a multitude of breeding birds, one can
hardly fail to get good bird pictures in Kashmir. In the course
of eleven weeks I photographed the species contained in the
following list, with varying degrees of success, and cannot say
that I have any reason to be dissatisfied. True, films (especially
fresh stock) are difficult to obtain in wartime, but given peacetime
conditions one would have to be a very bad photographer to have
more than a small percentage of failures.

Vol.

SOCIETY,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

436

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DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF FISHING IN THE RIVERS
OF THE HILL RANGES OF TRAVANCORE.

BY
S. JONES, M.Sc.

“Lo! a child is born in the fisherman’s house !

Lo! the newly born fellow carries a net on his head!
Dhar, dhar, weeps the Singni fish, my love!

My life-long enemy is born today!

Alas, alas, O alas!

My life-long enemy is born today !’’

(The Gond’s song of the Singni fish by Devendra Satyarthi)
INTRODUCTION

Much has been said since the middle of the last century depre-
cating the destructive methods of fishing in the freshwater tracts
of India. Exposed as Travancore is to both the monsoons, the
rivers of the State contain water throughout the year, though they
are small and most of them little larger than torrential streams
compared to large rivers on the East Coast and of North India.
In these rivers, which once contained an abundance of fish, it is
hardly possible now to see a good sized specimen in the low-country
due to over-fishing and the same is true of the mid-country or the
semi-hilly tracts. The up-country consisting of the mountainous
districts withstood the encroachment of Man for some time, but
since the opening up of a fairly extensive area for plantations, such
as tea, rubber and cardamom, there is hardly any area in the State
which is not within easy access of Man. Before this the original
inhabitants of the jungles, like the hill men of the Mannan, Paliyan,
Oorali, Muthuvan and Kanikkar tribes, used to live close to the
rivers and streams and fishing also had been one of their vocations
in life for their daily sustenance. In those ancient days there was
none to dispute their right in the extensive ‘jungle areas with plenty
of wild game and forest produce’. Since large scale clearing of
jungles began they have been pushed back to the least fertile of the
tracts, their movements have been restricted, the wild game has
been reduced Sone eae and the needs of life have increased.
This state of absolute poverty together with their inherent laziness
compels them to resort to every means, foul or fair, in their struggle
for existence. The net result of all these in their fishing vocation
is the extensive use of poisons wherever and whenever possible for
capturing fish. According to the story narrated by the head of a
Mannan colony near the Tual waterfall in Vandanmettu-Kallar
River in Peermade, it was one of their forefathers, a king of the
jungles, hundreds or thousands of years ago that introduced the
fish from the lower side of the waterfall to the upper side; and
therefore as protectors of the fish they are not allowed by ancient
tradition to capture it by poisoning. But all such scruples have
yielded to the insistent demands of life nowadays and poisoning

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

of fish for easy capture has become one of their routine activities
during the hot months.

The southern region of the Western Ghats consists of the
mountainous tracts of Travancore which cover nearly half the
State’s total area of 7,625 sq. miles. From north to south the hill
range is nearly 200 miles long and several rivers arise from here
and flow towards the west into the Arabian Sea. The northern
region is more extensive, its elevation is greater and the rainfall
is heavier, and for these reasons all the large rivers are confined
to this area. There are two artificial lakes in the mountains, the
Periyar Lake in the north and the Kothayar Lake in the south.

TYPES OF FISH AVAILABLE IN THE STREAMS AND RIVERS OF
THE Hitt RANGES OF TRAVANCORE.

The study of the fish fauna in this region is far from complete.
Only very recently some new and interesting species such as
Travancoria jonest Hora (1941), Lepidopygopsis typus Raj (1941),
Batasio . travancoria Hora & Law (1941), Barbus (Puntius)
ophicephalus Raj (1941 a) and Barbus (puntius) micropogon subsp.
periyarensis Raj (1941 a) have been added to the list and the distri-
bution of several others has been extended to Travancore (Hora
& Law, 1941 & 1941 a and Hora & Nair, 1941). For a complete
list of the fresh water fish of Travancore including those repre-
sented in the hill ranges, the works of Pillay (1929), John (1936)
and Hora & Law (1941 a) may be consulted in addition to the re-
ferences mentioned above. Mention may also be made of an exotic
fish, the Rainbow Trout!, that has become acclimatised in the rivers
of the Kannan Devan Hills (Gopinath, 1942).

Among the hill stream fishes in Travancore, the greatest favour-
ite and one of the most delicious is the local Mahseer, Barbus
(Tor) khudree known as Kuyil in Tamil. The larger among the
rest, like Rasbora daniconius, Barilius gatensis, Danio aequipin-
natus, Garra mullya, etc. are eaten by the middle class people when
fish is scarce. The coolies and hill men eat any fish they get
without much discrimination.

Dr. Hora has given a comprehensive account of B. khudree in
his game fish series in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society (Hora, 1942). This is perhaps the largest fish in the hill
streams and rivers in Travancore and accordifg to Hora it is the
commonest species of these parts and its range extends along the
Satpura trend to the Central Provinces (Hora & Law, 1941 a). I
have seen fish up to 22 inches in length caught fom Vandan-
mettu-Kallar River and I am informed that fish up to three feet
are not uncommon. I have known from very reliable sources that
fish weighing about 30 Ib. have been taken from the river_-about
12 years ago. Unfortunately since the use of dynamite for easy

1 The wandering instincts of the Ceylon and Travancore Trout and its verteb-
ral and scale counts show that it is not a true Rainbow but a hybrid between
a Rainbow and a Steelhead. For details see Philip Fowke, Cey. Journ. Sci.,
vy, 1938; pp. 1-78 & Mackay, W.S.S., J.,B.N.H.S., xlv, 1945; pp. 352-373 &
542-557:

DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF FISHING 439

fishing in hilly tracts has become very common large Mahseers
are extremely rare. In this respect perhaps the WVandanmettu-
Kallar and the tributaries of the Periyar south of Kumili are some
of the few rivers that have not been greatly affected so far. Though
fishing is prohibited in almost all the rivers and streams in ie
hills, it would be better if such of those rivers as still remain safe
and important breeding grounds for the Mahseer are rigorously
protected by special legislation and by the appointment of additional
watchmen during the summer months. Along with this it is
necessary that the proper kind of fishing like angling should be
encouraged.

B. khudree is a clever fish and successful catches can be made
with only proper baits. It is the elusive nature of the fish that
obliges the local people to abandon the proper methods and resort
to other more sure but destructive methods of catching it. It is
necessary that the habits of the fish should be studied thoroughly
to achieve the maximum success with the rod and line and a more
sporting tendency should be developed among the people. In the
Periyar Lake and within the Peermade Game Reserve, B. khudree
is caught with rod and line. Both in the lake and in its head
waters fish up to 20 lb are generally caught with spoon or plug
bait and on fly. The Annual Reports of the Peermade Game
Association may be referred to for further details.

A closed season should be fixed for this fish after a careful study
of its breeding habits (Jones, 1946). The capture of fish during
migration for breeding (Jones, 1941) should also be stopped. The
general practice of setting fire to the grasslands is to be strongly
deprecated as this not only destroys to some extent the insect life
close to the banks but also contributes to the filling up of the pools
in the course of the stream with silt and mud due to soil erosion.
There is no doubt that with more rigorous legislation and mass
education the destructive tendencies would be considerably eliminated.
In certain pools close to the temples, as at Ayyappancoil and Vandi-
periyar in the course of the Periyar River, large sized specimens
of B. khudree are much less shy of man; they come close to the
edge of the water and feed on the offerings given.

DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF FISHING.

While dealing with the freshwater fish and fisheries of
Travancore, John (1936) described some of the destructive methods
of fishing, especially those employed in the plains. Some of
the methods followed in the up-country, such as the use of copper
sulphate, jatropha seeds, fixed engines and tripod net were also
noted by him.

The methods of fishing in different parts of South India are
similar in principle with some modifications according to the local
conditions and ingenuities of the people. _The employment of such
‘exotic’ materials as dynamites and chemical poisons would depend
on their availability. Thomas (1870) in his report on pisciculture
in South Canara and Wilson (1907) in his reports on the methods
of capture and supply of fish in the rivers of Nilgiri District list
the destructive methods of fishing practised in those tracts.

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Thomas (1870) refers to the poisoning of fish in the rivers with
Croton tiglium, Anamirta cocculus, Capsicum frutescens and a
species of Posoqueria known as ‘Kare Kai’ in Tulu. He 1s also of
opinion that the residue from the coffee pulpers erected in the course
of rivers may have a detrimental effect on the fish-fauna of the
locality. Among the fixed engines different kinds of basket traps
placed in small channels and in the middle of artificial dams and
obstructions constructed across the river for the capture of fish go-
ing up as well as coming down the river are mentioned. He suggests
that watchmen should be appointed to prevent poisoning and con-
struction of fish wiers. The basket traps should according to him
have wide spaces to allow all under sized fish to escape. He 1s
against advocating a closed season since he is of opinion that in
many fishes breeding period is very extended and in the case of those
spawning at the commencement of the monsoon rains due to the
floods prevalent then a natural closed season is imposed.

Wilson (1907) speaks of the fishing in Bhavani, Moyar and in
some small streams near Ootacamund. Here the chief methods are
the use of fixed engines consisting of basket traps, some of them
so small meshed as to be known as fry traps, poisoning with
berries and dynamiting. He refers to the use of cradle trap which
is a modified basket trap in some parts of the Moyar River when
the level of water is not very low. His main suggestions for the
improvement of the fisheries are appointment of watchmen to pre-
vent dynamiting, poisoning and other illegal methods of catching
fish, legislatoin against the use of fixed engine, regulation of the
mesh of cast nets and introduction of new varieties of fish into
suitable streams. i

The list of destructive methods for the hill ranges of Travancore
given in this article is by no means complete. It has been mainly
compiled from the information received and as a result of enquiry
made during the writer’s stay in the Cardamom Hills. In some of
these up-country regions, settlers from other parts have introduced .
their own methods of fishing, so that a clear demarcation of the
methods peculiar to different regions is hardly possible. | Destruct-
ive methods of fishing in the hilly tracts of Travancore come under
the following main categories, viz. use of explosives, poisons
(chemical and vegetable), traps and nets.

EXPLOSIVES.

Dynamite (Thotta, M. & T.1): This is perhaps the most fash-
ionable and at the same time one of the most destructive of all
methods employed for catching fish in the hills. Due to the
opening up of several roads, dynamite, which is necessary for blasting
stones has become easily available though some difficulty is ex-
perienced now due to the war. To have the maximum effect in the
use of a dynamite the bed of the pool should be rocky or sandy and
the time adjustment of the explosion should be such that it would
take place at the correct depth. The fish come up due to the shock

ee 8

* M= Malayalam. T= Manwl

DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF FISHING 441

and those that die sink down immediately. The destruction is so
thorough that hardly any fish, large or small, within a radius of
about 5 to 10 yards survives. Those at a distance are partially
affected and remain in a dazed condition facilitating easy capture.
The small sized fish is ignored and the larger ones, which form
only a fraction of the total kill, are caught by people who jump into
the water immediately after the explosion with their bodies rubbed
with oil and ears plugged with cotton wool, if the water is very
cold. In large pools where a good catch is expected sometimes two
dynamites are used simultaneously to produce double effect!

Crude explosives (Kettu-thotta, M. & T.):—Country made ex-
plosives are made in old types of soda water bottles and in unopened
cocoanut shells. In the case of the former type the explosion is
said to be tremendous and the destructive power very great.

POISONS.

Copper sulphate (Thurisu, M. & T.):—This stuff as one of the
components for the preparation of the Bordeaux mixture, com-
monly used for spraying diseased plants, is available in the estates
and the employees who have access to it during the spraying
season save small quantities of it without the knowledge of the
estate authorities. Usually a suitable pool in a stream, where a
good number of fish are suspected to be present, is selected and
heavy flow of water if any, is diverted and powdered copper sulphate
is put in a cloth and is dissolved at the head end. The gentle flow
of water diffuses the copper sulphate and the fish come up to the
surface of the water in a stupified and lethargic state when they
are caught. Both large and small sized fish, including the Mahseer,
are affected and it may not be unusual to see small dead fish flowing
along the course of the stream. This method and the one described
below are employed extensively in the rubber plantations.

Bordeaux mixture (Bodo-marunnu, M. & Bodo-marunthu, T.):—At
the time of spraying of the rubber trees the hose is directed to a
pool if there are any streams nearby and any fish that comes up
is then caught. This is usually done by the Conductor or Kangany
who is in charge of the spraying operations. Any excess of the
mixture that becomes available after a day’s spraying is sometimes
utilised for the purpose of catching’ fish.

Lime (Kkummayam, M. & T.):—Large quantities of unslaked
lime, if stirred in pools, would force the fish to come up in a dazed
condition, when they are caught. This method is not employed
extensively in the interior because large quantities of the stuff are
not easily available due to the heavy cost of transport.

_ Cyanogas or Calcium cyanide (Plague marunthu, T.):—I am
informed from very reliable sources of instances of fishing by the
employment of this deadly poison by people who have had access
to this fumigant!. Though this method is gradually becom-
ing popular in certain areas in recent years it is practised at present
only seldom due to difficulty in procuring the stuff. The poison

* This is usually available with persons in charge of antiplague measures.

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

is said to be very effective and a fairly large quantity of the fish
is caught by stirring a small quantity of it in pools after diverting
or damming the inflowing water. It is necessary that very rigorous
action should be taken against those who commit this offence, all
the more because it is the educated who are responsible for this.

Gelignite and dhal mixture :—The brown paste like gelatine dyna-
mite is mixed with well ground dkal and is thrown in small pellets
which are eagerly devoured by the fish. The action is instantaneous
and the poisoned fish makes a few rapid spinning movements and
sinks down dead. Only very little fishing is carried on in this
manner since the gelignite could be more advantageously used as
an explosive than as a poison!

Pa-eencha, M. (Acacia pennata Willd.) :—This is a ieee
climber found abundantly in the hills and is known as Kareencha
in South Travancore. The stem of this plant is cut into small
pieces, crushed and thrown into the water which is then stirred.
The action is fairly quick and all the fish both large and small come
up senseless or dead. This is the commonest poison used by the
hill-men throughout the State. Small streams and pools are best
suited for the purpose. I recently saw a stream which was once
full of small fishes of all types including the young of the Mahseer,
without a vestige of fish-life a few days after the hill-men had
conducted this utterly indefensible mode of fishing.

Mullakuru, M.; Penkottei, T. :—Seeds of the twiner, Anamuirta
cocculus W. & A. are crushed and ground well with dhal or rice
and used with deadly effect for catching fish. This is said to be
the most virulent of all plant poisons for fish. As they are not
available in the interior of the jungles the method is usually
employed by people at the foot of the High Ranges and in the
semi-hilly tracts.

Nanchumaram, M. & T. (Croton Kloteschianus Thw.):—The
leaves of this tree known as ‘vakanathukozha’ or ‘roche’ among
the hill-men are crushed and used for catching fish in the pools in the
course of streams. The crushed leaf is put in the water and stirred
well and the fish that come up are caught by people who jump
into the water for the purpose. The effect is said to be greater
than that of pad-eencha. According to the custom of the hill-men,
who mostly employ this method, those who go for fishing should
avoid using tamarind in their food on the previous day and should
spend the previous day and night away from their women folk in
which case only they believe they would meet with success. Honey
is also forbidden among some during this period. They do not
permit other people, if they are suspected to be unclean, to touch
the water they are fishing in.

Kutappanakuru, M.; Seeds of Corypha umbraculifera Linn. :—
Unripe seeds of the sago palm or the talipot palm are crushed and
stirred in the water for catching fish in the mid-country and on the
western slopes of the hills. This method cannot however be
employed continuously and extensively as this plant flowers only
once in its life when it is usually cut down for the pith which is
eaten.

Velt-avanakku or Nanchanpathal, M.; Jatropha curcas Linn.:—

DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF FISHING 443

Seeds of this hedge plant are crushed and stirred in pools and
the fish that come up are caught. It is a very common plant in the
plains from where the seeds are brought to the hills for the poison-
ing of fish. i

Poothakarandavalli, M.; Derris brevipes Baker:—The tender
leaves and flowers of this plant are used as fish poison. The plant
is not quite common in the up-country and hence not very exten-
sively used there.

Neervalam, M. & T.; Croton tighum Linn.:—Seeds of this
are ground well with dhal and earthworms and are thrown as
small pellets into the water; and any fish that eats this would
immediately come up. The fish caught in this manner is said to
cause sometimes giddiness and vomiting when cooked and eaten.

Pencolum, M. & T.3;- Sapium indicum Willd.:—The seeds of
this tree are crushed well and stirred in pools containing fish and
all the fish that come up are caught. This stuff is usually brought
by people from the low-country where it is available during certain
seasons.

Thirukalh, M.; Walli, V.; Euphorbia tirukalli Willd. :—In
‘some of the hilly tracts of South Travancore this plant is crushed
well and stirred in pools and small collections of water for catch-
ing fish. The milky sap of the plant is said to cause irritation to
the eyes of the fish and make them partially blind.

TRAPS AND NETS.

Fixed engines; Koodu, M.:—This method is practically a
monopoly of the hill tribes except in the lower side of the western
slopes. Throughout the course of the streams it is not unusual
to see low crude dams constructed with the help of stones, leaves
and reeds from one bank to the other so that water would flow
out only through the crevices. One or two places towards the
middle are kept open where large basket traps are kept with their
open ends facing the lower side of the streams so that all the fish
including fairly large ones that ascend the streams and rivers are
trapped. These traps are kept for long periods in one place,
except during periods of heavy floods, and the trapped fish are
collected regularly. The catches are heavy during the breeding
season. ,

Cast nets; Veechuvala, M.:—These are brought by people of
the lowe: regions owning estates in the hills and are not used
extensiveiy except in the Periyar Lake though it is strictly pro-
hibited there also. The meshes of the nets are usually very small
and therefore young fry and immature fish are also caught. These
are said to be used with great effect during the breeding season
when fishes migrate up the streams and rivers disregarding all
obstacles. The nets are used to facilitate the capture of the fish
that come up in a dazed condition after poisoning. |

Tripod net; Mukkalivala, M.:—The contrivance used is figured
and described by John (1936). In principle it is after the pattern
of the Chinese prawn net. Three poles tied together at the top
are erected in pools and a circular net is placed in the middle

444: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46 |
Strong cords from the margin of the net are connected to a large
central cord which is passed over the poles. Food is thrown in
the net and a large number of the fish collect together without
suspecting any foul play. The central cord is then suddenly pulled
up and all the fish remaining within the net are caught.

Cloth and blanket collection:—The coolies and hill-men collect
fish with the aid of clothes and blankets during the summer months.
Small sized fish in small streams and pools are caught in this
manner.

Chatty-pot collection:—A wide mouthed earthern pot is taken,
some rice is put inside, the mouth is closed by a piece of old cloth
with a hole in the middle of it and it is kept immersed in the water.
After some time the vessel is gently lifted up, and all the fish
found therein are collected. This is repeated a number of times
till a sufficient quantity is caught. This method is employed
occasionally by coolies and hill-men only who are thus able to
catch small sized fish in this manner.

Hand collection:—During the summer months when the flow
of water is very little, small streams are dammed at intervals and
the water is baled out and all the fish present, both large and small,
are caught.

Electric torches and lights:—This method is very common in
the low-country but is also employed in the western slopes of the
hills. It is comparatively not so destructive as the previous ones
since only the large sized ones among those attracted to the light
are killed.

Of the several methods of fishing in the hill ranges mentioned
above the use of dyriamites, copper sulphate, mullakuru, nanchu-
maram leaves, Pd-eencha and fixed engines are the most common
and at the same time the most destructive. Dynamite and copper
sulphate are mostly employed by people in the estate areas. Mulla-
kuru is used in the semi-hilly tracts and in the western slopes of
the hill ranges. It is necessary that the employment of the above
three methods should be controlled by more rigorous legislation.
Pa-eencha, nanchumaram leaves and fixed engines are employed ©
usually by hill-men and these should be checked with the help of
the Forest and Game Departments.

The destructive methods now employed in the hills affect the
people resident there in more than one respect. Firstly the fish
get so much reduced in number and size that rivers and streams
become ‘barren’ and fishing will be hardly worthwhile in course
of time. A rich and nutritious food is thus sure to run out of
supply. In malarial tracts this is calculated to bring on serious
consequences by devitalising the people and making them easily
susceptible to the attack of malaria. To those with a sporting
tendency, depletion of the larger fishes deprives them of an interest-
ing game. Most of the small sized carps found in the hill-streams
have been found to be efficient mosquito larvivores. During the
hot months many of the small streams in cleared areas get con-
verted into stagnant pools wherein mosquitoes breed freely and
complete destruction of fish in such situations would tend to aggra-
vate indirectly the malarial problem also.

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE STERCULIAS 445.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am deeply indebted to Dr. SL. Hora, Director of Fisheries,
Bengal, for going through this paper and communicating it for
publication.

REFERENCES,

Gopinath, R.—‘Acclimatization of Foreign Fish in ‘Travancore’. Journ.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XLIII, pp. 267-271, (1942).

Hora, S. L.—Homolopterid fishes from Peninsular India’. Rec. Ind. Mus.,
Vol. XLIII, pp. 221-232, (1941). ;

Hora, S. L.—The Game Fishes of India. xv The Mahseers or the large
scaled Barbels of India’. Journ. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., Vol. XLIII,
Pp. 163-169, (1942).

Hora, S. L. and Law, N. C.—‘The fresh water fish of Travancore’. Rec.
Ind. Mus., Vol. XLIII, pp. 233-256, (1941).

Hora, S. L. and Nair, K. K.— New Records of Freshwater fish from Tra-
vancore’. Ibid, Vol. XLIII, pp. 387-293, (1941).

John, C. C.—‘Fresh Water Fish and Fisheries of Travancore’. Journ.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 702-733, (1936).

Jones, S.—‘An interesting case of migration of the stone-licking fish, Garra
mullya (Sykes), for breeding.’ Curr. Sci., Vol. X, pp. 445-446, (1941).
Jones, S. ‘Breeding and development of Indian freshwater and brackishwater

fishes’, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soe Vol. XLVI, 1946.
_ Pillay, R. S. N.—‘A list of fishes taken in Travancore’. Journ. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XXXIII, pp. 347-379, (1929).
Raj, B. S—A New Genus of Schizothoracine fishes from Travancore, South
India. Rec. Ind. Mus. XLIII, p. 209-214 (1941).
Raj, B. S.—Two New Fishes from Travancore, South India, with remarks on
Barbus (Puntius) micropogon Cuv. and Val. Ibid. XLIII, pp. 375-386,

(1941 a).
Thomas, H. S.—Report on Pisciculture in South Canara. 1870.
Wilson, H. C.—Reports on the methods of capture and supply of fish in

the rivers of the Nilgiri District. Madras, 1907.

‘When thou wilt swim in that live bath,
Each fish, which every channel hath,
Most amorously to thee will swim,
Gladder to catch thee, than thou him’.

(By John Donne as quoted in ‘The Complete Angler’, 1653)

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE STERCULIAS OF THE
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

BY
CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

(With a plate.)

After a fairly intensive and critical field study of the various.
species included in the genus Sterculia as originally understood (by
T. Cooke and others), I have come to the conclusion that there are
a number of details in the existing descriptions that need correction,
amendment, or explanation. I fully realize that many, if not all,
of the original descriptions were based on herbarium specimens,
and perhaps on imperfect material at that. On this account many
of the characters were either overlooked or misinterpreted.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The genus Sterculia as understood by Cooke’, and some of the
older authors, has since been divided up. This division, in my
opinion, is sound as some of the characteristic differences are well
marked. Nevertheless, there are good characters which clearly
show the close relationship between the genera and species. Blatter?
indicated this division of the Bombay Sterculias and divided them
up accordingly under the three genera: Sterculia, embracing
S. foetida, S. gutatta, S. urens, and S. villosa; to these indigenous
species he added S. populnifolia and S. campanulata: 2) Pterygota,
is represented by a single species, P. alata (S. alata): 3) Firmiana,
is also a monotypic genus in the Bombay Presidency, F. colorata.
Blatter? followed Gamble* in transferring S. colorata to the genus
Firmiana. The change. was, however, occasioned by a confusion
and accordingly the name firmiana.) must be dropped. Mr.
C. E. C. Fischer’, though apparently not in favour of splitting up
the genus Sterculia in its widest sense, pointed out that the generic
name for S. colorata is strictly speaking Ervythropsis, and accordingly
it should be called Evythropsis colorata Burk. I favour such a
change for reasons I shall indicate under the specific heading. Of
all the species attributed to Bombay, I am not familiar with S. pop-
ulnifolia and S. campanulata, and I have had no material at hand
to work on in the field.

In Cooke’s Flora the generic description of the flowers reads:
‘Flowers unisexual~or polygamous: Calyx 4-5-fid or partite,
usually coloured. Petals O. Staminal column® bearing at its apex
10-30 anthers arranged in a ring without order.’’ <A point of
morphological terminology arises out of this description, namely, are
we right in calling the column which rises out of the centre of the
calyx in the male flowers a staminal column? (in the strict sense).
But, before we can dispose of this question it becomes necessary
to examine the statement ‘Petals O’. ‘After an examination of
numerous flowers in the various species dealt with, I find that this
statement is, perhaps, not wholly correct, and needs explanation.
Actually, though there are no visible petals, the petals are reduced
and united to form a deep or shallow corolline cup, inside which,
are the five rudimentary carpels. The anthers are poised on short
thick filaments (almost sessile) on the margin of the corolline cup.
In the female flowers the same arrangement prevails with the
difference that, the ovaries are not (naturally) rudimentary and the
anthers are reduced in size, but are not sterile; therefore the anthers
in the female flower cannot be referred to as staminodes, which
term implies sterile anthers. Under the circumstances the so-called
staminal column in the male flowers, and the gynophore of the female
flowers are both one and the same thing, namely, a gynophore in
the strict,sense of the term. Further remarks on the details of
the flowers will be found under the specific heads.

“Cooke. Ws HlsePres. (Bom suvOlanlan(xO01),e par 22r

* Blatter, E., Journ. B.N.H.S. vol. xxxiv (1931) p. 876.

® Blatter, E., Journ., B.N.H.S. vol. xxxiv (1931) p. 876.
4 Gamble, J.S., Fl. Had. Pres. vol. I (1915) p. 105.

5 Huscher, (C2. G:, in) sa wetter:

° The italics are mine.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Del. C. McCann.

Gynophores of Sterculiaceae.

Sterculia foetida: 1. Corolline cup ¢ ; 2. g¢ Gynophore; 3. Pistil; 4. Gynophore 9.
Sterculia guttata: 5. 9 Gynophore; 6. g§ Gynophore. Pterygota alata: 7. Corolline cup;
8. Pistil; 9. G Gynophore. Sterculia villosa. 10. § Gynophore: 11 & 12. Glandular hairs;
13. 9 Gynophore. Sterculia wrens: 14. Gynophore; 9 15 as 14 opened: 16. Glandular hair.
Evythropsis colorata: 17. Q Gynophore; 18. Base of corolla; 19. Corolline cup.

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MQ Phe PCy, ablirtste Inout earcee ee.
Apo prathTOM yer Vf A N nigiied eae

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE STERCULIAS 447

Genus: STERCULIA Linn.

1. Sterculia foetida Linn.

A curious feature of S. foetida is that whereas all the other
species. of the ‘old’ genus have simple leaves this species alone has
digitate leaves.

Male flowers.—The male flowers are produced in great profusion
and drop off from the proximal end of the pedicil. The sepals
exhibits shallow oblong troughs on their inner surfaces which are
glandular and function as nectaries. These areas secrete a foul-
smelling substance. The margins of the troughs are bordered with
inwardly directed, simple hairs. The gynophore is straight in bud
becoming hooked soon after the opening of the flower. It is
hirsutely ciliate almost to the base of the corolline cup. The coroll-
ine cup is somewhat irregularly toothed and supports the anthers
on its rim. The anthers face downwards towards the central axis
of the flower at the end of the hooked gynophore. This position
of the anthers probably fascilitates contact with the pollinating
visitors as they wander round and rise from the calyx after feeding.
Within the cup are five rudimentary carpels; both the cup and the
carpels are glabrous.

Female flowers.—The female flowers are comparatively few and
are usually situated at the ends of the racemes. They are similar
in appearance to the males, but with a corresponding enlargement
of the carpels and a reduction in the size of the anthers. The
gynophore, like that of the male, is hirsutely ciliate almost to the
base of the corolline cup. The anthers are smaller and fewer, but
are not sterile. The separations between the five carpels are marked
by a dense villous growth of hairs. The style is also villous; in
bud it is straight, but soon after the opening of the flower it
elongates and becomes deflexed bringing the stigma to the level of
the ring of anthers on the margin of the corolline cup. In this
position the stigma is open to pollination by visiting insects, or to
contact with the anthers on the rim of the cup. Crawling insects,
such as ants, may also assist in pollination by the conveyance of
pollen from neighbouring male flowers or by transferring pollen
from the anthers to the stigma in the same flower, thus there appears
to be a provision for both cross and self-pollination. On maturity
of the flower, after fertilization, the calyx detaches from its seat
and if it has not enveloped the young carpels on fading, it slides
down to the base of the pedicil where it is only displaced on the
enlargement of the pedicil in fruit.

The odour emitted by both male and female flowers is rather
powerful, but if one does not get too much of a nose full it is some-
what similar to the odour of wild honey. It is not in any way as
offensive as the odour emitted by the flowers of the next species.
_ Visitors.—The powerful odour emitted by the flowers attracts
large numbers of carrion and fruit flies (Diptera), and other nectari-
vorous insects. The Blue Bottle Fly (Pycnosoma flavipes) is much in
attendance. Among the Hymenoptera, the Apidae, honey bees, .are
frequent; ants also play an important rédle as they crawl over the
flowers, especially Cremastogaster sp.

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.HIST.. SOCIETY,-: Vol. 46

Follicles.—The follicles are large and woody; at first green
turning scarlet, and finally a deep brown-purple when dry. The
number of follicles on each gynophore varies from 1-5, apparently
dependent on whether the ovules in each are fertilized or not. This
is true of all the Sterculias. The follicles remain on the tree till
the following deciduous period and lend a note of colour to the then
bear branches.

2. Sterculia guttata Roxb.

The flowers of S. guttata are very similar to those of S. foetida,
but there are very good differences worthy of note.

Bracts.—A character not mentioned in the Flora is the presence
of a 3-fid bract at the base of each flower which covers it in bud.

Male flowers.—Male flowers are profusely developed, and are
less deciduous than those of S. foetida. They frequently dry in
situ, but eventually fall. The sepals are a lot more hairy than
those of the previous species. The glandular areas of the sepals
are beset with, pyrimidal excrescences; at the summit of each
pyrimid is a tuft of long hairs making access to the secreting tissue
most difficult. The gynophore is much more recurved than in the
previous species; it is entirely glabrous, except for one or two
stellate hairs at about one-third its height from the base, and these
are usually situated on the outer curve. The corolline cup is less
well demarcated and its border is marked by the rather large anth-
ers. In bud the gynophore is straight becoming strongly hooked
after opening. Its position is like that of S. foetida, reflexed over
the centre of the calyx.

Female flowers.—The female flowers are intermixed with the
males over the whole length of the racemes. The gynophore is
glabrous, except for a rather broad band of stellate at a level about
one-third from its base. The separations between the carpels are
marked by a dense villous growth of hairs. In bud the style is
short and straight, but soon after the opening of the flower it
elongates and becomes deflexed, bringing the stigma to the level of
the margin of the corolline cup supporting the anthers; the style
is also villous. The sepals dry in position. :

Visitors.—The odour emitted by the flowers is most foetid; its
intensity increases considerably after mid-day. Carrion flies appear
to be the chief pollinating agents, and again Pycnosoma is
abundantly in attendance. Ants also take a large share in poll-
ination, more than one species being involved. In passing it might
be mentioned that the odour of these flowers is so foul and over-
powering that it penetrated through a thick cloth bag, and flies
constantly sat on the bag in numbers. My fellow-passengers in
the train who undoubtedly scented the flowers and watched the flies
settle on my bag in profusion were uncomfortable and evidently
suspected the contents of the sack !

Follicles.—The follicles are hard and woody, very similar to
those of the previous species. They remain on the tree till the next
deciduous period. In colour they are at first green changing to
red and finally to brown. The seeds are black and polished. They

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE STERCULIAS 449

are eaten by macaques and squirrels (Punambulus sp.); roasted or
raw they are eaten by the local people. At the base of the seed
‘there are a few irritant hairs.

3. Sterculia urens Roxb.

A striking field character of S. wrens is its very pale exfoliating
bark which may vary in tone through silvery white to pale yellow,
and pale pink. This feature makes it stand out from all forest
trees, particularly during the deciduous period of the year. The
flowers of this species are somewhat differently constructed to those
already described above, and although the Flora describes the male
and female flowers separately, so far I have failed to obtain flowers
that are purely male in spite of a careful search through numerous
racemes. Another point of interest in this species is the presence
of obclavate or somewhat dumbell-shaped hairs on the flowers:
these hairs are flask-shaped below and slightly so, above, at the
extremity.

Male flowers.—Exclusively male flowers not observed.

* Female flowers.—Exclusively female flowers not seen.

Hermaphrddite flowers.—Hermaphrodite flowers are produced
in great profusion, but comparatively few produce fruit for reasons
which I shall endeavour to explain below. In the freshly opened
flowers, the inside of the sepals are a beautiful rice-green and with
age fade to a dirty yellow (hence perhaps the statement in the
Flora that the flowers are ‘yellow’) with a bright red or scarlet
central cup. The pollen is bright yellow. Externally the hairs on
the sepals are doubly clavate or dumbell-shaped, forming a dense
coating. These hairs are tinted a bright yellow or red. Internally
the free portion of the sepals are clothed with dense simple hairs
directed towards the tip; at the base of each lobe of the calyx there
is a fringe of simple hairs directed towards the centre protecting
the entrance of the cup formed by the union of the calyx lobes;
at the base of the cup simple hairs, directed obliquely upwards
towards the gynophore, guard the approach to the annulus or ring
‘at the base.

The gynophore is glabrous, short, and approximately the same
length as the corolline cup. At the base of the gynophore there
is a pale yellowish collar or annulus (referred to above) of a gland-
ular nature, and apparently functioning as a nectary. The corolline
‘cup is almost equal in length to that of the gynophore. Within
the cup are the five glabrous (apparently so at this stage of develop-
‘ment) carpels. 'At the summit of the cup the anthers are united
into a capitate head below which are four or five distinct slits or
‘windows’ which permit the ingress of minute insect visitors. The
-corolline cup may lose its head of anthers, split down and expose
the stigmatic processes, or it may collapse in situ, and completely
cover the carpels resulting in the sterility of the overies—no fruit
is formed in such circumstances. Thus pollination in this species
1s somewhat more fortuitous than those with differentiated flowers,
hence probably the comparatively few fruit produced hy each tree.

Visitors.—The odour, unlike that of the species described above,
is not evil-smelling. The flowers are visited by small Dzptera,

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

minute nectarivorous flies, which are able to enter through the
‘windows’. These small flies apparently play the chief rdle in
pollination. Thysanoptera (Thrips) are also present in abundance
and may also serve as pollinating agents. Small spiders inhabit
the inflorescences and weave their webs among the flowers; this
may be largely responsible for the fact that the dried flowers are
often seen on the trees long after the flowering season is over. |

Follicles.—The surface of the young follicles is green; it is
invested in a dense coating of velvet-like hairs which are glandular
and irritant. The hairs become red, pass to tawny, and finally
become brown.

4. Sterculia villosa Roxb.

S. villosa is a very inconspicuous tree in the deciduous state,
and at times may quite easily be mistaken of Odina Wodier when
bare. The lower portion of the trunk is often much knared. The
tree often flowers when it is only a few feet high. In this species
the racemes may be either purely male, or the sexes may be mixed,
in -which case the female flowers appear to be concentrated in the
lower portion of the inflorescence. .The main peduncles and pedi-
cils vary from red-brown to bright scarlet.

Male flowers.—The male flowers are often somewhat smaller
than the female. The sepals are a pale yellow (biscuit) or buff
on the lobes with scarlet or pale red centres—the shallow cups.
’ formed by the union of the calyx lobes. The gynophore is strongly
hooked with a few scattered glandular hairs on its upper half.
The hairs are stout or somewhat flask-shaped below and each
terminates in two to three lobules. The corolline cup is well
demarcated. :

Female flowers.—The female flowers are very similar to the
males in colour, but are generally a little larger. The gynophore
is glabrous. The corolline cup is well demarcated and has a few
scattered, simple hairs at its base which are directed downwards.
The anthers are small, but fertile. The five carpels are completely
masked by a dense growth of villous hairs extending up the style,
except for a glabrous path on its outer curve; the hairs on the
style are less dense than on the carpels.. The style is at first straight
becoming deflexed soon after opening, thus bringing the head of
the stigma to the level of the anthers on the margin of the corolline
cup. The stigma is irregularly five-lobed.

Visitors. —Unlike the flowers of most Sterculias, the flowers of
this species are agreeably sweet-scented. The narrow, bare path
over the top (outer) curve of the style into the depth of the calyx
cup sugests that it is intended as a passage for the entrance of
visitors. Small flies, Diptera, ants, and bees (Melipona sp.) visit
the flowers. Thysanoptera are also present. On examining the
flowers, I have found ants and small flies moving round in the
calyx cup in an attempt to find the path out again. The insects
in their movements collect the pollen fallen in the cup, and from
the anthers, and contact the stigma, thus effecting either cross or,
self-pollination as the case may be. |

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE STERCULIAS 451

Follicles.—The follicles are woody and much more boat-shaped
than in either S. foetida or S. guttata, but like them turn scarlet
when ripe and finally brown.

Genus: PTERYGOTA.

In this genus, although the flowers and fruit are very similar
in general appearance, the style is distinctly 5-fid and the carpels
are sessile, there being no gynophore in the female, although there
is One in the male flowers. The gynophore in the male does not
become hooked. The seeds are very broadly winged.

1, Pterygota alata (Roxb.)

The flowers of P. alata do not open wide as in the case of some
of the Sterculias (S. foetida, for example), but remain in a half
open condition. The normal number .of calyx lobes appears to be
six, rarely five or seven, the .seventh often resulting from the
splitting of one. The calyx lobes are divided to the base and do
not form a cup by union as in the Sterculias—the Flora describes
the calyx as campanulate! Each sepal terminates at its distal
extremity: in a distinct, somewhat wedge-shaped beak. Externally
the sepals are clothed in a dense coating of tufts of hairs arising
from the top of conical excresences; internally there are minute,
scattered, stellate hairs adpressed to the surface.

Male flowers.—The majority of the male flowers are borne below
the females which appear to be restricted to the top of the racemes.
_ The gynophore is straight and about half the length of the sepals ;
it is never recurved or hooked; it is softly pubescent from the base
to within a short distance of the corolline cup. Within the cup
there are five, glabrous, rudimentary carpels with the styles strongly
reflexed. The entire flower falls soon after maturation.

Female flowers.—The female flowers are usually borne at the
distal extremity of the racemes and in general structure do not
differ from the males. There is no gynophore. The greater part of
the corolline cup is masked by bundles of large anthers. The five
carpels are densely pillose and their divisions are imperceptible.
The style is divided into five stigmatic arms after a short distance
of union; it is softly pubescent. The stigmas are irregularly pa-
pillose and strongly recurved.

Visitors.—The odour emitted by the flowers of this species is
reminiscent of the odour emitted by the crushed leaves of Acorus
Calamus, and is not unpleasant.. Ants and bees appear to be the
chief agents of pollination.

Follicles.—The fruit is large and similar, in general external
appearance, to that of S. foetida. The seeds are provided with a
large oblique wing. The fruit remains on the tree till the next
monsoon period.

Genus: ERYTHROPSIS.

In this genus the flowers are all hermaphrodite and the calyx
is tubular. Another striking difference is the character of the
follicles which are thin and papery with the seeds attached to the

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

margins. In keeping with the great difference in the flowers there
is a marked change in the agents of pollination as we shall see
presently.

1. Erythropsis colorata (Roxb.)

Flowers.—As already noted there is no difference in the sexes
of the flowers they are all hermaphrodite. The flowers are
pendant, and the calyx is tubular and five-toothed. The gynophore
is longer than the tube; it is stellately hairy. The corolline cup is
shallow and supports on its margin the large sausage-shaped
anthers ; in its centre arise the five glabrous carpels which protrude
beyond the cup. The stigmas are separate and each is bent back
over its respective carpel; the stigmatic arms are somewhat lobate.

The construction of the flower and the profuse production of
fruit in this species intrigued me for quite a time as it is so different
in many respects to any of the others included under the old genus
Sterculia. The method of pollination likewise puzzled me. The
pollinating agents were known to me, but I could not solve the
reason for the great fecundity observed for a considerable time.
However, after much observation and dissection, I feel I have
arrived at a solution. I have already described the construction of
the corolline cup and its relation to the anthers and carpels, there-
fore, it only remains to explain certain details. In the freshly
opened flowers the stigmas mature first and are exposed at the
distal (top; bottom in the pendant position); the sausage-like
anthers are free on their filaments and are easily brushed aside.
At this stage the anthers are not dehesced. On dehescence the
filaments and the walls of the anther cells contract, drawing the
anthers up so as to form a close hood over the stigmas which by
this time have possibly been pollinated by an early visitor. In the
‘hooded’ position the anthers alone are presented to subsequent
visitors. At the same time it must be remembered that the
freshly dehesced anthers may in the course of hooding the carpels
possibly shed some of their contents on the stigmas, thus there is
a possible provision for self-pollination should cross-pollination fail.

Visitors.—The flowers of E. colorata are not malodourous and
they produce a very copious amount of nectar. They appear to
be admirably designed for pollination by nectarivorous birds, such
as Sun-birds (Aethopyga sp. and Cinnyris spp.) and the Green-
Bulbul (Chloropsis spp.) ; these birds appear to be the chief agents.
Other birds also visit the tree when in flower, such as Drongos
(Dicrurus), but I am of opinion that these birds frequent the tree
not to feed on nectar, but on the insect visitors which in themselves
are nectar feeders. However, there is the possibility that ants (for
they are often in profusion) also play the réle of pollinating agents.
Thysanoptera are also present.

Follicles.—The follicles have been described above so I need not
repeat. They are short-lived on the tree for from the nature of
their texture they soon dry and are blown away after maturation by
the high winds that are usually prevalant at the time of the yea
when the fruit mature.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 453

Note.—The cut ends of the branches of all the species mentioned
above give out a thick clear muscilage when placed in water.

A curious difference between the species is that two out of the
four Sterculias have foetid flowers, and two in which the flowers
are not malodourous. This difference may be connected with
differences in pollinating agents, for, S. foetida and S. guttata have
open flowers which may be visited by the larger Diptera and
Hymenoptera than in the case of S. urens and S. villosa. Although
I have recorded the visits of bees for the last two species, I feel
that minute Diptera and small ants are more suited as pollinating
agents. I have also found the flowers visited by Aphidae, and as ©
I have seen both nymphs and adults covered with pollen it is
possible that they contribute to pollination also, however, more
observation is required.

In the case of Pterygota alata, as ‘I have remarked, the flowers
do not open wide, as in Sterculia. They are not evil-smelling
either. Flies are not in such abundance as in the case of Sterculia
and the chief part appears to be played by Bees and ants. A sig-
nificant point is that in these flowers the gynophore is straight and
the sepals do not open to their fullest expanse. The visitors must
apparently force their way into the flowers.

' As I have already indicated above, the flowers of Erythropsis
are peculiarly suited for bird pollination. “

The flowers in all three genera open in the morning and usually
fall by evening.

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FRESH-
WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES.

S. JONES, M.Sc.,
Part I]
(With 2 plates.)
(Continued from Vol. 46, p. 335.)

Cyprinodontidae.

Though the members of this family are of little value as food fishes their
importance is great since they are the most efficient among the Indian larvicidal
fishes. Notes on the spawning habits and development are given by a number
of workers and we have a fairly connected account of the life histories of
several species. Some of these have been introduced as aquarium fishes in
foreign countries and we have notes on the habits and life histories of the fish
there also.

Oryzias melastigma (McClelland).*

Jenkins (1910) recorded the fact that the eggs after extrusion remain attached
to the vent till they adhere to some algal growth when the mother fish moves

I =

? Aplocheilus melastigma McClelland.

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

about. According to Raj (1916) who has given notes on the breeding habits of
this form at Madras with the description of a newly hatched larva and the
changes that take place during growth, this form is a perennial breeder with an
intensive period from September to February. Chaudhuri (1923) has recorded
egg carrying O.melastigma from Chilka Lake. According to Chatterjee (1934)
the fish breeds throughout the year in tanks. Stoye (1935) gives the breeding
temperature at 80°F. Jones (1937) has found this form breeding throughout
the year at Adyar and Cooum in Madras and a fairly detailed account of the
early development is given by him. The post-larval development is given by
Job (1940). The interesting phenomenon of diapause noticed in the eggs of
this species is given by Jones (1944).

Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton).*

Day (1878) refers to the large-sized nature of the ova and notes are given
on the breeding habits of the fish by Chatterjee (1934) and the foreign aquarists
like Innes (1935), Stoye (1935), Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Norlund (1936). A
detailed account on the breeding habits and development of this form is given
by Job (1940) according to whom it is a perennial breeder in Bengal with a
maximum period during the monsoon months of June, July and August. The
metamorphosis of the larva till the attainment of adult features is also given.

Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. & Vol.).*

Willey (1910) records his discovery of freshly extruded eggs of this form
in July and refers to the presence of threads in them. Notes are given on the
breeding habits of this fish by Moody (1933), Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Stoye
(1935) in the aquaria. Job (1940) figures and describes unfertilized egg and
the larval stages. The early stages in the development of the form are des-
cribed by Jones and Job (1940). This is probably a perennial breeder.

Aplocheilus blockii (Arnold).®

Thomas (1887) refers to the large sized nature of the eggs of this fish under
Haplocheilus panchax. The mature egg of this is figured and described by
Raj (1916), Mellen & Lanier (1935), Innes (1935) and Stoye (1935) refer to the
breeding habits of the fish in the aquarium. Russel and Jacob (1939) say that
the fish does not multiply effectively in small pits containing water. Job (1940)
quotes the works done by others on the breeding and development of this fish.

Aphanius dispar (Ruppel).
Day (1878) refers to the large sized nature of the ova of this fish.

Poecilildae

Representatives of this family of viviparous Cyprinodonts are exotic to India.
and they have been introduced for larvicidal purposes from Tropical America.
Their life histories have been worked out in many parts of the world and on!y
brief notes and the relevent references are given in this paper.

Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard).* «

Popularly known as ‘Top Minnows’, this fish has been introduced in different
parts successfully for anti-malarial work. Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Stoye
(1935). give an account of the breeding of the fish with a bibliography. It
breeds when three to five months old and spawn only in warm (about 80°) fresh
waters and is a continuous breeder in the tropics. Eight to thirty fry are ex-
pelled at a time and broods of 20 to 50 may be produced at intervals of four
to ten weeks. Gopinath (1943) gives the breeding season in Travancore as from
April to October with the maximum in June.

1 Panchax panchax and Haplocheilus panchax as known till recently.

* Panchax lineatus,

$ Panchax blockii and Panchax parvus.

4 Some regard G. affinis and G. holbrookti as separate species (Mellen &
Lanier, 1935).

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 455

Lebistes vreticulatus (Peters).

Though the ‘Barbados Millions’ have been introduced twice into India this
is probably found now only in Ceylon (Hora & Mukerji, 1938). The fish begins
to breed when nearly three months old and produces about 25 fry on an average
in a brood. Older mothers are capable of giving forth 50 to 100. For six to
eight months after copulation the females are able to give forth young ones
even after separation from males. For further details and bibliography the
~works of Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Purser (1943) may be consulted. Stoye
(1935) also gives some notes on the breeding of the fish.

Horaichthyidae +

Horaichthys setnat (Kulkarni.

A very interesting and detailed account of the sexual dimorphism, breeding
habits and early development of this fish is given by Kulkarni (1940) to whom
also goes the credit for discovering this remarkable fish. The fish breeds
throughout the year in Bombay, the peak period being July and August. The
presence of spermatophores in the males is one of the interesting features des-
cribed. The embryonic period is from 8 to 10 days. Some of the typical larval
stages are described though it has not been possible to rear out the larvae in
the aquarium. :

Belonidae

The only knowledge we have on the breeding habits and development cf
forms belonging to this family is. through the work of Job and Jones (1938) on
Tylosurus strongylurus. Towards the end of November 1937 the author col-
lected young Belonids of about an inch in length from the southern portion of
Vembanad Lake, Central Travancore.

Tylosurus strongylurus (van Hass).

Eggs were collected by Job and Jones (1938) from the Adyar river in the
middle of October 1937 during monsoon rains when the bar was open. The
details of the embryonic development from the single-celled stage are given
and the early larvae are described and figured. The eggs are laid singly
attached to the algal growth in the river by the numerous filamentous threads
found on the egg surface. Each egg is 2.5 mm. in diameter with transparent
yolk devoid of oil globules. The hatching takes place on the 8th day. The
larval and post-larval development are not known.

Hemirhamphidae

We have very little data regarding the spawning habits of the members of
this family.” Bhattacharya (1917) gives a number of larval stages of Hemur-
hamphus gaimardi (H. limbatus) and Job and Jones (1938) three older stages of
the same.

The author takes this opportunity to mention a serious mistake committed
by him in a former paper (Jones, 1937) by describing the stages in the develop-
ment of H. gaimardi under Panchax parvus (Aplocheilus blockii).* Meanwhile
a mistake committed by Bhattacharya (1917) may also be corrected here. Of
the 13 larval stages described by him under H. gaimardi (H. limatus) the first
four stages are of some other fish while stages from 5 to 13 are of this form.

* This family, named after Dr. S. L. Hora, is one of the most remarkable
among the fishes recently discovered in India and a perusal of the account by
. Kulkarni (1940) is worthwhile.

* A marine form, H. georgii, is described by D. W. Devanesan in Comptes
Rendus, XI (1935), pp. 2176-81.

* Fish was kept in water with some algae which was not carefully examined
for any adhering fish eggs and next day some eggs were found which was
incorrectly presumed to be the eggs of P. parvus. All similar eggs found later
on were taken for granted to be those of the above species.

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ‘46.

Hemirhamphus gaimardi (Cuv. et Val.).

The breeding habits and early development of this species at Madras. are
described under Panchax parvus (Aplocheilus blockii) by Jones (1937). It ap-
pears to have an extended period of spawning the most intensive being during
the months of August, November and February. Eggs are round measuring
1.3 mm. in diameter and are provided with one to three long anchoring threads
with which they are attached to water weeds. The hatching takes place usually:
on the eighth day. i

Bhattacharya (1917) has described some stages of H. gaimardi, and Job and
Jones (1938) have ‘given three post-larval ‘stages, older than the oldest stage

given by Bhattacharya.

Dermogenys burmanicus Mukerji.

This form is supposed to breed all round the year ‘as the young ones can
be captured during all seasons’ (Mukerji 1935).

Ophicehhalidae

There are a number of references regarding the breeding habits and
development of the members of this family. Their parental care is well. known
and their nest, eggs and larvae are familiar even to laymen. According to
Thomas (1870) they breed in South Canara in December and January and.
again in June and July. Khan (1924) says, “The breeding season of Ophiocep-
halids in Punjab lasts from the middle of April to the end of July’. All species
are monogamous. Eggs are laid in clear spaces among. water weeds pre-
pared by both the parents for the purpose. The eggs float in level with the
surface of the water and the buoyancy of the egg is due to the presence of a
single large oil globule occupying the greater part of the yolk. The eggs and
fry are watched over by the parents for over a month till the young fish are

capable of taking care of themselves.

Channa orientalis Bloch & Schneider.
Deraniyagala (1929) gives two localities in Ceylon from where he captured a
mother with young, and a gravid female.

Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Buch.

Thomas (1870) makes a mention of the parental care of this fish. Khan.
(1924 & 1926) has given the breeding habits and development of this form in
Punjab. He refers to the rapidity in the growth observed as compared with
other species of Ophicephalus. The larvae grow better in the company of
their parents and under natural conditions than in the aquarium. He has.
given in detail the changes that take place during the larval development. The
fry after about six weeks lead an independent life. Seventeen weeks old fry
measure about 118 mm. The mature fish grow to about 3 feet in length.

According to Derainyagala (1929) the breeding season in Ceylon is from
April to June. He has given the dates of his collections of young fry from

¢ertain parts of Ceylon. ;
The age at which the fish attains sexual maturity is not known.

Ophicephalus striatus (Bloch).

Thomas (1870) refers to the parental care of this fish. In Mysore Colonel
Puckle has observed this form to breed twice every year, in June and December,
the male constructing the nest amongst the vegetation at the edges of tanks.
(Willey 1908). According to Willey there is an extended period of spawning in
Ceylon before and after the rains. He noticed considerable disparity in the
rate of development of the same brood. He has subsequently (1910) given the
nesting habits and early development of this form. According to him the lar-
val development is over by 40 days and the fry after 2 months begin to hide
in the mud and lead an independent life.

Raj (1916) has described the early larva of O. striatus and has recorded
some of the important changes that take place during the larval development.
At Madras 1 year old specimens measure 6 inches and 2 year old specimens.

ever a foot. The first spawning takes place when the fish is about 2 years old.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 457

Oviposition according to Deraniyagala (1929) takes place several times in
the year and he gives a number of places in Ceylon from where the larvae were
collected by him with the dates and the length of the specimens.

The present writer has found the fish breeding in South Travancore, where
it is quite common, in a remarkably intensive manner in May and June. Some
broods were found in February after a shower.

Ophicephalus gachua Ham. Buch.

The breeding season is June and July in South Canara (Thomas 1870) and
December and January in Madras (Raj 1916). Nests are probably built in
sheltered crevices in the bank. Raj has given the description of the larvae
from a young brood brought to him by fishermen. He could not see the large
ocellus in the dorsal fin mentiontd by Day (1878). Khan (1924) has given a
very interesting account of the actual spawning habit of this form. Derani-
yagala (1929) lists two larval collections he made from two localities in
Ceylon. The present writer has collected very young larvae cf this fish from
some of the hill streams in Travancore during the months of April and May.

Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch.

Day (1878) records about 4,700 large eggs in a specimen he examined in
February. Willey (1908) has collected young specimens in Ceylon in April and
May. Raj (1916) has described the breeding habits and development of this
form. According to him it breeds twice in the year about January and Feb-
ruary and again in July and August. The embryonic development of both
O. punctatus and O. striatus is similar. The larval development is more rapid:
than in O. striatus. The larva of both the species can be distinguished by
their characteristic larval coloration. The parental care is continued till the
larval colours are lost. Deraniyagala (1929) mentions a number of. places in
Ceylon from where he obtained striped fry of this form with the corresponding
dates. The writer has seen a large number of the broods of this fish in
August and September at Saidapet, Madras. ;

Polyacanthidae

Polyacanthus signatus Gunther.

Deraniyagala (1929) records the collection of ovigerous females of Polyacan-
thus signatus Gunther in Ceylon.

Osphronemidae

We have accounts of the breeding habits of a number of fishes belonging
to this family. The Osphromenids appear to be perennial breeders under ideal
conditions. The nesting habits and parental care of these fishes are very in-
teresting. Most of these are bubble nest builders except the Gourami (Osph-
ronemus goramy) which builds a nest like that of a bird with water plants.

During mating time the sexually mature ones especially the males are
adorned with beautiful coloration and play about, chasing one ,another. The
male in the case of the bubble nest builders takes in atmospheric air and blows.
them out in the form of mucus-coated bubbles. These accumulate in one place
-in the shape of a circular dome. The female is attracted close to the nest by
the amorous movements of the male after the completion of the nest. Then
the vents of both the fish are brought into close apposition by the male coiling
round the female and during this act the ova escape from the female which
gets immediately fertilized by the milt produced simultaneously by the male.
The fertilized eggs are transferred by the male to the nest of froth. This is
repeated a number of times till oviposition is complete after which the female
leaves the nest and the male remains in charge of it until hatching. The
longevity of the air bubbles depends on the quantity of mucus contained and
fresh bubbles are produced in the place of those that burst. The ‘embryonic
development of the eggs is over by three days and the young remain» under
the parental care for about a week after which they are able to:swim) about
and lead an independent existence. Stoye (1935) gives general notes on the
breeding of the bubble nest builders. Ny

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Osphronemus goramy Lacepede.'

The breeding habits under aquarium conditions recorded for this fish by
Carbounier (1877) in Paris and by Gilbert (1904) in India are not actually of
this fish as evident from the reports of later workers (Jones 1939 & Amrita-
lingam 1936). Jordan (1905), Raj (1931), Roxas and Umali (i936), and Kul-
karni (1943) refer to the bird-like nest made of water weeds. American
aquarists so recently as in 1935 (Innes. 1935, Mellen & Lanier 1935 and
Stoye 1935) refer to this fish as bubble-nest builders probably following the mis-
taken identity and description of former workers.

Regarding the work done in India Willey (1911) gives some notes on the
larvae from Ceylon. Some notes on the breeding season are given by Raj
(1916) and he has again made mention of the breeding season and nesting
habits in some of the Administration Reports of the Madras Fisheries Depart-
ment (1931-1939)—Kulkarni (1943) has recently given a fairly detailed account
of that breeding habits and early development of this fish under Indian conditions.
It breeds throughout the year in Bombay except during the monsoon from
June to September. The nest is large and like that of a bird and is composed
of water plants into which the lemon yellow eggs measuring from 2.2 to 2.4
mm. in diameter numbering about 2,000 are laid in batches. These hatch out
in 10 to 15 days time according to the climate and the newly hatched larvae
float with their yolk sac up due to the presence Of a large oil globule. They
are able to swim about by the fifth day. Stoye (op. cit.) says that the fish
begins to breed in the 2nd year when it is about 5 inches long.

Trichogaster trichopterus (Pallas).

Baake (1930) gives notes on the breeding of this fish in the aquarium.
Innes (1935) merely mentions that this fish is eh, TURE builder and Mellen
& Lanier (1935) say that the breeding habits are as in the case of Colisa lalia.

Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. et Val.).?

According to Thomas (1870) the fish breeds in May and June. The breeding
habits and early development have been worked out by Jones (1940). The
nesting habits and parental care are just as in Colisa fasciata. Probably it is
a perennial breeder and eggs have been collected from tanks near Trivandrum
during the months of January, February, April, May, July, September and
October. Breeding is intensive during the pre-monsoon rains and in the inter-
vals of bright sunshine between heavy rains. It makes a floating nest of air
bubbles of about 2 in. diameter anchored to stalks of grasses and water plants
in small clear spaces. The eggs are buoyant due to the attached air bubbles.
Each egg is about 0.9 mm. in diameter and the surface is thrown into folds
and ridges. Hatching takes place on the third day. Mouth and gill slits are
developed on the 2nd day.. Yolk is completely absorbed by the fifth day after
which they lead an independent existence. There are about seven or eight trans-
verse bands in the trunk in the young larva. The most interesting feature is
the presence of cement glands (adhesive organs) in the early larvae. Mellen
& Lanier (1935) say that the breeding habits of this fish is the same as in the
Paradise Fish, Macropodus opercularis, though it is not so prolific as that. Innes
{1935) refers to M. cupanus dayi (Kochler), which is evidently a variety of this
fish, as breeding at 75°—8o0°F., in the aquarium, and Stoye (1935) says that
it is a very hardy and prolific fish breeding at 75°F.

®° Colisa fasciata (Bloch & Schn.).

A graphic account of the mating, nest building and parental care is given
by Carbounier (1876). He made his observations under aquarium conditions
in Paris where the temperature of the water was kept at 23-25°C. The same

ng se.

* Syn. Osphronemus olfax Cuv. & Val. For a more complete list of refer-
ences on the breeding habits and development of this fish in foreign countries
the papers of Jones (1939) and Kulkarni (1943) may be referred to.

* Polyacanthus cupanus of ‘Fauna of British India, Fishes’ by Day. The
breeding habits of Macropodus opercularis is as in this form (Boulenger, 1932).

® Colisa vulgaris Cuv. & Val.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 459

is recorded to have spawned in the summer of 1875, each time producing
about 150 eggs. Innes (1935) referring to the breeding habits says that the
bubbles are not so dense as in the other forms but scattered. He is not aware
of the work of Carbounier (1876) and thinks that his account is the first
record on the breeding habits of this fish. The eggs hatch at 78°F. in two
days. Mellen & Lanier (1935) says that the breeding habits of this is same as
in the Dwarf Gourami, Colisa lalia. C. fasciata breeds in April and May in the
Punjab (Khan 1938). :

Colisa lalia (Ham. Buch.)

This is a bubble-nest builder and accounts of the breeding habits are given
by Innes (1935) and Mellen & Lanier (1935). According to Innes (Op. cit.)
bits of plants are also incorporated into the nest which the female also helps
to build. He gives the distinguishing characters of the male and gives 80°F.
as the breeding temperature. Mellen & Lanier (op. cit.) say that it breeds
several times during summer at 75°F. and gives the diameter of the nest as
five or six inches ‘which the male guards with a jealousy that may prove
fatal to the female if she is left in the breeding tank’.

Colisa labiosa (Day)’.

Innes (1935) gives the breeding temperature in the aquarium at 80°F. and
says that the eggs which are glass clear float up to the nest. Mellen & Lanier
(1935) say that the breeding habits are the same as those of C. lalia.

Betta splendens Regan.

This is an exotic species introduced into India as an aquarium fish. There
are two varieties. of this pugnacious creature, the Siamese fighting fish and
the Cambodia fighting fish. There is no record of the breeding. habits. in
India of B, splendens. This is also a bubble-nest builder and the _ breeding
habits are given by Waite (1904), Chute (1935), Innes (1935) and Mellen &
Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935). The account of the courtship and nuptials given by
Mellen & Lanier (op. cit.) is graphic such as ‘The female, treated like a child which
may watch Santa Claus trim the tree but must not touch the contraptions,
peakes out at her lord and master from some hiding place among the plants
until he dons the most gorgeous coat for her admiring eye and invites her
to view his masterpiece—the cradle he has built for her offspring which he
proposes to sire’. From 200 to 350 eggs are laid and these hatch out in two
days. The paternal parental care continues till the young ones are able to
swim about and tale care of themselves. The spawning temperature is 80° I.
and at higher temperatures the fish breeds more frequently whereas at lower
temperatures less often.

Anabantidae
Anabas testudineus (Bloch).

According to Day (1878-88) the breeding season extends from May’ to July.
Willey (1911) obtained. a gravid female late in January in Ceylon. Raj..(1916)
has given notes on the young fry and early development. According to him
the young of this species grow rapidly though Willey (i911) records a much
slower growth. According to Deraniyagala (1929) the fish breeds more than
once. He describes the eggs and records the dates of collection of young fish
in Ceylon. Innes (1935) says that it does not make. a bubble-nest; but the
eggs float at the water surface. Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935) also
refer to the floating nature of the eggs which hatch in two or three days.

Mugilidae
Mugil sp’. w
Devanesan and Chacko (1943) have successfully reared marine mullets in
freshwater by transferring the young fry. The change from the salt -water
to the fresh water may have to be done gradually.

——

3
ST

_* Trichogaster labiosa. The breeding habits given by Carbounier (1877) as
that of the Gourami are probably of this fish (Jones, i939), © ~~
* The species is not given,

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETY, Vol. 46

Polynemidae
Polynemus parvadiseus Linn.

According to Day (1878) this form enters ‘rivers for nreeuice purposes and
generally during the S.W. monsoon and _ the cold months.

Am bassidae
Ambassis ranga (Ham. Buch.).

Day (1878) gives the distinguishing characters of the young of this form.
Raj (1916) gives the breeding time as during the rainy season, sometimes as
early as in March. Mr. Job has shown me young specimens of this form he
collected from Adyar (Madras) in March 10938. He.(Job, 1941) has referred
to the breeding habits recorded by other workers. in his account of the food
and feeding habits of the glass fishes.

Ambassis miops Gunther.

Raj (1916) records the presence of the fry of this species in river Cooum in
November and December and describes and figures them.

Ambassis lala (Ham. Buch.).

Baake (1930) gives notes on the spawning of this fish in the aquarium in
his account of the rearing of this fish. Innes (1935), Mellen & Lanier (1935)
and Stoye- (1935) describe the breeding habits of the fish in. the aquarium.
The males are more brightly coloured than the females. Eggs are minute and
transparent and are laid on finely divided plants in the bottom of the aquarium.
About 40 eggs are laid at a time in batches of four to eight and it takes from
24 to 36 hours for them to hatch. The spawning temperature is about 82°F.
and the fry cling to the plants or to the sides of the aquarium for about two
days, which evidently shows the presence of cement glands” in them.

Ambassis nama (Ham. Buch.).

This fish breeds in April and May in the Punjab (Khan 1938).

Latidae
Lates calcarifer (Bloch).
The breeding season of this fish is said to extiond from Tannese to March
in the brackish water area (Raj 1916).
Theraponidae

The fry of the members of this family are known to migrate to brackish
water areas and undergo development there.

Therapon jarbua (Forskal).

Rao (1934) has made a statistical study of the growth of this form at
Madras. The first yearlings live in the brackish waters of Cooum and Adyar
and the second in the open sea where they attain sexual maturity.

Therapon therapos Cuv. et Val.

Day (1878) gives a description of the young of this fish. i:

Pelates quadrilineatus (Bloch).
Day (1878) gives the larval coloration of this fore

Sillaginidae
Sillago sihama (Forskal).

Chaudhuri (1923) when describing the fish of the Chilka Date says She

the breeding season is probably about the month of February and that the
fish goes out to the sea or near the mouth of the lake to breed.

Nandidae
Nandus nandus (Ham. Buch.).

Hamilton Buchanan (1822) says the fish breeds in ‘January and February.
According to Thomas (1870) the breeding season is in May and June when the
fish, builds nests among rushes at the margin of the water, deposits eggs in

them and keeps guard over them. Stoye (1935) says that the temperature
required is from 70° to 80°F.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 461

Badis badis (Ham. Buch.),

Innes (1935) and Stoye (1935) give the spawning habit of this species and
refer to the parental care of the male fish who guards and aerates the eggs
which are laid attached to empty shells and flower pots and protects the young
for a short period. Mellen & Lanier (1935) also give notes on the breeding
habits of the fish. The optimum temperature is 75°F. and the embryonic
period is about 3 days.

Toxotidae
Toxotes chatareus (Ham. Buch.).
Day (1878) gives the coloration of the young of this form,

Scatophagidae

Scatophagus argus (Gmel, Linn.).

This. is -a marine and estuarine form entering backwaters and rivers.. Day
(1878) describes the characters of the young of the fish.
Cichlidae
The breeding habits and development of the- two familiar representatives of
this family in India viz.,Etroplus suratensis and E. maculatus have been worked
out by many and (as a result of which) we have at present a connected account

of their life histories. The parental care characteristic in the family is found
here also.

Etroplus suratensis (Bloch).

Day (1872) has referred to the coloration in the very young fish. Thomas
(1870) has reported that the fish breeds twice a year in South Canara, in May
and June and again in December and January. Willey (1911) gave notes on
the nesting habits of this form in Ceylon where the fish is believed to breed
‘from the middle of February to the middle of April and again about November’.
Raj (1916). had recorded this fish to breed in April and May in Madras.

The most important work is that of Panikkar (1920) wherein he gives a
brief life history of the form. According to him in Travancore the fish be-
comes sexually mature in the second year of its life and breeds twice. a year,
in May to June and again from November to February with a maximum
spawning period in January. The observations of Panikkar go to show that
the males play a greater part in the preparation of the nest. for the deposition
of the eggs, and of the pits for the transference of the larvae, whereas the
actual work of oral transference is devolved more on the female. The parental
care extends for a period of about 2 months. In a supplementary note by. him
(Panikkar 1924) he has recorded the capacity of the parents to breed twice
every consecutive month if the spawn is removed immediately after deposition.

Jones (1937) has given notes on the spawning and development of this form
at Madras with figures of some of the early stages. They were found to
breed at Adyar in an intensive manner in July and August just after a few
showers and before the opening of the bar. Eggs are oval and measure 2
mm. x 1 mm. and are iaid attached to the sides of stones and other hard
objects. They hatch out on the 4th day and are provided with cement glands.
Both the eggs and larvae are assiduously watched by the parents. The papers
mentioned may be referred to for details.

Etroplus maculatus (Bloch).

‘The breeding season, parental care and development are similar to that
in E. suratensis. Jerdon (1848) first recorded the parental care of this form
under the name E. coruchi. Notes in greater detail on the breeding habits and
early larvae were given by Raj (1916) and supplemented later by Panikkar
(1920) according to whom the fish attains sexual maturity at the close of the
first year of its growth. Notes on the breeding of this fish in the aquarium
is given by Baake (1929). A detailed account of the embryonic and early lar-
val development is given by Jones (1937) as also the origin and development
of the cement glands found in the early larvae (Jones 1937 a).. He has ob-

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

served this form to breed in August and September in the brackish water area
at Adyar (Madras) and in May and June in Travancore where the breeding
period appears to be extended. Mellen & Lanier (1935) and Stoye (1935) give
brief notes on the breeding of this form in the aquarium. There is a recent
account of the breeding habit of the fish in the aquarium by Rice (1943).

Gobiidae

The spawning habits and early stages of a number of gobies mostly from
Madras are known. Eggs are usually laid in small holes and in crevices be-
tween stones etc., and among dense algal growth. Till: the. hatching. time the
male fish remains close to the egg mass “guarding it and aerating it. The
female leaves the nest soon after oviposition.

Gobius ostericola Chaudhuri.

Bhattacharya (1917) has described some embryonic stages of this form from
the Chilka Lake collection. Their age is not known as the descriptions are
from preserved materials. The specimens were collected from the oyster beds
of Manikpatna in the outer channel of the Chilka Lake in the first week of
December 1914. The water at that place was then almost fresh owing to the
floods at the close of the monsoon, though later on in the dry season the water
becomes as saline as in the Bay of Bengal.

Oxyurichthys striatus (Day) o

According to Raj (1916) this species breeds from October to November in
Madras. He gives the figures of eggs obtained by Mr. Wilson of the Madras
Fisheries Department.

Ctenogobius acutipinnis (Cuv.. et Val.).

Raj (1916) says this form breeds about February when the females were
found to contain ova. : -

Glossogobius giuris (Ham. Buch.).

Willey (1911) has described the eggs and embryos of this form in Ceylon.
Eggs were collected in the months of May, June and July. The breeding
habits of this form in Madras with -notes on the embryos and early larvae
are given by Raj (1916). The spawning season here is from October to De-
cember. Mr. M. D. Paul has shown the writer eggs that he collected. from
the bank of a river (Thampravarni) in Tinnevelly in May 1936 with the male
fish that was guarding them. He has said that the breeding season there is
just after the recedence of the floods when the male fish can be caught in
large numbers from holes in the banks while guarding the eggs. This fact
is ‘known to the local people -and, some taking advantage. of this parental
solicitude, search for them - inside submerged holes a typical example of?
ignorant and wasteful destruction, ~~ ; ee a

Acentrogobius neilli (Day).

Raj (1916) remarks that this form is a perennial spawner with an intensive.
period about May and April. Aiyar (1935) has artificially fertilized the eggs.
and worked out in detail the early development. The eggs which are honey
coloured measure only 0.4 mm. at the time of oviposition; but the egg mem-
brane swells up to 1.2 mm. in about 15 minutes. Hatching takes place-on
the 4th day.

This is the most abundant goby in Madras and artificial fertilization ex-
periments can be conducted successfully practically throughout the year though
the most convenient time is just before the regular monsoon rains. It breeds,
both in fresh and brackish water and eggs have been’ collected by the present
writer from between stones, algae, folds of poper, tiles and rotting leaves
and timber. |

Acentr ogobius: viridipunctatus (Day).

A detailed account - ee laying habits and early development of this form
is given by Jones (1937). This is a perennial breeder at Adyar, Madras, and

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 463

eggs are generally found inside oyster shells and other narrow spaces with the
male fish guarding them. Eggs are slighty larger than those of A. neilli; but
the development is similar. The presence of true external gills in the em-
bryonic stage is the most interesting feature seen (Jones 1939) as it is the
first time a similar structure is recorded in a Teleostean.

Periophthalmldae

Periophthalmus cantonensis pearsi Eggert. ;

Pearse (1932) when dealing with the ecology of the Matla River says that
in July he saw males with ‘their dorsal fins erect chasing females about the
flats. Probably this is a form of courtship.

Boleophthalmus boddaerti (Pallas).

Jones (1937) was able to artificially fertilize the eggs and note their develop-
ment during the early embryonic stages after which all of them died.

Blennidae ?
Petroscirtes bhattacharyae Chaudhuri.

We have some knowledge of the eggs and young stages of this brackxish
water form. Bhattacharya (1917) has three young stages from the Chilka
Lake. Jones (1937) has recorded its spawning habits and early development
from Adyar, Madras. Eggs which are pink and dome-shaped, measuring 0.80 mm.
in diameter, number about 900 and are laid in narrow spaces between
stones and empty shells and the male keeps guard aerating them as in the
case of the gobies. It takes from 12 to 15 days for the eggs to hatch and
there is no parental care during the larval stage. :

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

The incompleteness of our knowledge of the breeding and
development of Indian fishes will be evident from the account given
above. India being a large country with different climatic condi-
tions the breeding season as well as the rate of development would
necessarily vary as these depend to a very great extent on rain
and temperature besides other related factors. This makes it
imperative that the subject will have to be studied in all its various
aspects paying due regard to the different physical and climatic
conditions of the country.

A fact that must be borne in mind is that the mere presence
of gravid females can never be taken as a true criterion for judg-
ing the exact breeding season. Though it may show that the fish
is ready to spawn it need not necessarily follow that the fish should
spawn immediately unless conditions are suitable for it. The mere
superficial | ripeness of the ova will not bring in the necessary sexual
activity except perhaps in the case of the perennial breeders. Fer-
tilizable eggs in the ovary and the presence of developing embryos
and young fry in the waters inhabited by the fishes alone should
as far as possible be taken as the proper criteria for judging the
exact breeding period.

Most of the work done on the breeding and development of
Indian fresh water fishes (Indian) has been done in South India
and Ceylon, Madras deserving the place of honour. With the
data available at present it is neither possible nor desirable (even

* For a recent account on the development of blennies with comparative
notes see S.S. Hilderbrand & L.E. Cables, ‘Further notes on the development
and life history of some teleosts at Beaufort’, Bull. Bur. Fish., U.S.A., No. 24,
1938.

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

should it be possible) to form conclusions. This can wait till the
accumulation of more data as any conclusion that we arrive at
can only be tentative, and alterable in the light of further investiga-
tion.

India is far behind many other countries in aquarium keeping.
While a number of beautiful fishes live unappreciated near us they
are transported at great cost to foreign countries where they are
valued and admired much. Fish is not exclusively a culinary
article, but it is an object of beauty also. Aquarium keeping
brings in its wake a desire to study the life history and habits of
fishes and therefore it is necessary that every effort should be
made to create a real interest in this hobby among those who
could afford to take it up.

Life history studies form one of the most important branches
of fisheries research and it is unfortunate that in India the prob-
lem has not received the attention it deserves. It is the im-
provement of the inland fisheries that should first of all engage
our attention Under existing conditions an increased catch of
marine fish will not improve to’ any appreciable extent the supply
of fresh fish in the interior of the country in view of the transport
difficulties. Unlike the conditions in the cold countries, putrifica-
tion sets in very rapidly under tropical conditions, unless controlled
mechanically with the aid of cold storage systems etc. which will
be possible only in the large Indian towns connected by railways
and other suitable transport facilities. A great disadvantage with
this arrangement is that it makes the fish expensive and beyond
the reach of the average Indian consumer. It needs no explana-
tion to bring home the fact that it is by the improvement of the
inland fisheries that we can increase the production of fish in the
different parts of the country without substantially increasing the
price of the commodity. It may be said here at the same time
that the limitation of expansion in the case of the Inland fisheries
are more than that of the marine fisheries even where in spite of
the expansiveness of the waters and improvement of gear the cat-
ches remain more or less static after reaching a certain peak level
if judicially controlled by international regulations, and would show
signs of depletion if subjected to over fishing (Russel 1942)!. Though
it may not be possible to meet all the demand for fish in this country
by the development of the inland fisheries it would certainly be
possible to augment the present supply to a great extent and thus
derive the maximum benefit from the available resources. This
does not however mean that the author is against the improvement
of the marine fisheries. In the latter case we should first concent-
rate our attention on proper presery ation and curing of the caught
fish and quick transportation of it to the consuming centres so as
to avoid any unnecessary waste as usually happens during the fish-
ing season.

Dr. Worthington (1943) while making a spirited plea for the
development of the fresh water fisheries in the British Colonial

> ‘Trawling and the stocks of Fish’, Nature, vol. 151, p. 323, 1943.
g

INDIAN: FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 405

Empire points out that compared to the marine fisheries the fresh-
water fishery problem has received only casual attention at the
hands of scientists as well as the Government. Though he speaks
mainly of the possibilities of research and expansion of the inland
fisheries of ‘Africa the condition is equally applicable to India where
though such large natural lakes as found in that continent are
absent we have a good number of rivers, canals, tanks and artificial
lakes offering immense possibilities of expansion in_pisciculture.
The Central Government advised by scientific bodies would certainly
be doing a great service to the people by initiating work in this
direction.

It may not be out of place here to indicate a suggestion for
future work. As stated before, considering the magnitude of the
work that remains to be done one can say without hesitation that
we have not even touched the fringe of the problem. ‘Tt is highly
necessary that this work should be taken as an all India problem
and itensive work should be done under a definite scheme for a
certain period in a number of suitable centres in India with the
co-operation of the Provincial Governments and of the important
Indian States'. With the scientific data thus obtained we can
proceed without much diffidence to adopt the necessary legislative
measures to improve our fisheries, as the data we have at present
are too scanty to serve any direct application. Meanwhile it will
considerably add to our knowledge if all those interested in fish life
will record their observations however short and insignificant they
seem to be, in any of the scientific journals in India. As Willey
(1908, p. 144) says, ‘A. knowledge of the breeding and swarming
habits and periods of marine, estuarine and freshwater fishes must
form the basis of intelligent action in regard to fish preservation
and culture’. With the fervent hope that this paper will at least
to some extent serve the purpose it is intended for, the author will
conclude with the following remark of Dr. Stanley Kemp’. ‘If
there is one lesson to be learned from the history of Fisheries
Research—one that cannot be too strongly stressed—it is that the
opportunity of dealing effectively with a fishery problem will be
generally lost unless its basic knowledge has been obtained in ad-
vance and is ready for application’.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora, Director of F TeHerIES,
Bengal, for the valuable suggestions given in the course of the
preparation of this paper. :

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——

* Since completing this paper the author had the opportunity to see the
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466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

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I 2c

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 467

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* Hora, S. L.— Hints on fish Culture in Inland Waters’, Indian PUMA
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S ones S.—External features in the embryonic development of a Ceylon

a a

: arene is a series of useful articles in the subsequent issues of the Indian
Farming on matters connected with pisciculture in inland waters.

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. {0

Mountain carp, Garra ceylonensis ceylonensis (Bleeker)’, ibid., vol. vi, 1938b,
pp. 91-98. }

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mullya (Sykes), for breeding’, Curr. Sci., vol. x, pp. 445-446, 1941.

Jones, S.—‘On two interesting types of cement glands in South Indian
Teleosteans with a discussion on the homology of the vertebrate cement glands
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Jones, S.—Destructive methods of fishing in the rivers of the hill ranges of
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Jones, S.—Parental care among Indian Freshwater Fishes (unpublished),

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Khan, H. M.—On the breeding habits and development of an Indian Carp,
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from fry to adult of a few carps in Bengal’, Proc. 30th Ind. Sci. Congress, 1943.

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mogenys burmanicus from lower Burma, with notes on sexual description and

its taxonomic significance’, Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. 37, 1935.
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Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton)’, Rec. Ind. Mus., xli, pp. 409-418, 1939.
Nair, K. Krishnan.—'On some early stages in the development of the
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1940.

INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 469

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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxiv, pp. 164-169, 1930.

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470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY -NATURAE HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

APPENDIX.

Since communicating the above for publication early in 1944 several articles
on the subject have been published by various workers. These along with some
old references that escaped the author’s notice earlier are given below. The
idea of giving brief extracts as before has been given up since the recent ee
cations are available without difficulty in original for consultation. —

Two plates containing figures of eggs and early larvae of some of our ‘common
freshwater fishes whose breeding and development are known are also given for
reference.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puate I.

Fig. One celled stage 30 minutes after fertili-
sation. (X40).

Fig. 2 eee CaS maculatus (Bloch). 48 hours old. (x 4o).

Fig. 3.—Etroplus suratensis (Bloch). Newly hatched larva. (X27).

Fig. fu Gnyat ceylonensis ceylonensis (Bleeker). Ripe unfertilised egg. (x 16).

Fig. 5.—Garra ceylonensis ceylonensis (Bleeker). Embryo about 18 hours
old. (X16).

Fig. oer ceylonensis ceylonensis (Bleeker). Newly hatched larva. (x20).

Fig. 7.—Petroscirtes bhattacharyae (Chaudhuri). Egg first day. (x70).

Fig. 8.—Petroscirtes bhattachavyae (Chaudhuri). Larva 2nd day. (x 40).

Fig. 9.—Macropodus cupanus (Cuy. & Val.). Egg about 6 hours old show-
ing the blastoderm above and the yolk sac below. (X 40).

Fig. 10.—Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.). Larva about 12 hours after
hatching. (X30). ea iS

Fig. 11.—Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (Day). Embryo 36 hours old within
the distended egg-membrane. (X54). -

Fig. 12.—Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (Day). Newly hatched larva with the
shrunken external gills behind the lower jaw. (X40).

Prate II.

—Ophicephalus striatus (Bloch). Freshly laid egg. (x18).
—Ophicephalus striatus (Bloch). Newly hatched larva. (x24).
.—Danio malabaricus (Jerdon). Egg showing blastoderm. (X35).
—Danio malabaricus (Jerdon). Newly hatched larva. (X35). :

Fig. 5.—Osphronemus goramy (lLacepede). Embryo 13 hours after fertili-
sation of egg. S ;

Fig. 6.—Osphronemus goramy (Lacepede). Newly hatched larva. (x8).

Fig. 7.—Horaichthys setnai (Kulkarni). Embryo on the 4th day (Diagra-
matic without anchoring threads).

Fig. 8.—Horaichthys setnai (Kulkarni). Newly hatched larva. (X20).

Fig. 9.—Mastacembelus pancalus (Hamilton). Embryo 12 hours after fertili-
sation. (X22).

Fig. 10.—Mastacembelus pancalus (Hamilton). Newly hatched larva. (x24).

Fig. 11.—Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton). Fourteen hours stage. (X10).

Fig. 12.—Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton). Larva 9g hours after hatching.

Fig. 13.—Oryzias melastigma (McClelland). Egg on the first day showing
the blastoderm. (X54).

Fig. 14.—Oryzias melastigma (McClelland). Newly hatched larva. (x 24).
(Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 13 after the author, figs 5 and 6 after Bimachar and
others, figs 7 and 8 after Kulkarni, figs 9, 10 and 14 after Job and figs 11 and
12 after. Khan).

uy]
-_—
©,
pf Ob WwW

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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ee A oe

ishes,

Indian Freshwater and Brackishwater F

(For explanation see end. of article.)

Jeurn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PEE ea Hee 3 ‘ ae his aes
Beats aes SOUS

Indian Freshwater and Brackishwater Fishes,
(For explanation see end of article.)

ng pana A *3
ae

Piate II

‘INDIAN FRESH-WATER AND BRACKISH-WATER FISHES 471

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33rd Ind. Sci. Cong., Ill, 7, p. 13.

Bimachar, B. S. David, A. & Muniappa, B.— Observations on the acclimiti-
sation, nesting habits and early development of Osplnaivenius goramt (Lecepede)’.
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., XX, 1944, pp. 88-101.

Bimachar, B. S. & Desi A.—On the external gills in the loach, Lepido-
cephalus thermalis (C.V.) Curr. Sci., XIV, 3, 1945, PD» 74

Chacko, P. T.—‘A note on Carp spawning in the Godavari and KKistna (Mad-
ras)’. Proc. Bard, linds Sci Cong ulin 7, ps 12.

Chacko, P. I. & Venkataraman, R. S.—‘On the bionomics of the Baril
(Barilius bendelisis (lamuiton)))i Journ. Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc. XLV, 3, 1945,
PP. 438-439.

Das, B. B.—On the process of development of Rohita, Catla and Cirrihna
mrigala in confined waters of Bengal’. Proc. Ind. Assoc. Cult. Sci., Calcutta 3.

Das B. K.—Further observations on the ecology, bionomics and early develop-
ment of the semiterrestrial symbranchoid eel, Amphitpnous cuchia (Ham. Buch.)
the Cuchia eel of India’ Proc. 33rd Ind. Sci. Cong., WI, 7, p. 11.

Ghosh, A. C. & Ghosh, S. N.—‘Notes on carp breeding and culture in con-
fined waters of Bengal and Bihar’. Dept. Fisheries Bulletin No. 18, Bengal
Secretariat Press, 1922.

Hora, S. L.— Economics of Carp culture’. Ind. Farm:, V. 5, 1944, pp.
205-207. bile:

Hora, S. L.—Hatchery pits, nursing ponds and feeding pits’. Ibid, IV,
10, 1945, PP. 508-509.

Hosaini, V. H. & Rahimullah, M.—‘Eatly developmental stages of Ophicephalus
punctatus Bl’. Proc. 33rd Ind. Sci. Cong., UW, 7, p. 11.

Jones, S.—‘Life history studies on Indian fishes: (1) Rasbora daniconius
(Hamilton)’. In press.

Khan, H.— Habits and habitats of the food fishes of the Punjab’. Journ.,
Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc., XXXVII, 1934, pp. 657-662.

Khan, H.—Punjab Search for ‘test tube’ Trout—Stocking of Kangra and
Kulu waters’. Illustrated Weekly, Bombay. Nov. 24th 1940, pp. 32-33.

Khan, H.—Spawning of Carps and their spawning grounds in the Punjab’.
Journ., Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc., UXIII, 3, 1942, pp. 416-427.

Mackay, W. S. S.— Trout of Travancore’. Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,
XLV, 1945, pp. 352-373 & 542-557.

Majumdar, C. H.—Spawning grounds and hatcheries in the District of
Chittagong, Bengal’. Sci. & Culi., Calcutta. XII, 5,- 1940, pp. -735-738-

Mitra, G. N.— Rate of growth in the first year of life of Labeo rohita and
Catla caila in the different districts of Orissa’. Proc. 31st Ind. Sci. Cong., 11,
1942, Pp. 159. Fay

Mookerjee, H. K. & Basu, S. P.—‘On the spawning habits and early develop-
ment of Oryzias melastigma (McClelland)’. Proc, 31st Ind. Sci. Cong., III,
1944, p- 106.

Mookerjee H. k., Ganguly, D. N. & Islam, M. —On the composition of food
and their correlation with weight and length of the body in the development of
Ohicephalus punctatus (Bloch). Proc. 33rd Ind. Sci. Cong., Il, 7, p. 15.

Mookerjee, H. K. Ganguly, D. N. & Sircar, A.—‘On the composition of food
of the Indian mullet Mugil parsia (Ham.) with suggestion to culture them in
freshwater ponds of Bengal Broce 33rd. Ind: Scie Cong. Tl, 7. p: 16:

a ee
—<<$$<— ee

* Some letterings in certain figures in this article aude ntly needs alteration.

@ It is said-in this note that ‘It is common for the parents to follow. these
schools till the fry attain the size of about 2.5 cm’. I haye seen both adults
and very young larvae of this fish im pools in hill-streams living quite indepen-
dently without any evidence of parental solicitude.

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Mookerjee, H. K. & Gupta, N. $.—‘Correélation between food, body weight
and length of the gut in Cirrhina reba. Proc. 33rd Ind. Sci. Cong., Ill, 7, p. 16.

Mookerjee, H. K. & Majumdar, S. R. & Das Gupta, B. N.—‘Identification
of the fry of the common carps of Bengal’. Journ. Dept. Sct. Calcutta University.
I, 4, 1944, pp. 59-69.

Mookerjee, H. K. & I Majumdar, S S. R. & Das Gupta, B. N.— cObseniarions on
the breeding grounds and spawning habits of certain Indian carps in the Midna-
pore District, Bengal, with suggestions for their breeding, collection of eggs and

rearing of fry’. Ibid pp. 81-91. 7
Mookerjee, H. K. & Gosh, S. N.—‘Lite history of Barbus conchonius’. Proc.

zeand Ind. Sci. Cong., 11], 1945, P. 110, |
Rahimullah, M. Observation on the breeding habits .f Ophicephalus stria-

tus’. Proc. 33rd Ind. Sct. Cong., WD; 37,2 p-- 133
Spurgeon, V. D.—‘A note on the culture of Osphronemus gorani (Lacepede)

in cement cisterns’. Curr. Sci. XIV, 12, 1945, p. 331.
Suter, M.—‘ Observations on the breeding coloration of Barbus (Puntius) kolus

Sykes’. Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., XLII, 3, 1942, pp. 407-408.
Thiyagarajan, V. K.—On some stages in the early development, of Arius

jella (Cuv. & Val.)’. Proc. 29th Ind. Sci. Cong., Ill, 1942, p. 156.
Rahimullah, M.—‘Acclimatisation of an exotic fish, Biroplus suratensis (Bloch)

in the Hyderabad State’. Ibid. p. 14.
Ahmad, Nazir—‘On the spawning Habits and culture of Katli, Barbus (Lis-

sochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland. > Fish. Dev. Pamphlet No. 2. Government

of Bengal. 1946, pp. 4-8.
Codrington, K. de B.—‘Notes on the Indian Mahseers’. Journ., Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., XLVI, 2, 1946, pp. 336-344:
Hora, S. L.— Possibilities of Fish Culture in the Eastern Etileae? ~ Fish.

Dev. Pamphlet. No. 2, Government of Bengal. 1946 pp. 1-3.
Langdale Smith, W. K.—A note on the breeding habit of Katli, Barbus
(Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland. Journ., Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc., XIX,

1944, pp- 89-90. AZ -BC3 ;
Rahimullah, M.—‘Colour. changes in the developing stages of Mystacoleuces

ogilbtt (Sykes).’ Proc. 31st Ind. Sci. Cong., III, 1944, p. 108. (Also Proc. Ind:
Acad. Sci,, XXIV B. 3, 1046, pp. 80-83.)

THE WILD ASS OF :-KUTCH.
“BY

SAuim . ALi.
(With 2 plates).

Apparently little is on record concerning the taxonomy and
Pion oles of the wild ass that inhabits the Little Rann of Kutch.

r. R. I. Pocock, who is revising the Mammalia volumes in the
Hace of British India series, found difficulty in assigning the
precise relationship of this species to the Wild Asses of Baluchistan
and Persia owing to the lack of suitable material in the British
Museum for a critical examination. He asked the Society if they
could obtain fresh specimens for the purpose. His Highness
Maharao Shri Vijayarajji, whose patronage of Natural History is
so well known, offered with his accustomed generosity to provide
all facilities to any expedition the Society might send up to investi-
gate the life history of the wild ass in his territory. The following
notes, scrappy as they are, were made during my short camp on
Ping Bet in the Little Rann of Kutch between 24 February and
3 March 1946, principally in. order to procure the desired speci-

o
mens. They are partly from personal observation, but largely from

JOURN,

BOMBAY

NAT

Hist

Soc.

THE WILD ASS OF KUTCH

Wild AssEs on the Rann.

PrATE 1k

Sdlim Ali.

JourN., BomBay Nat. Hisr. Soc. PLATE II.

Close-up of wounded female. |

THE WILD ASS OF KUTCH 473

a sifting of local evidence which, on the whole, I considered to be
trustworthy. |

Habitat and Locality Factors.—Piang Bét (lat. 23°30 N x 71°15’E),
the headquarters of the Kutch Wild Ass as it may be called, is an
irregular shaped flat, sandy, grass-covered ‘island’ in the Little
Rann, about 8 miles long (NE-SW) and 2 miles at its widest part.
It lies 18-20 miles WSW of Adesar in Kutch. Other similar béts
or islands in the neighbourhood are: Dhitari Mata (in Radhanptr
territory), Santalpur, Shedwa, Mérdhak, Kesmari, and a number of
smaller ones. All these are within the present range and habitation
of the wild ass, roughly between lat. 23°7’N and 23°45’N.x 72° to
72°42’E, They are included in an area of about 4go miles by 20,
or 800 square miles. The béts actually are the gradual accumula-
tions of sand and silt brought down by the Banas River which
enters the Little Rann in a south-westerly direction, about 12 miles
NE of Pang Bét, and sprawls out over the pancake Rann as-a
vast expanse of Shallow water of variable width. It is several
miles wide in places, depending upon: season, but scarcely ever
more than 2 ft. deep anywhere, usually only a few inches. - The
water is brackish due to the seasonal extension inland of the Gulf
of Kutch and its mingling with the waters of the Banas. Thus,
when dry, the hard surface of the Rann is covered with a fine pale
encrustation.

As soon as these: sandy accumulations have risen barely a few
inches above the level of normal monsoon inundation, the foremost
plant colonists make their appearance: the ‘‘Lana’’ (Salsola) and the
scraggy ‘‘Khario’”’ grass (A4tlurops villosus). Ecological succes-
sion duly follows, and on the higher and older portions of the béts
is found a fairly luxuriant growth of several species of grasses,
some of which furnish the chief food of the wild ass.

Further inland from the edge of Ping Bét, Babul (Acacia
arabica) has established itself and appears to be increasing. As
yet there are only scattered groves, here and there, of small or
medium sized trees around shallow natural depressions bunded_ by
the Forest Department. These fill up to form miniature -tanks
during the rainy season and help to conserve some moisture.

Numbers and Population of Wild Asses.—I estimated that the
population of asses within a 5-mile radius of Pung Bét at the time
ef my visit was about 200 animals. As the Banas waters dry up,
leaving the Rann arid, and the grass on Pang. and other béts be-
comes exhausted (after about the middle of March) the asses shift
to 2 other bets viz. Vachhda (Radhanpir territory) and Jhilandan
(Jhinjawada Jagir). The latter is about. 12 miles distant: from
Kharaghdda in Ahmedabad District. On these béts or ‘islands’
there is perennial water and some green grass to be had all the
year, and the concentrations of wild asses here at the end of the
Ppre-monsoon season (as also in drought years) are said to ‘be
enormous.

In the rains when the Little Rann is again jnundated and fresh
pasture available on the islands, aggregations of over 500 animals
are said to be based on Ping Bét whence they wander across freely
to the neighbouring béts. They are said to be abundant over the

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

entire area as above defined, one fairly reliable and allegedly con-
servative estimate putting them down as between 3000. and 5000
individuals. According to local testimony the general population is
increasing year by year.

: Breeding. —Copulation takes place in August/September/Oct-
ober. A mare on heat separates from ‘the troop with a stallion
who fights viciously with interlopers for possession, the combatants
rearing up on their hindlegs using hoof and jaw. After a few (?)
days of isolation the couple rejoin the herd, and thereafter the
female actively resists advances by other stallions. The period of
gestation is 1r months. Foals (only a single) are dropped July/
August / September. Until the foal is about 3 months old the sexes
live apart in separate herds, or troops. These particulars seem to
be confirmed by the fact that most colts accompanying the mixed
troops of adults between 24 February and 3 March were, like
Specimen No. 4, estimated to be about 8 months old, and therefore
born about July/August. Some may have been up to a month
younger. Further, both the adult female specimens—No. 1 &
No. 3—were gravid, the former with a female foetus about 6 months
old, the latter also with a female foetus about 5 months old.

‘At the time of my visit there were no very young foals accomp-
anying the troops, but a fair number—about 6 to 8 in every troop
of 20 to 30 animals—of colts about 8 (to 12?) months old, and all
more or less uniform in size with No. 4. Mares seemed to pre-
dominate in the troops.

“ Enemies.—No epidemics appear to be known among the wild
asses. Even severe droughts are tided over by widespread dis-
persal, and natural predators are practically non-existent. A certain
number of young foals may fall a prey to wolves, but the dams are
said to defend their young with great pluck anil determination.
As to humans, few people appear to molest them and they are seldom
shot for food or other purposes (the male genitals are believed
to possess aphrodisiac properties), except by certain tribes from
Sind, and that not extensively. Indeed from the nature of the
terrain they inhabit, shooting wild asses except from a motor car
cannot be a simple business. Therefore, for the time being at any rate,
the wild ass seems fairly safe ASA: any wholesale persecution.
Most local castes, even the lowest, will draw the line at ass meat,
a prejudice that seems difficult to account for. In view of it how-
ever, it may be interesting to record that for the best part of the
week spent in their pursuit, I and my party lived largely . on the
meat of the asses I shot—roasted and curried—and that I’ found
it quite agreeable. To me it tasted very like Blackbuck, and it is
certainly no coarser than Nilgat. In the interests of eninnee it is
indeed fortunate that the taboo exists. There is no doubt that
otherwise the wild ass would have followed hard on the heels of
the Blackbuck which is now all but exterminated in many parts of
the Rann and Gijarat where it abounded only a few years back.

No wholesale deaths such as caused by an epidemic or drought
have been reported. During his 40 years’ experience, Chatar
Singh, the Forest Guard of Pang Bet ‘Rakhal’ (or forest reserve)
for the last 20 years, whose information generally proved to be

THE WILD ASS OF KUTCH 475

- quite reliable, has never come across a dead wild ass, or heard of
any save an occasional stallion that has been killed in fight with
a rival. That the fights are often bloody is evident from the fact
that quite a number of stallions in the troops I met had lost the
ends of their tails, often leaving merely a short stump. Several
had bits of their ears bitten off as well, and the many old scars on
their bodies were doubtless also the result of such encounters.
Specimen No. 2—a battle-scarred and aged veteran—had in ad-
dition lost one eye.

Food.—The grasses which provide the staple food of the wild
ass, in order of preference, are: 1. ‘‘Chakladtn”’ (Evagrostris
amabilis), 2. ‘‘Khivai’’? (Eleusine flagellifera), 3. .‘‘Bhar6od’’
(Apluda aristata) and 4. “‘Jinjvo’’ (Andropogon ischiemum). When
paddy, wheat and gram crops are ripening along the edge of the
Little Rann, troops of asses invade the fields at night and are said
to cause considerable damage. They bite off the formed ears of
grain and leave the plants intact.

General habits.—During the daytime the-asses mostly roam over
the barren expanse of the sun-scorched Rann in troops of 10 to 30
individuals (in one instance over 50!), but also in twos and threes
and even solitary as in the case of Specimen No. 2—a very old
stallion. They do not appear to mind the mid-day heat (maximum
registered 100°F in the shade on 28 Feb.), and never seem to take
refuge under the shade of the babal groves as, from footprints and
droppings, the local Blackbuck evidently do. When visiting the
bets at dusk to graze—which they leave again for the open
by sunrise—they seem to prefer the grassland along the periphery
of the islands. At the season of my visit this may partly have been in
order to escape the biting day flies which were abundant and
troublesome.

On the regular nightly gathering places on the grassy edge of
the béts the ground is reduced to bald ‘pats’ in patches, with the
grass trampled flat or worn away. Large quantities of dung are
strewn about, and marks where the animals have rolled in the soft
loose earth are frequent. Here also are to be seen the ‘drag
marks’ such as I have described in the case of the Tibetan Kyang
on p. 396, Vol. 46 of the Journal. These are commonly between 5 and
10. feet in length, and one measured over 30 ft. As in Tibet, the
locals averred that they were made by an ass (male or female?)
dragging one of its hoofs along the surface, but why the animal
did so or under what circumstances was unexplained.

The herds keep to the higher and drier portions of the béis
during the rains when the Rann is under water. During this season
they freely wade across from bét to bét. The young foals can be
driven out into the squelchy inundated Rann, easily tired out to a
. standstill in the soft mud, and then captured. They are readily
tamed if taken young, but are apparently recalcitrant and vicious
when grown and cannot ordinarily be trained to harness. It will
be seen from the measurements of the specimens that full grown
animals stand nearly 12 hands at the shoulder—the height of a good
sized mule. They are sturdy and fleet of foot, and I feel that

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

mules bred from them should prove a satisfactory proposition. It —
certainly seems an experiment well worth attention.

When pursued in a motor car and going all out, I found that
the animals could maintain a speed of 30-32 miles per hour over a
considerable distance. The longest neck-to-neck race run was about
14 miles. The animals had already done a mile or more before
they were caught up with, and showed no signs of tiring when I
left them. Sometimes the troops of asses were mixed with a few
Blackbuck, and it was interesting to observe how effortlessly they
were outdistanced by the buck when chased by the truck. With
the truck doing 40 m.p.h. the buck steadily ran away from it while
the asses were gradually overhauled. The colts kept up with the
troop for some time, but gradually dropped behind when hard
pressed. Gravid mares, like the 2 specimens, appeared to keep up.
with the troop without difficulty. A point that struck me as.
surprising was the great difficulty in picking out males from
females when the animals were going all out even from so close a
range as 25 or 30 yards behind! The testes of the stallion are
drawn up almost flush with the belly, so that in size and appearance
they are almost indistinguishable from the immature udders of the
mares.

According to local information wild asses drink regularly. In
February and March there is usually some slightly brackish though
potable water in two kutcha wells on Ping Bét, but this cannot
be accessible to the animals. On many of the other béts there is no:
water at all out of the rainy season. The asses drink chiefly at
the Banas River close by, where there is normally plenty of water
till about mid April. At what intervals the animals drink, or

whether at fixed times, I was unable to determine.

The wild ass is said to produce a call which was described to:
me and reproduced by a local. It sounded something between the
neigh of a horse and the bray of a donkey, but in rather an un-
naturally high key. I cannot vouch for the faithfulness of the
‘recording’.

PARTICULARS OF SPECIMENS COLLECTED

Specimen No. t Gravid Q with 9 foetus ca. 6 months old wg. ca. 10

Ibs. Said to be 8 to 12 years old. In prime condition, and very
fat. No milk in udder. .

Date 24 February 1946

Measurements :
Length: Head & Body (round curves) ... 7S) Sie
(between pegs) ... 6-11 7/8” |
Tail “(without hairs) Wee 1-0 7/8”
Ear (without hairs) os 0-7 7/8”
Height at shoulder Bid 4’-2 7/8”

Weight (approx.) ae be me é
Pel tome? | ? probably .
inaccurate). .

THE WILD ASS OF KUTCH 477°

Specimen No. 2 Old solitary stallion, said to be about 25 years old.
Blind in left eye. Part of tail missing. Bits of both ears
chewed off. Front lower teeth worn to stumps.

Date 25 February 1946

Measurements : 8 ;
Length: Head & Body (round curves) ... 7-0 7/8"
Ne (between pegs) ... 6’-10 7/8”
Tail . 24 stump:
Far (without hairs) ae 0-7 3/8”
Height at shoulder Pe 4-0 7/8”
at rump a 4-2 7/8”
Weight (approx.) 525 ilo.
Front hoof: back to front 9.5 cm; across (side to. side}
9.5 c.m. :

Specimen No. 3 Gravid mare with Q foetus ca. 5 months old wg.
ca. 6 lb. Said to be 8 to 10 years old. Fine condition. Udder
produced 4 cupful of milk!

Date 27 February 1946

Measurements :

Length: Head & Body (round curves) ... 6’-g 7/8”
5p (between pegs) ... 6’-9 7/8” (?}
Tail (without hairs) his 1-2 3/8”
Ear (without hairs) a o'-7 3/4”
Height at shoulder Sos 3-8 3/8”
at rump 93/210 3/8”
Weight (approx.) 450 lb.

Specimen No. 4 Colt (¢) said to be 8 to 12 Months old.
Date 27 February 1946

Measurements :

Length: Head & Body (round curves) ... 5-5 7/8"
rs (between pegs) ... 5-4 3/8”

Tail (without hairs) te 1’-o0 3/8”

Ear (without hairs) 0-6 3/4”
Height at shoulder 3-3 7/8”
at rump 3-6 5/8”
Weight (approx.) 185 Ibs: -

Spectmen No. 5 Adult ¢ said to be to to 12 years old..

~ Date 28 February 1946

Measurements :
Length: Head & Body (round curves) ... 7-0 3/8”

55 (between pegs) ... 6-11 7/8”

Tail (without hairs) se ee GIRS

. Ear (without hairs) fe o’-8 1/4”
Height at shoulder | seb.) AEE BY
- at rump “i a Batley | om
Weight | (approx.) ee 525 Ibs.

N, B. Alt weights taken on an improvised beam scale against men
subsequently weighed on weighing machine. aoe

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR FIELD ORNITHOLOGISTS
IN POST-WAR BURMA.

BY
Lr.-CoL. J. K. STANFORD, O.B.E., M.C., M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S.,

(Indian Civil Service, retired).
RAR Tele

Many of the ornithologists who worked in Burma up to 1941
have left the province and are not likely to return. In spite of
Major B. E. Smythies’s most excellent book, Birds of Burma, which
it is hoped will soon be reprinted, a great deal still remains to be .
discovered about even our commonest and most conspicuous birds,
as any working naturalist knows. In the hope that my suggestions
may assist others who may be scattered all over Burma in the
post-war years, and whose opportunities for collection are limited,
I have compiled this paper. I have expressly excluded the birds
of the higher hills and also Tenasserim, because the avifauna of
both is in many ways highly specialized and I am personally unfami-
liar with the Tenasserim division south of Thaton. But as no one
has collected, or recorded notes seriously in. that region since
Davison, in the ’eighties, I am quite sure that any naturalist
stationed there has a great chance to make history. None of the

birds mentioned in Part I of this paper present much difficulty in
identification.

Racket-tailed Magpies (Crypsirhina),

The grey hooded bird (cucullata) is mainly a bird of the dry
zone though it extends north to the Myitkyina plain and south
at least to the Kyangin ‘township of Henzada. It would be inter-
esting to know what is the full range of this bird and where that
of the black species (varians) overlaps, as it appears to do in
Yamethin district.

Magpie (Pica).

The Magpie (Pica pica) occurs west of the Irrawaddy in small
numbers at Myitkyina. Does it do so anywhere else in Burma and
what is its range outside the Kachin Hills and Shan States?

Jays (Garrulus).

The hill-jays are, in my experience, rare and shy birds. The
Burmese Jay (G. leucotis) is said to occur from Bhamo district all
along the eastern hills and also in. Central Burma and the Upper
and Lower Chindwin (Mears). In Oates’s day it was said to be a
plains bird in Toungoo district. ‘A further check on its distribution
seems desirable.

“SUGGESTIONS FOR FIELD ORNITHOLOGISTS 479

White-throated Babbler (Argya gularis),

This is a dry zone bird which occurs as far south as the. Hen-
zada district and I have seen individuals on three occasions near
Mingaladon. Any occurrences outside the dry zone are of interest.

Black Bulbul (Microscelis).

There are three races in Burma, black, very dark gray, and
black with a white head. The occurrence of white-headed birds
anywhere in Burma should be noted, and whether they are in the
company of black or dark gray birds.

Stonechat (Saxicola torquata),

The breeding race in Burma is the white-tailed (leucura) which
is a bird of the kaing-grass at a low altitude along rivers. I do
not think that any other race of stonechat has been found breeding
for certain in Burma though pairs of the Yunnanese race undoubted-
ly do in the mountains of Myitkyina and should be looked for
elsewhere.

Paradise Flycatcher (Tchitrea paradisi).

Very little is on record about this bird’s breeding and move-
ments in Burma. I certainly saw males in full plumage in Shwebo
in 1921 and in Myitkyina and it used to be a common migrant in
September or October in Lower Burma.

Fantail Flycatcher (Rhipidura),

The species inhabiting the mangrove-jungle along the Hantha-
waddy and Myaungmya coasts is not known, and specimens are
desirable.

Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus).

This common bird becomes very silent and self-effacing in the
breeding season. It certainly bred before the war in Henzada and
the Yandoon island but any breeding records from Lower Burma
are of value, as Oates never found it breeding. The same applies.
to the grey drongo about which there seem few, if any, breeding
records.

Bunting (Emberiza).

A watch should be kept for buntings which are often overlooked.
The grey-headed bunting (fucata) and the easily-recognized yellow-
breasted (awreola) occur all over Lower Burma in the ‘open season’
and probably the little bunting will be found from November to
March in most districts. The occurrence of the crested bunting,
which is very partial to seeding kaing-grass, and the chestnut
bunting should be looked for.

Martin (Delichon).

Between 1850 and 1934 there were no records of House Martins.
in Burma. Since then there have been ro or 12 but any records
are worth preserving.

48o JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCLETY, Vol. 46

Swallow (Hirundo).

- Any breeding swallows in Burma are of interest, the most Pier
species being the small blue wire-tailed swallow (smithii) and the
large striated swallow with a pale rump (striolata). A watch should
be kept for tytlert, with deep rufous underparts which appears
irregularly on migration, and also for roosts of swallows. I have
seen birds apparently flighting to roost on many occasions Due
have never discovered where they go.

White Wagtail (Motacilla alba).

Does this bird breed anywhere in Burma? TI have seen pairs
at a low altitude near the Confluence in Myitkyina which I felt
sure were breeding but the only Burmese esting: record is un-
satisfactory. a

Ganges Sand-Lark (Calandrella raytal).

The distribution of this pale lark whch seems confined to sand
banks on the rivers of Burma needs working out, particularly its
northern and southern limits and its possible local migrations or
absence in the rains.

Skylark (Alauda),

Any Skylarks singing or paired in the Burma hills are of interest,
though, as is well-known, the Indian Skylark (Alauda gulgula)
breeds on the riverine plain of Lower Burma, especially in peafields.

Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata).

This is a common and most conspicuous Kingfisher on tidal
waters in Lower Burma. It undoubtedly migrates to breed in the
foothill streams of e.g. Henzada, but its movements away from
the tide are not well recorded; Mears, for example, recorded it as
found throughout the Upper and Lower Chindwin. It would ap-
pear to be a migrant and, if so, very little is on record about its
arrival and departure from its breeding-haunts.

Blyth’s Kingfisher (Alcedo hercules).

This bird has been obtained by me twice, once in the Prome:
Arakan hills near Nyaunggyo, and once in Putao, on forest
streams. It is a large kingfisher, in colour resembling the com-
mon kingfisher but about twice the size. It is difficult to believe
that it has not a wide range between these localities, and watch
should be kept for it.

Blue-eared Kingfisher (Alcedo meninting),

I believe myself that this very brightly-coloured bird is the
forest representative of the common kingfisher of our jheels and
rivers, for which it can easily be mistaken, and that it is found in
numbers in the streams of the Pegu yoma. Its distribution in
Burma needs working out. i

_ SUGGESTIONS FOR FIELD ORNITHOLOGISTS 481

Trogons (Harpactes).

In 1939 I obtained Trogons in the Myitkyina hills which had
been eating seeds, leaves, and vegetable matter though hitherto
they had always been considered insectivorous. This point should
not be difficult to clear up.

Nightjars (Caprimulgus),

These birds have an unexplained habit of sitting on roads at
night, where they are frequently killed by motor-vehicles. There
is some reason to think that they may be eating grit, and that
Bee-eaters repair to forest roads in the evenings for the same pur-
pose. I commend this possibility to any ornithologist who may
chance to collect them.

Osprey (Pandion haliaétus).

Does the Osprey nest in Burma? It has bred in Calcutta and
Cachar, Harington suspected its breeding in Bhamo, and I have
seen Ospreys in June and July in Myitkyina.

Sea-eagles (Haliaétus).

Though I much deprecate shooting these magnificent birds in
the breeding-season, the records of all sea- and fishing-eagles
which occur in Burma are very unsatisfactory. At least three
‘species are said to occur but I have found them very hard to
identify accurately with field-glasses, though the bird of the Upper
Irrawaddy is certainly H. leucoryphus (Pallas’s Fishing-Eagle).

Raptores of the Dry Zone.

Macdonald found Bonelli’s eagle breeding in Myingyan in Jan-
uary. Smythies states it has been found breeding at Sagaing.
_The breeding raptorial birds of the dry zone, especially the Laggar
Falcon, Fielden’s Hawk, the White-eyed Buzzard Eagle, etc. should
not prove difficult to ascertain.

‘Common Pariah Kite (Milvus migrans).

_. This bird used to breed on the Secretariat and in small numbers

in Lower Burma and curiously enough in November, a month or
‘so after the great migration of non-breeding kites reaches Lower
‘Burma. Any breeding records of kites in other parts of Burma
-are of interest. a

‘Harriers (Circus),

As recorded in the Journal, I found a nest of the Pied Harrier
(C. melanoleucus) with young ones in Myitkyina in May 1936 and
any of these beautiful and conspicuous birds seen from mid-April
onwards in suitable places should be carefully watched. I always
imagined the very pale harriers I saw in the plains of Burma to be
€. macrourus, the Pallid Harrier, but the only pale bird I ever

482. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

secured turned out to be the first recorded Burmese specimen of
the Hen Harrier, so sight identifications are not reliable!

Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola).

The records of woodcock in the plains and foothills of Burma,
especially in the south, are very patchy (vide J.,B.N.H.S., 15,
August 1935, Note xx) and considering how much the bird is sought
after by sportsmen and that it cannot easily be confused with any
other, much more information is desirable. In the higher hills.
watch should be kept for woodcocks ‘roding’ at dusk, in March and
April.

Snipe (Gallinago),
I commend to future naturalists the following:

(2) Mr. C. E. Milner, 1.F.s., first noted that Pintail Snipe in:
Moulmein in early September were moulting their primaries and
some could barely flutter. There are very few records of this,
despite the thousands of pintail snipe shot annually before the war.

(b) What special food does the pintail snipe pick up on the graz-
ing grounds after the rains and also in the dried Rkaing-grass, that
it so often haunts, which makes its. habitat so different from that
of the fantail species?

(c) While the pintail begins to arrive in the first week in August,
the fantail is normally a much later arrival and the dates are not.
properly on record.

(d) Records of very late snipe (e.g. in May) or of snipe drum-
ming in Burma seem few and are not always well authenticated.

Pelicans (Pelicanus),

Though this unmistakable bird ‘occurs’ all over Burma, no one
in the last 30-40 years has been able to say if, and where, it nests.
or when it migrates. The immense colonies which Oates found on
the Sittang have disappeared. Have the Pelicans now retreated to
the Dawnas, or the Upper Chindwin or the forests of the Malihka?

Large Cormorant (Phalacrecorax carbo).

Where in Burma does this very common bird breed at the
present day and at what season? I have never seen a nest or
heard of a colony. Oates found them breeding in the Sittang
valley in October. In Myitkyina immense numbers can be seen in:
full breeding plumage in March and April.

Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea).

Here again is a very common bird in Burma, and yet I have
only twice seen or heard of a heronry, once in Myingyan (Mac-
donald) and once at Kwingauk (Henzada) in February 1931.
Oates never found it breeding and there are no records in the:
Birds of Burma. OF i a Ry:

SUGGESTIONS FOR FIELD ORNITHOLOGISTS 483.

Storks and Ibises.

The remarks made above about the grey heron apply equally
to the following species, which are in many places almost as com-
mon, and which must nest somewhere in Burma.

White Ibis.
Glossy Ibis (Bred Myingyan 1906).
Black Ibis (do.)

White-necked Stork (do.)
Black-necked Stork (Bred Myingyan).
Painted Stork.

Open-Bill.

Burmese Francolin. (Francolinus pintadeanus phayrei).

In Oates’s day this bird was not known south of Prome. It
certainly occurred in 1930 in Insein district, 30 miles north of

Rangoon and also in Henzada. Its present range needs working
out.

Moorhen (Gallinula chlorepus),.

Has bred in Shwebo and Myingyan. It may be a breeding-bird
of the dry zone and should be looked for, as so few naturalists.
visit the great jheels at the height of the rains.

Coot (Fulica atra),

~ Not so far known to breed in Burma and again should be looked
for as it is not uncommon in places.

Whiskered Tern (Chlidonias leucopareia).

A jheel-breeding tern which Stuart Baker found nesting in
numbers in Assam. One would expect it also to nest in Burma
in the rains but it has never yet been suspected.

Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica),

This large tern with a distinctive black bill is very common all
over the stubble of the Sittang-Rangoon river plain. I feel sure:
it breeds somewhere on the coastline of the Martaban gulf but its.
nesting-ground has yet to be discovered.

Large Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna fulva).

What records there are suggest that this is mainly a dry zone
bird (it is very rare in Manipur) and it is hoped that future natural--
ists will record where it is found at different seasons and whether
it is or is not breeding.

Ducks.

It is hoped that sportsmen will preserve the wing of any ducks.
shot whose identity puzzles them. Between 1906 and 1936 the-
Scaup, Goldeneye, Smew and Mandarin Duck have all occurred in:
Upper Burma. There are very few records of the Common Pochard

484. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 46

and Falcated Teal. Any true ducks found breeding in Burma in:
the rains should certainly be noted, and I hope one day that some-
one will run down the Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyl- |
lacea), recorded from near Mandalay and Bhamo between 1885 and
1908 but apparently not heard of since. In India it seems a bird
of the teva: country from Nepal to Manipur, haunting jheels in high
grass, and is said to resemble the Red-crested Pochard on the wing.

If sportsmen would spend a little time reconnoitring a piece of
water with fieldglasses instead of commencing to shoot as soon
as they reach it, I think a number of ducks, e.g. the Mallard, would
be found to be much less rare than they are often supposed to be.

Egrets (Egretta).

There are practically no records in the last thirty years to
show the distribution of the two large Egrets, (alba and intermedia)
in Burma, though probably both breed. Alba has no crest or.
breast-plumes in breeding plumage, intermedia is smaller with
breast-plumes and no crest. The Little Egret (garzetta) has both.
Any naturalist watching the larger egrets in the breeding-season
should record the colours of the beak and orbital skin if they can
‘be seen, as changes seem to take place about July.

Part II

Part I of this paper was written before I had seen the genial
altercation which has recently taken place in the Journal between
my friend Frank Kingdon Ward and Major B. E. Smythies.
(vol. 44, p. 560 and vol. 45, p. 450). In it the first-named is pre-
pared to wager that he ‘could find 50 undescribed birds in North
Burma’, by which I think he means birds not mentioned in that
comprehensive book. This bet he seems inclined to hedge in the
latest number (vol. 46, p. 191).

Personally, were I lucky enough to return to Myitkyina district
with a couple of years to spend on collecting, and a chance to visit
not only the Sajyang area but also the Kumon range on the west
-of the district, I would be almost prepared to lay such a bet myself
for the reasons given below.

Lord Cranbrook and Captain Kingdon Ward were in the
Seinghku and ‘Adung watersheds from the end of January to the
‘end of October 1931. In that time they collected 152 skins, comp-
rising 95 species of which no less than 30 were ‘new to Burma’
(vide Kinnear, Birds of the Adung Valley, Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2,
1934), which makes the collection a most remarkable achievement. |

_ I myself collected at random for 34 years in Myitkyina district,
with the aid of several frontier officers and native collectors, my,
own collections being made within a mile of Government mule-
tracks and nearly all below 10,000 feet. Of 472 species obtained, :
39 or 40 species were. ‘new to Burma’ and this takes no account
of new geographical forms or subspecies. All but six of these
species were seen and collected by me personally.

During the Vernay-Cutting expedition of 1938/39 (Journal vol.
42, 2 April 1941) five of us were collecting mainly in one small corner

SUGGESTIONS. FOR’ FIELD ORNITHOLOGISTS © 3° 435,

of the district from mid-November 1938 to early April 1939, i.e.
44 months. We only spent three weeks, at a time of heavy snow,
above 9,000 feet. Of 299 species obtained, I had not met 53 pre-
viously in any part of Burma and of 23 there were no previous
records for the province. Three species were new to British India.
This gives a total of g2 species ‘added to the list’ of Burmese
birds between 1931 and 1939 from one district, all because an un-
usual amount of attention was focussed on portions of an area
of about 33,000 square miles (larger than Scotland). And yet
anybody who compares the list of birds obtained by the late George
Forest in Western Yunnan with those so far shot in Burma, and
who realizes what a fraction of the area has been covered by col-
lectors, will be prepared for more surprises, on the ‘high tops’
especially. |
Any collector knows what a huge part luck plays in his work.
Take the case of Ward’s Trogon (Pyrotrogon wardi). It was first
discovered in 1926 in the Seinghku Wang by Captain Kingdon
Ward, whose eye for a rare bird is quite uncanny. For 13 years
this remained the only specimen obtained in India or China, though
Delacour found the same species in Tonkin in 1930. In 1938/39
we obtained five, all on the edge of roads in three different places,
in a small area, part of which had been repeatedly traversed by
collectors since 1919. Similarly two of the rarest birds in the
Indian avifauna, the Wedge-billed Wren (Sphenocichla roberti) and
Gould’s Shortwing (Brachypteryx stellatus), were shot by my cook,
Lazum Naw, when wandering out for half an hour within 150
yards of camp. Capt. Kingdon Ward obtained the very rare
Spelaeornis souliei and the White-bellied Dipper similarly, when his
mind was engrossed with botanical problems in 1939. At least
20 of this long list of species new to Burma are still represented
by a single record or specimen, and there is no knowing when
further records may come to hand, possibly not for fifty years.
On the other side of the picture, this semi-intensive work by.
a number of ornithologists in the last ten or fifteen years has shewn
that some birds previously accounted as of extreme rarity, e.g.
the Tibetan Siskin, the House Martins, the Yunnan Fulvetta and
‘certain Thrushes, are by no means uncommon in parts of Burma.
Nothing is more remarkable than the way one can overlook
even a noisy or a conspicuous species. Judging by the number
of trapped birds brought in, the Peacock-pheasant must be fairly
common in the lower hills of Myitkyina, and in the Pidaung game-
sanctuary its note was always audible at dawn in spring. Yet I
have never to my knowledge flushed or set eyes on one alive. It
is the same with mammals. The hoolock gibbon, as everyone
knows, is far more often heard than seen but it is a creature that
draws attention to itself from miles away and is not easy to ignore.
In 1939 the Vernay-Cutting expedition spent from 20th to 3oth
February at Hpimaw without suspecting the existence of hoolocks.
They broke out into a derisive chorus of farewell just as I was
leaving Hpimaw for good. For three and a half months, I spent
hundreds of hours in the haunts of Temminck’s tragopans, hoping

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

to see or shoot one, with no success at all, and was rewarded by
a momentary glimpse of two males on almost my last day.

I am afraid we still know mighty little and still, as I said in
the Ibis eight years ago, have only ‘guessed at the wealth of
birdlife in Myitkyina by recording what comes to the surface of
an enormous sea of some of the densest and least known jungle in
the world’. In the huge areas of Eupatorium scrub, which cover
so many thousand acres of the lower hills, in the almost equally
difficult stunted cane which grows above 10,000 feet, and above
all in the barbed-wire tangles of bramble which spring up after
cultivation in the middle hills, there must be rare skulkers, finches,
flycatchers, shortwings, bush-robins, pittas and bush-warblers, to
name only a few, of which we know little or nothing. They are
only obtained by a combination of great patience and good luck.

Yes, there are still great chances for the naturalist in Myitkyina.
The late Captain Maxwell-West, an outstanding shikari, insisted
that he had seen a ‘red bear’ near the snow line of the Chimili
Pass where I saw bear-tracks and fox-tracks at 13,000 in 1939.
The owls, the Raptores, most of the large pheasants and what I
think was a chough eluded us all in 1939. In 1933 I saw at a few
feet range what I believe may have been Molpastes leucogenys
which occurs in Assam. In the Hukawng Valley someone should
one day turn up the Swamp Partridge and two rare species of
grass-warbler, so far not recorded east of Manipur and Cachar.
One day too we may find the Upland Pipit on the Burma side of
the Salween divide at high elevations.

Though much is taken, much abides.

We must not forget that it was not until just before the War
that the Brown Rock-Pipit and the Siamese Bush-Lark were dis-
covered in the dry zone of Burma by Mr. H. C. Smith. Their
very existence in an open and easily accessible part of the province
had been overlooked by everyone since Upper Burma was annexed.
What more can any young naturalist desire than opportunities.
of this kind?

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR.

BY
Lr.-CoL. B. T. PHILLIPS.

Part II.
(Continued from vol. 46, p. 103.)
On Jheel and Marshland
(With g Plates).
A visit to a jheel in Kashmir, immaterial whether it be large

or small, produces volumes to interest a sportsman-naturalist. The
grandeur of its mirrored scenery, the dense reed-beds, frigid or

steamy according to season; and the toilsome marshy reaches are at-

tractive and exhilarating. Finally the wealth of bird life affords
unique opportunities of unravelling some new secret in nature still
locked in obscurity.

The Dabchick, Purple Moorhen and White-eyed Pochard with
a handful of mallard and coot, are perhaps the only residents on
our jheel though throughout the year its bird life is abundant.
During the shooting season duck of a dozen different varieties
have been identified from bags made on it, while the marshy strips

along its margin are favoured by the Common or Fantail snipe.

_ Rapacious harriers quarter the jheel, and undeterred by the

_fusillades of shikaris, swoop down into the reeds and play havoc

with wounded birds, leaving but mangled mutilated messes for
the eager beater to collect. Another nuisance raider, Pallas’s Fish-
ing Eagle, a fine large handsome dark brown bird, easily recog-
nisable by its buff coloured head and neck, and the broad white
band across the tail, proclaims its presence by its unmistakable
raucous shriekings. It will be seen seated on some stump or mound
along the margin of the jheel, or in hurried flight, endeavouring
to snatch illegal booty carried away by a harrier; or swooping
audaciously to carry off spoils from within reach of the sportsman’s
gun,
Beyond a small number of assorted waders, the visitors to the
jheel, more commonly seen, belong to the fishing fraternity. The
Night Heron, so shy and secretive by nature, is startled from its
siesta in the dense reed beds; its larger cousin the Grey Heron,
erect, motionless and seemingly asleep, makes its unerring dagger
thrust to spear fish or frog unwarily encroaching in its preserves.

Before concluding this impression of winter bird life on our
jheel, mention must be made of visits by the Large Indian Cor-

- morant. Towards the. commencement of the spring migration

these birds are usually seen perched on some semi-submerged stump
in the open basking in the sun, with wings extended, or perhaps

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

busy preening their feathers. Six was the largest number seen
on any given date. Their fluctuating numbers and total disap-
pearance by the end of ‘April gives ground for the assumption that
this jheel is used as a ‘jumping off’ point by the birds on their
passage to distant breeding grounds.

A bright frosty day in the depths of winter holds many charms.
Much of the sting of its biting cold is subdued by the heat gene-
rated by a Kangri, placed on the floor boards of the shikara.
Or one may hold a kangri in ones hands sheltering under a ‘tent d’
abri’ formed by a rug covering the shoulders and reaching down —
to the floor of the canoe. This kangri it must be explained.
is an earthenware pot filled with a handful of live charcoal, copi-
ously covered with ashes. It is the local form of heater; needs
no attention and gives out welcome heat for hours on end.

Seated in this fashion, a start is made for the butt in the middle
of the jheel which serves as a ‘hide’ to watch duck. Often the
shikava has to be forced through a thick coating of ice, a man
in the bows deftly cracking a passage with blows from his paddle.
The uninitiated passenger has uncomfortable visions of possible
disaster and considers what immediate action may become neces-
sary should his frail bark founder. The boat’s constant tussle
with the sharp and jagged pieces of ice paint a menacing picture.
Fortunately tragedies are few, and so not worthy of worry. Soon
the open deep water is reached. Roosting duck and teal rise in
a mass with a great clatter of wings. They circle round and gain-
ing height, the various species forming separate parties, head away
for quieter waters. There is no need for anxiety. Other parties
of varying strength will drop in from the skies throughout the
day, affording fine pictures to the concealed watcher as they float
towards him, many with bills tucked away under wing, sound
asleep. Drakes of the stately mallard, the streamlined pintail,
the rare and immaculate Smew cheek by jowl with that curiosity
the Stiff-tailed Duck, with its conical blue bill, are all represented.
The tireless, plump, bob-tailed Dabchicks see to it that this con-
course of duck does not fall into a deep slumber. They are kept
constantly on the qut vive by disturbances caused by these play-
ful birds. The game is a version of our ‘hide and seek’. One
bird, surfacing behind a sleeping duck in attempt at concealment
is spotted by the other, who immediately, with a sharp trilling
cry, gives chase, pattering along the surface of the water, half
running, half swimming. The game continues ad nauseam all
over the area. Like the Dabchick, the Coot is also-a member
of this mixed assembly. But they are placid birds, somewhat reluct-
ant to fly, and not quite such a nuisance during the traditional
hour of siesta.
_ As the shadows lengthen, the birds become distinctly restless
as if awaiting a signal. Suddenly, with bewildering whir of wings,
the wholé community is in flight. It is the answer to the urge of
yet another lifelong custom: the evening flight to their feeding
grounds. |

During the spring migration, April is an outstanding month
for the bird-lover. At this time, Kashmir becomes an important

lbURN., BomBaAy Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Little Bittern.

PLATE I

‘A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER'S. MUSINGS .FRQM KASHMIR 489.

pied-a-terre for a countless multitude of bird migrants. Summer
visitors overlap belated winter ones, these again in their turn are
augmented by a host of passage migrants from India breaking
journey on their way through to the Far North. Bird life over-
crowds the countryside and Kashmir’s avian population is brought
to its peak. Most of the lakes and jheels afford safe retreats and
temporary rendezvous for these throngs. Yet even to this day,.
it can be asserted that the Wular Lake and its environments hold
much of interest to the expert collector. There is every chance
that some new species or some bird previously unknewn to nest
in this land, may be brought to the bag. To the uninitiated, bird-
life at this season holds endless thrills. The galaxy of birds in
full nuptial plumage becomes a kaleidoscopic pageant. Their song,
though not as yet at full pitch, is pleasing to the ear. The waking
world, with its verdant flower-studded landscape, soon helps to
brush aside the dull monotony of silent and colourless winter.

April gives birth to a season of joy, to a promise of good hunt-
ing to all wanderers in nature’s wilds.

For those who know Kashmir only as a luxurious playground,
a warning—these outings are not made in one of those romantically
trimmed, spring-seated shikavas of the Whoopee class—but in one
much more spartan in type, uncanopied and hard to the touch. In
spite of this, when wending ones way to a rendezvous, one gasps, at
the surpassing loveliness of the scenery on this sequestered jheel,
cut off from the hum of human bustle and surrounded by imposing
mountains, snow-capped at this time of the year. The impelling
beauty of the scene holds one’s whole attention. The shikara is
poled at first along a narrow passage cut through the dense reeds
which cloth the margin of the jheel, but even from the lowly view-
_ point, when the open water is reached, one is struck by the vivid
and crystal-clear reflections thrown up from the limpid surface.
The snow-capped mountains, the graceful clusters of willow trees
and the border of dense reed beds are mirrored in minute detail.
Further glory is added to the scene as the sun approaches the
horizon and sunset tints add lustre to its loveliness. But there
are unsought and distracting influences which mar one’s enjoyment.
The torment of flies by day is now replaced by the buzzings and
bites from hordes of hungry gnats and mosquitoes, and should it
become necessary to forage about a neighbouring marshy strip—
beware of a particularly obnoxious ‘jheel itch’—an unbearably ir-
ritating rash that sets the legs afire. The inflamation is appar-
ently caused by the bites of myriads of microscopic organisms which
shelter in the mud and slime of a rice field. Though warned by
my shikari, the chance of getting a good series of pictures of
Hodgson’ s Yellow-headed Wagtail, which chooses the banks divid-
ing these fields for a nesting site, was too good to be missed.
Besides his assumption that a ‘two bath a day’ wallah was just as.
prone to this infection as the great unwashed local, demanded
correction. I paid no heed to his warning.

I soon discovered that it does not pay to shun local advice,
the intolerable ‘jheel itch’ flared up that very evening and life
became a burden for three long days. Yet my shikari was all

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

sympathy, and never by look or sign did he suggest an expected
-and infuriating ‘I told you so’. Luckily it did not take long to
discover an antidote. When questioned, the ryot explained that
what looked like undiluted dirt caked over his legs was really the
stain made by the application of a viscid fluid extracted from burn-
ing pine logs. It is used by the natives as a precaution against
‘jheel itch’ so prevalent in these marshes. Assuming this con-
coction to be some crude resinous extract, an ointment made up
of a mixture of vaseline and essence of coal tar in the proportion
-of one teaspoonful of essence to one ounce of vaseline, was tried.
It was found to be efficacious, and so this last but not least of
‘horrors’ was checked.

The present economic stress due directly or indirectly to the
World War has made its mark even on birdland. Soaring prices
of the mere necessities of life have forced the local inhabitant to go
yet farther afield for materials used in local cottage industries. To
meet the increased demand for such commodities partly attribut-
able to the phenomenal influx of visitors to Kashmir, many of
nature’s strongholds, previously untapped, are now ruthlessly ex-
ploited to the detriment of bird life. For example on jheels,
reed-beds are denuded for mat-making, grasses of all species for
fodder; even submerged weeds are dragged up to serve as found-
ations for more floating gardens to supply a sufficiency of vegetables
for the market. These activities are in full swing and coincide
with the height of the breeding season when most birds are busy
completing their fresh clutches.

As the eggs of most water birds are considered a delicacy in
the villages, the impoverished local, to whom nothing is natur-
ally negligible, adds destruction in the wake of his grass cutting.

One is apt to forget that the animal world stands subservient
to human needs, and so, when ensconced anxiously awaiting the
quarry, one is apt to inveigh against a clamorous phalanx of rea-
pers, slowly advancing, sickle in hand, denuding cover and dest-
roying all that comes within reach. An ordeal not to be left out
of reckoning during outings in May and June.

The bird Photographer’s lot in the main necessitates hour on
hour of patient watching, often, under trying conditions. The
scorching sun, the stifling atmosphere inside the reed-bed—his
temporary retreat—the infuriating flies and hordes of voracious
mosquitoes are the constant discomforts falling to his lot on jheel or
marsh. |

The ‘Hide method’ of bird photography demands even greater
personal discomfort from its disciples. One is couped up in a
miniature tent which denies even the occasional zephyrs that bring
relief to the man in the reed-bed. Further the restricted view ob-
tainable through the peepholes, must tend in the long run to deve-
lop tired eyes and a likely squint for the rest of ones days.

To the naturalist however, there are many compensations to
outweigh these hardships. Birds classed as ‘inveterate skulkers”
emerge before the eye at the closest of ranges uttering their grunts
and groans, and fearlessly courting some seemingly disinterested

PLATE II

Journ., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Purple Moorhen

The Dabchick.

Ill HLVId

O]GILAM PPOl{-Apped Nurysey oyy

OTS

‘LSITT “LVN Avanwog “nunof

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 491

mate. A pretty picture was made by a pair of those arch skulk-
ers the Water Rail. It is a bird that can seldom be beaten out
of its known haunts in the dense reed-beds or for that matter, even
seen. Yet on the undisturbed, restricted playground, within a
yard of my vantage point, it became evident that cooing doves did not
surpass the love-making of this Rail, utter though it does the
most discordant of mating calls. It was surprising to find that
this small bird, a little over a foot in length, was responsible for
such an amazing volume of sound which resembles, for want for
a better simile, the noise made by the rumblings of an elephant’s
tummy: startling sound indeed in such solitudes. The strident
metallic calls of the Great Indian Reed Warber uttered with per-
sistance and vehemence and from every direction usually jars the
nerves as the temperature rises. But as I have said the reed-bed
offers its compensations. Imagine my surprise when [| discovered
that the Warbler proclaiming its presence from a perch within a
foot of my head was an albino. Its whole plumage was a creamy
white except for the faintest suggestion of its normal markings.
Its salmon-red mouth and pinkish straw-coloured legs added tone
to this fancy dress.

It neither appeared to be harried nor accompanied by any of
its kind during its solitary flights from bed to bed throughout the
day. J did not see it again during subsequent visits to the jheel.

There is always something of interest to attract attention
throughout the long hours. A Bluethroat, a passage migrant to
the Vale, sits and preens its plumage within arms length. That
little jewel, the Common Kingfisher, exhibits the ease with which
it swallows silvery fish; the dainty Whiskered Tern, with the ac-
customed grace of terns on the wing displays its purposeful, ryth-
mic flight and the delicacy with which it picks its food from off
the water or weeds. These are but a few examples of interest
among a host of visual delights to be encountered throughout the
day.

The birds of the marshes are a noisy community, their loud cack-
lings, grunts and hoarse rippling notes beggar descriptions; hardly
a pleasing note can be picked up from this constant chorus of dis-
cords.

Every day from early May till late July there need be no dull
moment for the bird-watcher from the time he sets foot in the
shikara until his return to the shore. Birds in great variety are
numerous and busily engaged in all the activities connected with
breeding. The bustle, the exuberance of flight and emotional song
reflect the spirit of the time and the joy of living.

In the following descriptions, species are not given scientific
priority, but are grouped together in accordance with the surround-
ings in which their nests may be found:—in dense reed-bed, over
open lily-covered water, in treacherous bog and marsh, or on the
drier, less waterlogged reaches, clothed in a lighter type of reed,
which borders marsh and paddy-field.

Although nests of the Mallard and White-eyed Pochard were
frequently found, I did not risk disturbing them by my photogra-
phy. It is hoped theugh to try conclusions with the Coot and

4G2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL.HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 46

Common Snipe during the coming spring and summer, and thus
complete a record of pictures of all the water birds known to breed
on the jheels and contiguous marshlands in the Vale of Kashmir.

The Indian Little Grebe or Dabchick. Podiceps ruficollis capensis.

I have chosen the Little Grebe as my first subject, as it was the first
water-bird to face the camera.

While the shikara was still in the distance the sitting Dabchick was seen
to plunge into the water from the nest, but not before she had found time
with a deft movement of the bill to cover up her clutch of eight dirty white
eggs. All that was to be seen was an untidy mass of damp water-weed, half
submerged and resembling stray drift accidently hitched up to the tufts of
growing marsh stalks. A nest easily overlooked by unschooled eyes.

No drill had been evolved, the setting up of the apparatus took time; but
when finally my viewpoint was reached, there was but a half hour’s wait
before the bird waddled up onto its platform nest. The act of uncovering its
eggs was too much to miss, and so, the golden rule—never disturb a bird on
its first appearance at the nest until it has comfortably settled down for a
minimum period of half an hour—went by the board. As was anticipated,
the click of the shutter caused a hasty dive, but again, not until the eggs
had been covered. There followed a long wait before a further exposure cculd
be made. In the meantime one could almost understand the jargon expressed
in long drawn out descending trills as she passed the news of the disturbance
on to her mate. It was quite an hour and a half before the male convinced
his frightened spouse that she was unnecessarily alarmed. Eventually, by ex-
ample and look he induced her to waddle on to the nest alongside him; indeed
a reward for patience, for the shutter truly recorded this intimate scene. Now
followed another tedious wait before their next return to the nest. When they
cid, one bird was seen to rush at the nest with wet weed in the bill, this was
deposited, and further the nest was splashed with water, while the mean hen,
afloat on the other side, made a rippleless dive and appeared again by the
side of the male and screwing up courage once again waddled on to the nest.
This final picture of her look of sheer boredom as she balanced herself on her
curiously lobed feet was considered a_ sufficient reward for the long hours
spent in the heat, and so the birds were left in peace to carry on the good
work.

Another item of interest presented itself when the site was passed a couple
of days later. A newly hatched chick was seen to splash off the nest into
the water, and as to the manner born, swim away to the shelter of a bed of
reeds, tweet-tweeting as it went.

In no illustration or description of the Dabchick in the current Indian bird
books is mention made of the ivory-coloured, rosette-shaped wattles that grow
on the cheeks at the base of the bill. These are regular adornments in breed-
ing plumage.

The Purple moorhen. Porphyrio poliocephalus.

The Purple Moorhen together with its smaller cousin, the Moorhen, are
among the most wily of fowl anywhere within the nesting area. The former
only allowed six exposures to be made during 36 hours of sittings spread over
a period of six days. Two shots in colour included in this small bag, failed
to materialize in the processing. The Moorhen shows a record even blacker,
for that bird evaded the camera entirely during sittings aggregating ten. hours.
It must however be admitted that although these birds are guaranteed to try
the patience of Job nevertheless they form subjects well worthy of effort by
Job’s younger brother, the bird photographer.

Although success with the camera was meagre with Porphyrio, yet the
wealth of knowledge gained of its habits well outweighed hardships and dis-
comforts.

The ‘identity of this bird, about the size of a local hen, is unmistakable.
It has long ungainly red legs, a heavy red bill terminating in a frontal casque
across the crown, a bizarre acoutrement which somewhat mars the beauty of
its handsome purple blue-green plumage.

During my reconnaissance trip to the jheel, while moving along the narrow
waterways cutting into the dense reed-beds, many platforms were seen near

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 493

the water’s edge. These, I was assured, were made by the birds themselves,
who sheared off stalks, some two feet above water level and entwining the
cut off portions make a solid circular platform which is used for sunbathing,
feeding, etc. The nest was invariably in such a position. Twisted blades of
marsh grasses line the depression which take the eggs.

By the discovery of four of these nests in April C.6, C.5, C.5, C.4 and
one in July C.5, it can now be stated that the Purple Moorhen breeds in
Kashmir. The finding of the April nests on the 18th of the month came
as a surprise, as the last duck shoot of the season took place on the 12th at
a time when the nests were just completed, and the first egg at least laid in
a couple of these. One nest was not more than 7o yards from the butt. The
eggs are a larger edition of those of the Moorhen, spotted and blotched with
shades of brown over a _ reddish-stone ground colour. The C.4 mentioned
above contained a freak set of four pure white eggs, without blotch or. speckle.
The C.6 nest provided an interesting record, the sixth egg was laid in it on
April 18th, the chicks commencing to hatch out on May t1oth. All the nests
found were in comparatively shallow water, and although a depth of eight
feet was the most to contend with, it was often a struggle to find the bed
of the jheel owing to a semisolid bogg sy obstruction that intervened. A sudden
unexpected break through has been the cause of many a good ducking to
the perilously poised sportsman in the bows of the merry making
picture to the spectator, but often implying the loss of camera accessories to
the careless photographer.

The tale of my endeavours at photographing the Purple Coot is a tale of
discomfort, aggravation and comparative failure. From my vantage point in
the mosquito-ridden reeds, the birds could be seen or heard throughout the
long vigils. Would either of them come into the focused area?—No; they were
as though on ‘Sentry go’ patrolling the precincts, sedately picking their way
along stray floating reeds, or awkwardly clambering up, hand over hand, to
the top of the bed to gain a better view of the surrounding country. Their
calls and cackles gave away their position throughout the long hours. Exas-
-perated by these tantalizing tactics, I could not suppress my feelings any longer,
and proclaimed my presence in plain speaking. The answer to my tirade from
the nearest bird was both interesting and amusing. It stood its ground and
with body drawn up to full height, clapped its wings with resounding cracks
above its back, hooting a succession of hoarse expletives. Then it stalked off
in its stilted way, flicking its tiny triangular tail in true waterhen fashion.
Its loud chuckles as it disappeared into the safety of the reed beds made me
feel that the bird had indeed won the first round.

My anxiety for the safe hatching of these eggs, often prompted me to
end the uneven contest, but having been goaded into stubbornness by the
seeming indifference shown by the birds for their eggs, I decided that even
should may day-long sittings eventually addle the eggs, I would stick to my
post until such time as the birds themselves deserted the nest. My _ shikari
affirmed that the Moorhen were not in the habit of brooding during daylight,
leaving incubation to the hot rays of the sun. He further stated that the
birds had often been seen taking up their duties at sunset over the apparently
deserted nest, and not leaving it until the sunrays had gained strength in
the morning. After my experiences, I favour this view; my day-long sessions
at the nest did not interfere with the hatching out of the complete clutch.

After many fruitless hours of waiting I resorted to stratagem and thereby
met with a certain amount of success. A horse-shoe shaped clearing, two
feet wide was made, the nest resting midway between its two heels. All
weeds were plucked up by their roots leaving a stretch of open water, except for
a weedy causeway which was left undisturbed. This causeway was the normal
runway used by the bird on its way to and from the nest. It was anticipated,
that being lothe to fly, a skulker and an expert at threading its way through
the dense reeds, the bird must eventually use the only land route in the nesting
area. The resultant four pictures taken, depicts the bird in varying attitudes
of unhurried movement.

“My final day’s outing on May toth was, photographically speaking, in
keeping with the succession of failures usually experienced in my pursuit of
these birds. The bubble, that my ‘horse-shoe’ trick would ensure success,
burst. The sound of a soft tweet from the reeds near the nest told its own
tale, but imagine my delight on reaching the nest to find one chick struggling

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ‘Vol: 46

to release the remaining portion of the shell from its nether regions, while
another, with tiny beak protruding from the shell, was doing the like. The
first chick, an all-black ball of fluff with tiny red legs and red patch on
forehead, looked up and, either in answer to a soft tweet from its twin,
already hidden in the reeds, or because the sun rays were uncomfortable,
hobbled off to the edge of the nest, and hand over hand made for the shade,
where it, in its turn, sat tweeting.

The Little Bittern. /xvobrychus minuta,

The Little Bittern is a minature heron, about the size of a partridge but
with longer legs, greenish yellow in colour. The male bird is clothed in buff
and black, the black portions changing to brown in the female. The bird
gave very little trouble and posed freely before the camera. Though common
in Kashmir in summer, they are seldom seen by day.as they prefer the sec-
lusion of the dense reed beds then. It is not until just before nightfall that
they sally forth in numbers to take up the fishing stations in the shallow
waters.

I was lucky in finding some that discarded these rules. One allowed my
shikara to creep within photographic range and take a picture of it. Aroused
by the click of the shutter, position No. 2, that of alarm, was assumed. In
this. position the bird brings into play the markings provided by Nature. The
brown streaks along its thin long neck, now stretched taut with bill pointing
to the sky, assimilate with the lined back-ground of reeds and obliterate the
bird.

The nest is a shallow pad of grasses built in dense reed beds, or occasionally
in a convenient fork of a semi-submerged willow tree, always near water
level. Six to eight white eggs form the clutch. The nest chosen by me for
operations was placed in a dense reed bed, standing in stagnant -water, thigh
deep.

The bird’s glide—no other word describes its easy progress through the
reeds—is truly remarkable.

‘he Indian Great Reed Warbler. Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens.

It is impossible to distinguish in the field between the numerous members
of the large Warbler family, which contains a host of small brown birds
without distinctive features. This Reed Warbler is an exception owing to its
giant size. It is a little smaller than a Bulbul, its large bill and the rich
salmon red mouth. are seen if at close quarters, throughout the day as it
gapes to deliver its unceasing metallic call. Its notes full of volume and
exuberance are distinctive. Its Kashmir name ‘Kak Karra Choo’ is a good
imitation of a favourite stanza running through many other harsh squawks.
I look upon him as a coarse fellow, in a family of fine cheery small people.

The bird is extremely common in summer. Its harsh notes betray its
presence in every reed-bed in which it moves about with much _ skill. The
bird is not a skulker in its literal sense. Often, at this season, it may be seen
continuing its harangue from the reed tops unconcerned at the presence of
a human within arm’s length. Nor is it shy on its nesting ground and will
allow a close approach.

Nests are ubiquitous and take the form of a massive, deep, cup-shaped
affair, made of coarse grass but comfortably lined with finer grasses. <They
are suspended between reeds and stalks and attached to three or four of them
about a couple of feet or so above water level. The clutch consists of four
or occasionally five greenish eggs. These are speckled and clouded, mostly at
the broad end.

Efforts to picture this bird de not present many difficulties. During my
first attempt, the bird returned to its nest while I was still erecting the easily
handled water-bird apparatus. But it must be admitted that it was_ slightly
«disturbed when I overbalanced and took a header into the water losing a
valuable exposure meter in the process. It was not quite clear to me whether

the squawks from the bird in. the depths of the reeds meant to convey concern

or laughter at the episode. Be that as it may, I soon finished off the success-

ful morning’s work by exposing a whole roll by hand, meeting no further
inconvenience, —

The Pheasant-Tailed Jacana.

A ALVIg ‘90S ‘LSIP] ‘LVN Avawog “Nunof[

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 495

Owing to its jerky mode of climbing up to the stalks and the rapidity
with which it settles down in the nest, it is difficult to get a good picture of
the bird unhidden by the stalk it is gripping, or when hidden in its deep nest.

The Whiskered Tern. Chlidonias leucopareia indica.

A’ flock of dainty streamlined Terns flight, are intent on hunting. They
advance across the lily-strewn waters of a jheel with bill and eye directed
downwards. Individuals break away incessantly to dip down with graceful swoop
to seize prey irom ‘off the water or weed. It is a’sight for the gods, ‘and
one common to Kashmir throughout the summer.

- This marsh Tern, being the only representative of its family in Kashmir is
easily recognised, as in both sexes, the black cap and general silvery effect of
the plumage is distinctive.

Many delightful incidents can be witnessed when watching terns at the
commencement of the breeding season. One, very common at this season is
a bird in full flight dipping without hesitation to the surface of the water to
seize a lily stem in its bill and carry it off to the nest. While watching a
ternery, an intruder in a shikara once approached the colony. In an instant
every tern took to wing and pandemonium reigned. during their menacing
attack on him. This was the moment chosen by a lazy .‘blackleg’ to pick
up material from off one of the deserted nests. It saved itself the trouble of
flying to the far end of the jheel where suitable stems were abundant. Result:
the overturning of the temporarily deserted nest and the loss of its eggs. The
marauder unconcerned flew off to his own nesting site. to deposit the ill-gotten
gain., This manoeuvre has actually been witnessed by me on three occasions.

The fluffy little ternlets in their buff-splashed black clothing present a
pretty picture. When alarmed they instantly skedaddle from the nest and take
cover among the lily leaves, often with only bill protruding above the water.

From a photographic standpoint, the bird provides a problem owing to
the open site of its nest, which is usually over deep water. There is always
the risk, that the nest will be found rifled. Absence of legislation to curb
the tempting demands from epicures for ‘Plovers eggs’ has turned these eggs
into a valuable asset, easily obtained by the poor local inhabitant. It is a
pitiable sight, to find a breeding colony of perhaps fifty nests or more
which had been agog with excitement and graceful activity on the previous
evening, lying entirely deserted the following morning. All the nests, those
platforms of lily trailers, carelessly interlocked and supported by ‘weed or lily
stems, were empty, ruthlessly pillaged of their one, two or three bluish speckled

" eggs.

The Pheasant-Tailed Jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus,

After paddling through the willows and reed-beds lining the margins of most
jheels and reaching stretches of open water, the author of those mysterious
cat-like mewings heard at intervals in the distance is seen. These black and
white birds, a iarge edition of a pigeon, prefer stretches of open water, where
the lilies and other water plants grow in great profusion. The distinguishing
features of this Jacana are a long thin black pheasant tail, and a rich golden
yellow covering to the back of the neck. The ease with which the bird can
move over floating’ leaves is due to its disproportionately long toes and claws.

The Pheasant-tailed Jacana is fairly common in such places, and nests are
not difficult to find in June. Most nests found by me were built over deep
water and were structures of the flimsiest type—a few twigs or lotus stems’ rest-
ing on the surface of the water. One clutch in particular containing the
usual four pegtopped glossy bronze-coloured eggs, appeared to cheat the laws
of gravity entirely by resting securely on a layer of green vegetable scum.
Though the birds are not shy around the nesting area, the deep water and
open surroundings make the taking of a set of pictures a task that requires
time. The two or three series were taken over’ an average depth of 12 feet of
water and without a stitch of cover for hundreds of yards.

I shall never forget the day when a half hour sufficed to take all the snap-
shots required. The nest happened to be on a beat frequently used by jack-
daws on their busy foragings to and fro. As is their wont while in flight,
the jackdaws give out a call which sounds like ‘Jack’. This cry is treated

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

by the Jacana with much respect. On hearing it, the owner of the nest, regard-
less of possible danger from the camera, rushed to her nest and stood guarding
the eggs, feathers ruffled and wings quivering with excitement. The trequent
comings and goings of these jackdaw were instrumental in giving me some of
the best action pictures in my collection. Unfortunately .none are available to
illustrate this article as Dufaycolor films were in use that day. The jackdaw
is ‘arch marauder of the marshes’ but as such, becomes a trusty aid to the
gradually melting photographer. I could cite many instances to show that
all brooding birds have a horror of jackdaws, not because of possible bodily
injury to themselves, but because of their uncanny ability in searching out
nests and playing havoc with the eggs during any short absence of the parent
birds.

My vantage point gave an extensive view of the countryside in general
and although both Stilts were in the vicinity of the nest, they appeared re-
luctant to walk into the focused area, until the magic sound ‘Jack’ was
heard in the distance. The reaction to it was instantaneous. The mother bird
rushed to her nest, while her mate rose with noisy cries to intercept and attacls
the approaching marauder. The jackdaw, managed tc keep out of reach of
the Stilts’ pointed beak. The action was soon broken off, the Stilt returning ~
to his marsh, while the jackdaw circled round and made for a Chenar tree
on the distant shore of the Jake, the direction from which he had orginally
come. Now comes the pith of the story. Within five minutes, the incident
was repeated, the ‘Jack’ once again coming from the same direction. Two
jackdaws were in the air this time, one flying fifty yards in the rear, and
as the Stilt was about to overtake the leader, the second jackdaw closed
in and tweeked the extremites of the long red legs, projecting helplessly some
six or seven inches beyond the Stilt’s tail. The Stilt dropped to earth with
a shriek of alarm. The equivalent of a chuckle, uttered by the jackdaws as
they approached one another and circled back to the Chenar tree, savoured
very much of collusion. I leave it to the reader to draw his own conclusions
and decide whether these birds showed a marked degree of intelligence or not,
and whether instances like this should not give food for further serious con-
sideration by scientists, interested in such facts, to amend their previous find-
ings and allow to certain birds the power of thought: and subtle reasoning.

The Black=-Winged Stilt. Himantopus himantopus.

The Stilt is about the size of a partridge but with body streamlined.
The long slender black bill, lanky red legs, quite 10” in length, together
with its pied. plumage makes identification unmistakeable,

While bird watching in the month of March down in the Bombay Presi-
dency, a common sight was a gathering of many species of waders rummaging
in a marshy strip along the water’s edge. Conspicious among them was
the Black-winged Stilt. Their long legs, enabled the handful of these birds
present, to feed in unhustled comfort, tapping a food supply not available
to the others. It is a long cry from that venue to the Kashmir marshes,
where I was extremely lucky in finding a solitary nesting pair and getting
a good set of photographs. The birds are very scarce here, in fact, no more
have even been seen since by me. The rare spectacle of a Stilt flying over-
head drew me to the area where it had pitched into a muddy dyke. <A quarter-
ing of this area through binoculars not only showed me the Stilts but a pair in
the process of changing duty at the nest. The joy of this discovery was much
damped. <A grass cutting party of Kashmiris was slowly approaching the site
and not more than one hundred yards distant, cutting as they came. In spite of
a strong dose of that universal Eastern remedy ‘Bakhshish’ being handed out,
a restless night ensued broken by dreams of the certain destruction of such a rare
nest. However on arrival on the scene next morning all was found in order
and the day, though one of the most tiring, proved to be a wonder day,

As my small party approached the nesting site, the birds became agitated
and rising from the marsh with shrill pipings, mobbed us.. It did not tale
long to get the camera apparatus ready for the fray. Little did I realise the
ordeal ahead as I briskly stepped off the firm ground on to the spongy bog.
A few paces sufficed to cause the loss of both my shoes stripped off in my

JourN., BoMBAY NAT SHiista Soc, PLATE VI

The Turkestan Water-Rail.

Journ., BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

EQS BV

The Eastern Baillon’s Crake. ; |

A BIRD, PHOTOGRAPHER'S MUSINGS FROM.KASHMIR 497

efforts to drag out my legs, held firmly and deep in the glutinous mud. Much
exertion was required to make the ten yards separating nest from baak.

“A few lily stems carelessly strewn over a patch of green scum on the sur-
face of the bog were the only means of support for both eggs and bird. How
such a load does not sink is a mystery. The eggs were large, of a stone
colour and heavily blotched with shades of brown, and totalled three in number.

The Painted Snipe. Rostratula benghalensis.

The stumpy long billed bird, the size of the Common Snipe, presents a
colourful picture with its brightly barred and oval spotted markings. The buff
band along crown, the spectacles together with the buff band of same width
down each side of the back and joined to the gorget, divides the upper plumage,
from the beautiful wings and tail which are of bright metallic olive green
patterned with bars of black and conspiciously spotted with buff. The white
under plumage completes the very pleasing picture given by the birds. The
male is more drab than the female.

The male bird is smaller in size and less showy than the female and by
his constantly lowered head and shame-faced gait tells a tale of oppression and
uncomplaining endurance. This conduct is obviously attributable~to the over-
powering demeanour of the female of the species. Some kink in nature has
made her the dominating partner in all matters sexual, and further, conferred
on her the habit of polyandry. It seemed infra dig to be witness at a scene where
three females challenged each other and fiercely contested the privilege of
taking off the male bird, who stood in the arena a listless, and entirely dis-
interested spectator. He is the mainstay of the species. Unaided, he deli-
gently incubates the eggs and takes sole charge of the young, while his mate
‘searches out other males to be tempted into a similar predicament. Nature is
very thorough in its ministerings and seemingly backs up this mode of life,
as most ‘wisps’ encountered during the shooting season show.a great prepon-
derance of males over females.

The Painted Snipe is not a skulker in the true sense of the word, for
birds may often be seen feeding or frolicking out in the open. Their mellow
call difficult to describe but unmistakeable is heard from all directions of a
morning or evening. I have found the nest in several situations, always near a
marsh but not necessarily on boggy ground. A tuft of short grass on a
patch with squelchy puddles appears to be the favourite site. The nest itself
is a firm structure made of interlaced rushes and placed only a few inches
above water or marsh. The blades of grass bent to form a dome over the
nest give the sitting bird shelter both from sun and view. The clutch, usually
consists of four beautiful eggs of a stone colour boldly blotched and speckled
with a rich brown.

The birds breed profusely in Kashmir. Many nests with full clutches have
I to take pictures. The bird never gave any trouble and gliding on to the
nest with usual disconsolate look, reaching up occasionally to try and repair
the covering, disturbed during the clearance of the foreground by the photo-
grapher. He sits gasping with open bill and assiduously broods the eggs.

Five futile sessions, covering long hours, were wasted in my efforts to
picture the female bird. Dozens could I have taken of the cock bird in that
time. It was the shikari’s suggestion ‘perhaps the female does not brood her
eggs’—that brought me to my senses. Next day a nest, containing only two
eggs was chosen, in the hope that Milady would oblige by paying a_ visit
to the nest to complete her clutch. Fortune smiled fair; I took three pictures
of the beautiful female in quick succession. It was now deemed gentlemanly
not to inconvenience her any longer and so all ended well. The pictures turn-
ed out to be good and the bird added her third egg to the clutch.

The Turkestan Water-Rail. Rallus aquaticus korejewi.

The warm brown upper parts, neatly spotted and streaked with black, the
face, throat and underparts of french grey broken by the black and white pat-
terned flanks are distinctive and give to the plumage of this Water-Rail a quiet
and colourful aspect. The bill is long and red.

_ As a subject for the photographer, the bird is second to. none—a worthy
opponent, being the most secretive and in consequence the most difficult to

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

watch of all the marsh birds. Its habitat is usually in the heart of extensive
water-logged areas, covered in dense reed, out of reach of canoes and thus sel-
dom disturbed. Even should an entry be made after great effort, the chances
of seeing the bird are still remote.

During the month of June the breeding call will attract attention, and if
uttered at close quarters, its vehement cadence and unearthly rumble is startling
in effect. I well remember the great surprise at my first experience of this
uncanny gurgle at close quarters. Instead of some pre-historic monster, a small
bird, the size of a pigeon, stepped into view, jerking its head and flicking its
tail in characteristic water-hen fashion. The discovery of the intruder in its
stronghold, soon ended this first view. With head and red bill extended in line or
with the body the bird left me a view of its small triangular cocked up tail, as
it hurriedly scuttled back into cover. I have been Jucky in getting opportunities
ior watching this seclusive bird at close quarters. Despite its repertoire of dis-
concerting discords the cooing dove can scarcely give its points at love-making.
The nest is made of dry rushes and as a rule placed in very thick cover, not
more than a foot or so above water. The eggs, normally numbering eight to a
full clutch, are a shade of green, spotted red.

The bad going to the nesting site, the necessary disturbance to the area in
order to open out the foreground, the enforced quiet vigils in the steaming
reed-beds, make the taking of a series of pictures of the bird, arduous in the
extreme. The first day’s photography produced only three exposures at intervals
of roughly four hours apiece, and as it was considered that a further session at
this nest might destroy the eggs, a second nest was found, demanding as much
patience and similar action. As luck would have it, a third nest, found late
in the season, provided an easy day with many interesting exposures. This nest
was placed in lighter cover within reach of the dyke wall ‘and held heavily
incubated eggs, which, I am sure, emboldened the parent bird to disregard the
clicking camera.

The dozen or so pictures taken of this extremely shy bird form a most
cherished record in my collection.

The Eastern Baillon’s Crake. Porzana pusilla.

The little rufous-brown Crake, of about the size of a Quail has most of the
habits of its genus. In keeping with family custom, it is a skulker in marsh
and -reed-beds. It can often be flushed however and will take to wing, legs
dangling, and fly well for a short distance before pitching again into cover. At
close quarters the curiously haphazard smearings of white on its upper plumage
are plainly seen.

Although a skulker, this tiny crake prefers the reeds on the outskirts of
dense cover for its nesting site and also values shelter in patches of short grass
growing in a treacherous bog. As far as can be remembered all nests found in
tangled grass had some leafy plants very near to them, perhaps to serve as a
land-mark. Most July nests were found in open sites, enabling the watcher to
get many unobstructed views of the bird striding over lily leaves or submerged
reeds.

The nests are most difficult to find, as at the least sound the bird quietly
creeps away, but my bird-shikari is particularly expert at laying back reeds, and
as if by magic, disclosing nests. It was noticeable though, that his thrusts
with the punt pole were invariably directed towards some leafy plant in the
tangled reeds. The rush nest, placed in a tuft of grass close to water or marsh,
usualy contained 7 to 8 eggs. It was shaded under a canopy made by the
drawing together of the tops of the surrounding grasses.

My favourite reach in search of these birds was on a particularly treacherous
bit of ground, where every footstep was insecure owing to the spongy bog. On
one particular occasion, urged on by the deftness with which the shikari got
over this ground, shod in a contraption made on, the snow-shoe principle, I
donned his pair but my heavy weight soon broke through the crust, and the
firmly fastened shoes, covering, as they did, a large area, jammed in the bog
and imprisoned me. Had it not been for the two followers in attendance, my
skeleton might have been all that remained to show where an _ over-zealous
sportsman died in search of a tiny bird.

JouRN., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VIII

| The Black-winged Stilt.

| Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail.

PLATE 1x

SOG

HIst

NaT

BOMBAY

JOURN.,

yf
yy

The Painted Snipe.

A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR 499

I should imagine this crake is of a pugnacious nature judging by the annoy-
ance shown on its return to an ‘opened to view’ nest. Its ill-tempered and im-
patient efforts to rearrange the cover to true rail liking, its gruntings and
constant movements presented a problem to the waiting photographer.

The Nortbern Ruddy Crake. Amaurornis fuscus bakeri.

This Crake, though imbued with the secretive habits of its genus, is much
easier to observe as it commonly struts about the open edges of the reed beds
and even feeds in rice fields. [It is a dark brown bird the size of a Common
Mynah, the rufous tinted mask and under parts, together with the long red
legs help to brighten up an otherwise sombre garb.

Nesting sites in dense reed-beds are less sought after, and generally speak-
ing the belts of light grass on the bunds bordering such fields form the most
favoured sites. The nest of interlaced reeds or grass is placed either on the
ground or supported by grass only a few inches above water. This bird is as
prolific as its cousin. A full clutch usually contains eight eggs. Being a late
breeder, nests with full clutches are not found before the first week in July.
The advantage given to the photographer by the easier-going and an accom-
modating subject is much minimised by the attacking hordes of mosquitoes.
Only part of a day was necessary to obtain all the pictures required. Twelve
exposures were made in the space of a couple of hours. But time did not hang
on my hands in this bird paradise. Before dusk that evening sets of pictures
of the Paddy-field Warbler and the Rufous-backed Shrike had completed the
only remaining film pack which had been brought out in reserve. A grand day
indeed out in the bush.

Though I am very careful in replacing bent, submerged or tied-back grasses
and restoring the disturbed site to normal, I am sorry to have to say that on
my return to the site next day (a usua! habit of mine to make sure that the
bird has not deserted), I was furious to find that a tragedy, the first and so
far the only one to my knowledge, had taken place. A couple of jackdaws
had spotted the nest while I was busy the previous day. ‘Their persistant attempts
at rifling the nest were recalled. The sight of the empty egg shells, sucked
dry, floating on the water, decided me always in future to carry a catapult
as a deterrent to such prying-eyed rascals.

The Kashmir Paddy-Field Warbler. Acyvocephalus concinens hokrae.

This Warbler is about the size of a Sparrow, and when seen in July, has
an earthy brown upper and buff lower plumage. It looks like a smaller and
‘more elegant edition of the Great Reed Warbler but happily, lacks its incessant
and aggravating clamour. It is a late breeder, not commencing operations till
early in July.

_ Although not rare on the Kashmir lakes in summer, I have actually watched
and pictured this bird only on one occasion.

The nest was a very neat little cup of twisted grass, with the deep egg
cavity lined with finer grasses. It contained four eggs. It was found in a
dense bed of a finer species of grass, fixed to four growing stems, about
three feet above the surface of the water.

The bird was not shy, but formed a difficult subject to portray owing to its
jerky way of climbing up the stems and its hasty jump into the nest when all
but head and tail becomes obscured.

Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail. Motacilla citreola calcarata.

The male bird in breeding plumage is striking and a study in black and
yellow, the whole head and lower plumage being a bright yellow, accentuated
by the deep velvety black of the upper plumage which is relieved only by the
narrow white edgings to the wing coverts and quills.

The female, though dainty withal, is drab in comparison. ‘There is a very
little yellow in her make up, the markings in her plumage vary to such an
extent, that one is forced to look upon her as a nondescript pied bird. The
obliterative effect caused by these unstudied haphazard lines, when placed against
the play of light and shade of the grassy background, is remarkable. I have
three perfect colour transparencies which illustrate this point very well. In

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL--HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 46

spite of the bird being in the immediate foreground and broadside on, only a
few in an audience can pick her out, although she is projected life-size on the
screen. These birds are rarely seen far from marshland, but none-the-less, exhi-
bit all the characteristics of wagtails—the brisk walk, the up and down flirting
of the tail, occasional flutters into the air in chase of insects, and the *Chiz-zit’
call-note, uttered during their strong, undulating flight. The nest is a very
compact affair cosily lined with wool or hair and is placed on dry ground tucked
away in tufts of short grass. A variety of sites are chosen but all located on
strips of dry land well out in the centre of swamps. Favoured spots include a
cleft in open waste land—or more commonly in tufts of grass on the boundaries
between rice fields, those repositories impregnated by the nasty organisms that
deal out the ‘jheel itch’. The eggs numbering four—even five have been found—
are very heavily spotted almost to the point of entirely covering over the grey
green ground colour. One of these nests contained a cuckoo’s egg. I was giad
of the. opportunity offered of promptly destroying it to save the lives of the
remaining four unborn wagtails. The birds are neither shy on their nesting
areas nor when stalked in the open. The picture of a male bird, perched on a
‘solitary dark green stalk protruding from out of the deep blue water of the jheel,
is a pleasing sight.

The Indian Pond Heron. rdeola grayit.

The mystery bird is what I call it—the Pond Heron or Paddy Bird—will
surely be seen as one moves along swampy waterways, but that only, if it be
striding along with slow deliberate walk. Otherwise, if standing still, its dingy
dress assimilating with its reedy surroundings, cause it to escape detection. On
the wing a great transformation takes place. Its drab garment changes to
white liveliness, as with hoarse squawks it flaps away.

The Paddy Bird is a later breeder than the other herons of Kashmir and
in consequence is not found colonising the many heroneries dotted about the
Vale. This bird commences building its nest of sticks during the second half of
May, and their blue green eggs are abundant in early June. The nests are
placed in the branches of the semi-submerged willow trees at a height of ten to
thirty feet above the water. Many pairs use the same plantations, found scat-
tered about the margins of the jheels.

The male bird at this season replaces his dingy garb for a maroon mantle
embellished with plumes in place of the long hair-like feathers. The deliberate
tread used when stalking in the marshes is repeated when with measured step the
bird clambers along the branches to its nest.

Beyond the trouble caused by having to transport a big stand and_ step
ladder to get at the nest, photography is simple. It is further helped by the
fact that the bird is confiding, nor will it leave its eggs unguarded to the tender

mercies of the House Crow, which also breeds in this area at the same time.

A catapult in hand had its uses on this occasion and helped drive away the
bolder spirits among that band of robbers.

THE LAMMERGEIER (GYPABTUS BARBATUS) LINNABUS

1. Ei. N: Low tHer, M.B.0.U., F.Z.S.

(With 6 plates.) “rst

Just as the ambition of every British bird photographer is to
portray at the nest the lordly Gok Eagle, so too does his counter-
part in India always yearn to photograph the majestic Lammergeier
at home in its Himalayan fastness. Nor is this surprising. Even
if we have not had the good fortune to feast our eyes on the bird
when soaring over its native heath we must have been enthralled
by what the most eminent authorities say concerning it. Stuart
Baker refers to it as ‘this magnificent bird’; A. E. Jones, the
veteran ornithologist of the Simla hills, who prebably knows more
of the limmergeier’ s day- to-day habits than any other person alive,
describes it as being ‘© one oF the finest birds in God’s creation ’,
while Whistler writes of it as ‘this grand bird’. Further, Salim
Ali tells us it shares with othe sarus crane the privilege of being
India’s largest bird. But this is not all: we are told the limmer-
geier’s power of flight is “ very wonderful’, that it is ‘ the poetry
of aerial motion’ and that the bird rises ‘ upwards of a thousand
feet in a few minutes in big circles without a single stroke of the
wings ’. If to this be added the fact that its average wing-span
is nine feet and that in days of vore the bird was credited with
carrying off lambs and even babies, it will readily be understood
that the goal of every disciple of Richard Keartoy in Hindustan
must be the photographing of Gypaéius barbatus at its cliff eyrie.
Fond hopes and actual realisation are, however, very different
matters and, as far as I know, Bengt Berg, the Swedish naturalist,
and I, are the only individuals who have succeeded in photographing
the lammergeier at its nest; and my pictures were not obtained
‘till April 1945.

Why, it may well be asked, has the lammergeier not been
photographed more often? In a measure the paucity of bird photo-
graphers in India explains matters but in a greater degree this is
due to the inaccessibility of the eyrie. This is usually built in a
recess or even in a small cave of a sheer cliff, and frequently an over-
hanging ledge protects it from falling stones. Its position there-
fore makes the setting up of a hiding tent a difficult matter even
if we possess the necessary nerve to be lowered to the site. Another
contributory factor is that the lammergeier breeds at a time of year
when the average bird photographer is content with his lot in the
plains, and his imagining that because the breeding season is be-
tween November and March, it is improbable that anything will be
doing at the eyrie in April, and even less during May, months
which he tries to spend in the hills. Consequently once in the
Himalayas, he seeks not the lammergeier’s nesting cliff but con-
centrates his energies on smaller fry. Wherein he makes a great

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAO RAE SiS SO CUE ANY: s/o 6

mistake: at all events I did. My delight can therefore be imagined
when in September 1944 Mr. A. E, Jones told me that if I could
visit Simla the following April he would put me on to a lammer-

geler’s eyrie not ten miles distant at which he thought I should:

be able to photograph the parent birds. Of course, he pointed
out, the young one would be fairly big then, and might not be
fed as often as when small, and opportunities of obtaining
pictures consequently fewer than would be the case earlier in
the year. That, however, I told myself, would make no difference;
and I determined there and then that if I were only shown an
occupied nest nothing would prevent me from photographing the
lammergeier at home.

Early in March Mr. Jones wrote to say he had two occupied
eyries awaiting me. Accordingly I ‘reported for duty’ to him
on 10th April. Before, however, I tell of my experiences in the
hiding tent it will, perhaps, be advisable to describe Gypaétus
barbatus, say something concerning The Flying Dragon, as Bengt
Berg has very aptly called the lammergeier.

Four feet in length, the lammergeier or bearded vulture,
referred to also (erroneously) as the golden-headed eagle, or simply
the golden eagle (another species altogether), is usuaily seen in
flight when the upper parts appear brownish-black with silver
shafts to the feathers. The wings and tail are long, the latter
wedge-shaped, a characteristic which, with the size of the bird,
makes identification easy even if there were not other distin-
guishing features. Above the eye is a black patch which extends
forwards and downwards in thick bristles to form a conspicuous
‘beard’. The head and neck are cream-coloured as also are the
lower parts, including the legs down to the knee, but the cream
is tinged with a lovely deep orange, particularly in old birds, while
most birds have a black gorget across the breast, more pronounced
in some individuals than with others. The bill is greatly hooked
and the iris light orange in colour with the sclerotic membrane

(the ‘ white’ of the eye, so to speak) blood-red, a combination —

which makes the bird look extremely fierce and cruel and was
probably responsible for the old fables concerning the lammer-
geier’s depredations among mountain sheep and goats. Immature
birds are a dull black and have the same black ‘beard’ as the
adult, and appear not to assume the full plumage until they are
about five years old.

The laimmergeier occurs as a resident species throughout the
Himalayas and the tributary ranges in the North-West, being
found from plains-level—A. E. Jones saw it at Raw alpindi, over
the railway station—up to at least 24,000 ft., at which height
it was observed soaring by one of the Everest expeditions. It
breeds between 1,200 ft., at which elevation Jones found a nest
containing two eggs in the Campbellpur district (Journal, vol.
xxvii, p. 800), and 14,000 ft., if not higher (New Fawna), the
breeding season extending from November to March (Whistler’s
Popular Handbook, 8rd edition). The nest, a huge pile of sticks,
branches, grass, W ool, skins, bones or rags, is built in a recess or
small cave of a sheer clitf, as already indicated, and may contain
anything from one to three. eggs, often one only being laid, two

owther.
ing

Ivo

E. H.

lustan must be the photograph

EIER

KRG

THE L

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MSG INUNan. dehisan, “Syexe.

Journ., Boms

‘ The goal of every d

PLATE Tn

eEISE. SOC:

JourN., BomBay NAT

THE LAMMER

TER

E. H. N. Lowther.

Photo by

’

s creation

God’

ls in

ITC

‘One of the finest b

THE LAMMERGEIER (GYPAETUS BARBATUS) LINNAEUS 503

being the usual clutch, and three very rare, Mr. A. KE. Jones
having once only found a nest with this number. No matter
how many eggs are laid, I learn from Mr. Jones that he has never
known more than one young reared from any nest. I learn further
from him that each pair of birds usually has two or three nest-sites
and that even if one is occupied for two or three years in succession
it may be abandoned for no ebvious reason in favour of one of
the others and yet be used again subsequently.

Despite the fact that it is generally considered to be the
connecting link between the Vultures and the Falconidae, the
limmergerer is in habits a vulture albeit a very magnificent one.
The best authorities are agreed that its food for the most part
consists of bones, the smaller ones being bolted whole, the larger
carried up into the air and dropped on to rocks, the resulting frag-
ments being swallowed later: whence it derived another of its
trivial names, ossifrage (bone-breaker). It also seems to be agreed
that the lammergeier is given to a carrion diet and even visits
rubbish heaps at hill stations, both of which facts agree with
my own observations. It does not, however, fight with other
vultures for the tit-bits of a carcase; instead, should it visit one
while the filthy meal is in progress, the lammergeier stands by,
looking on till the other vultures have left—and they do not
depart until the carcase is cleaned—when it sets about the blood-
covered bones of the dead animal, an incident witnessed by a
number of observers including myself,

While it is agreed that the lammergeier is a scavenger and
lives on bones, carrion and offal, it is by no means clear whether
it sometimes attacks or kills animals or birds; and yet the belief
is common that it does. Even though a great deal of literature
bearing on the subject is not to hand as I write, I find it stated
in three places that the bird sometimes kills its food: by Whistler
in the Popular Handbook, Stuart Baker in the New Fauna,
and Colonel A. E. Ward in the Journal, vol. xvii, p. 728. As the
matter is one of importance it will bé as well to quote in full what
each says on the subject. Whistler writes : —‘living things it
seldom kills’. The New Fauna observes: —‘ they have been seen
to carry off! fowls, wounded game-birds, such as_ partridges,
pheasants, ete., and Ward records finding a hare in the stomach of
one bird’. Col. Ward reports:—< I have taken mouse-hareg out
of specimens shot, and on one occasion this vulture took a woun-
ded chukor which was crouched on a rock.’

These statements, to my mind, are not convincing. Nowhere
amongst Whistler’s numerous writings can I find any reference
to his having personally seen a lammergeier attack an animal or
bird, wounded or otherwise; nor does he quote any other ornitho-
logist to support what he states. These same observations apply
equally to most of what is stated in the New Fauna, and one
cannot help feeling that because a dead animal was found in the
stomach of a lammergeier—it will be noted that they were mouse-
hares and not a hare—it appears to have been presumed to have
been killed by the bird. Presumption is not proof and we are
left with Ward’s record of the taking of a wounded chukor.
Whether this incident was witnessed by himself or somebody else

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL. HIST... SOCIETY, Voi.. 46

is not clear, but even if it came under Colonel Ward’s personal
notice, might not the lammergeier have taken the w ounded bird to

be a dead one? We are told it was crouching and it is conceivable -

that the attitude adopted by a wounded bird may sometimes be
that of one which is dead. Per contra, though it is no proof that
the bird may not occasionally resort to killing, it is significant
that two such careful observers as Messrs. B. B. Osmaston and
A. E. Jones, both of whom know the limmergeier well, state that
they have not seen it attack or even threaten a living animal, a
statement which, in the latter’s case, includes birds, and probably
also where Mr. Osmaston is concerned. Apart from these consid-
erations, however, it must be emphasised that Gypaétus does not
swoop down on its dead food and carry this oif in the way the
kite does; instead, after alighting near by, it approaches it care-
fully. When such is its attitude towards offal, bones, etc., it
seems improbable that the lammergeier will attack a living aninal
or bird particularly as its feet are not adapted to this end: the
claws are blunt like any other vulture’s and not curved and sharply-
pointed as in the case of eagles.

Personally, I should like to think that the lammergeier is a
killer, but with the existing evidence, and considering its structure,
I cannot bring myself to believe that such is the case: whatever
may be its correct position in the avian hierarchy, its habits are
those of a vulture. :

And now it is high time we visited the eyrie at which my
photographs were obtained. The illustration gives a good idea of
the precipitous crag on which it was built and the attendant
difficulties of portraying the bearded vulture at its nest which,
in this case, faced north-east and was situated at an elevation of
about 6,250 feet. (The lowest elevation in the Simla hills at which
Mr. Jones has found a nest containing eggs is 2,500 ft.) My
first impression was that the lammergeier must be the King of
the Rag and Bone merchants, for the nest was a huge collection
of soiled sticks and dirty old rags and pieces of wool, with a large
piece of sacking billowing in the breeze; this the bird must have
had considerable difficulty in carrying. On these reposed pieces
of green bottles, old bones—real veterans these—and horns. The
far wall was white with droppings, possibly of years. Presently,
as I reconnoitred how to reach the eyrie, where best I could
position the hide, the female parent—larger than her consort—
came into view. After soaring round a few times on motionless
wings, she settled on a ledge “of an opposite cliff. The bird had
nothing in its bill and apparently nothing in its feet: I felt she

had merely come to see the intruder on her domain. I was mis-_

taken—it had brought a dead jungle crow, concealed between its
‘Oxford bags’ well tucked up against the body. This it proceed-
ed to tear to pieces and swallow. After a few minutes, seizing in
its feet what was left of the corby—I had in the meantime moved
away from the nest’s immediate vicinity--the lammergeier sailed
across to its nest, the crow visible as the bird took off but com-
pletely hidden again when the feet were. drawn up against the
abdomen. There now proceeded from the eyrie much squealing,
and I came to know it contained a single young one. This was

.. BOMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc. RVATE UE

THE LAMMERGEIER

yyy

Photo by E. H. N. Lowther.

‘ The illustration gives a good idea of the precipitous crag on which the eyrie was built’.
Arrow marks the nest.

PLATE IV

JourN., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

fy, H. N. Lowther.

A tit-bit for the squab.

THE LAMMERGEIER

Photos by

*‘ The noise of the focal plane shutter going off caused the

THE LAMMERGEIER (GYPAETUS BARBATUS) LINNAEUS 505

dark brown in appearance and fairly well-feathered but still covered
with a great deal of earth-coloured down, particularly on and un-
der the wings, about the legs and on the body, and fell over when
it toddled forward. My estimate of its age was a month to six
weeks. Soon the limmergeier emptied its maw on to the floor
of the nest, in stages, as shown later, and gave the regurgitated
food to the squab. Finally it tore off pieces of flesh from the
crow’s carcase and fed these, one at a time, to its offspring which,
throughout, shook its wings in an importunate manner and never
ceased squealing,

The lammergeier spent about ten minutes at the eyrie and on
its departure the young bird retired to the far end of the nest, to
be invisible to the public gaze.

Investigation showed I could not work this nest from above:
either I would be too close, or if I located the tent on a further
narrow ledge, my view would be obstructed by a projecting rock.
The only alternative was to see what could be done from below.
Fortunately the cliff here curves slightly and a spot was eventually
found on which the hide could be positioned. It was not entirely
suitable as the distance from the nest was rather greater than I
should wish as well as slightly too low, and the projecting rock
still obstructed my view, but pictures would be possible and the
feeding of the young bearded vulture interfered with little, if at
all: which mattered most.

The hide was put up on the 18th April, in the morning, and
beautifully camouflaged on all sides as well as the top. This done,
I proceeded to a suitable vantage-point some distance away, to
study through the glasses the limmergeiers’ attitude towares
the encroachment on their nesting-site as well as to observe the
bird-life and scenery about me.

In front was a fairly wide valley; beyond, a range of snow-
covered mountains. The stream running through the valley was
now dry but pools occurred here and ‘Tiyerry, at w rhviehh dhobis banged
clothes on the rocks, whistling through their teeth as they did
so. On the mountain-side garments of many colours were dryi ing
in the sun. Further away were scattered villages and hamlets,
and on the left a fair amount of cultivation. Hard by, a small
stream trickled over boulders, the water borne away in channels to
irrigate the fields. Here, two Himalayan whistling thrushes vied
with one another for the possession of a third, and a pair of white-
capped redstarts, gloriously handsome in their immaculate white,
and bright black ain chestnut livery, spent a couple of days hefore
moving on to their breeding grounds higher up. On the cliffs
were numbers of kestrels. Again and again these chased jungle
crows which ventured too close to their nesting-sites, squealing
fiercely as they did so, or flew around for sport, opening their
tails fanwise as they ‘banked’, showing off then to advantage
the characteristic black band, the males most handsome. Two
small parties of slaty-headed parakeets dashed by, going up-hill.
Common Indian swifts were busy visiting chinks in the cliff about
the lammergeier’s eyrie where also blue rock- -pigeons were in-
terested in ‘sundry crevices, while striated swallows investigated
their old nests under adjoining ledges. Overhead sailed huge

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Himalayan griffon vultures in different stages of pluinage. looking
like aeroplanes, and large scavenger vultures which appeared whiter
than I had ever seen them. From the green crops below came
the emphatic, rasping notes of the black partridge, a call which
once learnt can never be mistaken for any other. Down in the
valley, about habitations, hoopoes uk-uk-uked, and for the first
time this season I heard, faintly, the welcome notes of the Asiatic
cuckoo. Day by day these came nearer and inside the week the
bird was uttering its familiar call on the outskirts of Simla itself.

On the rocks large lizards lazed, basking in the sun, black in

appearance. Surely, I thought to myself, these will later be snap-
ped up by the kestrels, to feed their hungry families ?

As I sat surveying the countryside, listening to the various
bird calls about me, grateful for being out of the heat of the plains,
suddenly a laéimmergeier came into view, a inile or more away,
contouring on motionless wings the mountain-sides, but approach-
ing the nesting-cliff. A couple of minutes later it was less than
thirty yards distant, often above, sometimes below me, very hand-
some in its silver-shafted plumage and the creamy-orange head,
neck’ and lower parts. At this range the bird looked enormous.
Round and round it sailed, now peering to the left, then to the
right, the ‘beard’ very prominent. Often it seemed that the bird
would settle by the nest. Hach time, however, it caught sight
of the hide and as frequently sheered off, the baby vulture
squealing querulously whenever it glimpsed its parent.

It was clear that the lammergeier did not like the look of things,
that it was reluctant to return to the eyrie, for presently it alight-
ed on a ledge of the cliff above me. I now remembered, from
what I could understand of the Swedish text, that Bengt Berg

had found the bird to be very scared of his hiding tent and at one

time feared it would desert its nest. Was history going to repeat
itself? An hour, two hours passed, and yet the bearded one had not
ventured to its eyrie. JI was beginning to think I must demolish
the hide, erect it further away in the first instance, when the
second bird put in an appearance, actually using its wings. Both
parents were now circling round me, in opposite directions, but
soon, to my intense relief and joy, the new-comer settled on the
nest, followed immediately by her mate. The latter, having
brought up food from the crop, departed in a hurry, leaving the
mother bird to give the squab an ample meal. She was at the
nest quite a quarter of an hour.

This was the only occasion that I saw both parents at the eyrie
together.

Now I was happy again; now I felt certain that on the morrow,
given fine weather, the lammergeier would enter my ‘studio’, that
I would add its portrait to my collection of ‘ Celebrities’; and I
went to sleep that night looking forward to a full and exciting day
on the 14th April.

Most people are aware of the fact that the bird photographer
is accompanied to the hiding tent by an assistant, his principal
duties being to see that no camouflaging material is likely to blow
across the lens, and to depart ostentatiously so that the bird it is
intended to photograph will imagine the tent is now deserted. With

JourN., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. | PLATE V

THE LAMMERGEIER

Photo by E. H. N. Lowther.

My efforts at portraying the lammergeier arriving at its eyrie were greatly
simplified by the young bird giving warning of the parental approach’.

Yip J

yy,
Y/Y)?

ties
iy)

big

UHIHODYUANNY

{A ALWIg ‘90S ‘1SIE] “IVN Avanog “Nuaof

THE LAMMERGEIER (GYPAETUS BARBATUS) LINNAEUS 507

the lammergeier, however, I took no risks, and two assistants
saw me into the hide. That they did their work efficiently, and
the bearded vultures had accepted my shelter as a natural part of
the cliff, was clear a quarter of an hour after they left me, when
the young lammergeier started squealing and showed itself at the
fore-part ‘of the nest, the movement causing a swarm of flies to
rise into the air. A few seconds later the male parent alighted
at the eyerie but for some minutes did nothing except gaze in my
direction or down the valley. Seen at such close quarters the bird
looked extremely fierce and powerful, and one could understand
how it was that earlier generations endowed the ossifrage with extra-
ordinary and quite unnatural powers of strength. ‘The squab con-
tinued to give tongue throughout but did not use its wings as it
had done when first I saw it; nor were its pinions employed again
when being fed, or in anticipation of being given food, during “the
six days spread over a period of three weeks, that I spent watching
the birds.

On this occasion, as on every other when the food brought had
to be regurgitated, the young vulture was fed towards the back of
the nest. The parent’s head and neck were then hidden from view
by the rock referred to earlier. Nevertheless there was no diffi-
culty in telling when the bird was being “sick’—anything from
four to six times at each session—its body assuming a strained
poise as when a dog vomits. It was equally easy to know when
the disgorged food was being given to the squab. Food was given
to the chick as and when disgorged, before more was brought up.

The young vulture was not fed by regurgitation alone*® though
this was the usual mode of feeding: occasionally the lammer-
geler arrived with the meal held in the bill—once it was a rat—
but more often in the feet. It was the exception for the young
bird to advance to the front of the nest on the approach of a parent
when the meal was to consist of regurgitated food: it seemed to
know when it was to be fed in this manner though its judgment
was at fault on two occasions. When, however, food was brought
held in the bill or feet, the squab invariably moved to the exposed
part of the eyrie and there partook of the banquet provided,
squealing the whole time. On these occasions the noise made
in tearing off a piece of flesh or breaking a bone—at this stage
the work of the adult birds—must have been audible at some
considerable distance.

Occasionally the young vulture was, fed twice in half an hour
but the interval generally varied from one and a half to two and a
half hours, while once it was over three hours. No matter when
it had last been fed the squab was always ready for the next meal.
It was only when the interval approached or exceeded the two-
hour figure that the chick ventured to that part of the nest where
I could see it. Then did it gaze anxiously all round the valley
and into the skies for a sight of its parents; and if there was no
sign of them it passed the time pecking about for any small piece
of flesh or other unconsidered trifle which had worked its way into
the nest. It was now that the squab sometimes exercised its
wings, slowly and clumsily, and usually succeeded in falling over
in the process. It was clear it would not be able to leave the nest

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

_ for many weeks, probably not until the beginning or middle of
June, just before the monsoon broke, which is the time, speaking
generally, that the young limmergeier first goes out into the
world in Mr. Jones’ experience.

It was not only hunger or the sight of its parents that brought
the young vulture to the front of the nest. This occurred also
when three blue rock-pigeons flew into the cliff with the intention
of alighting on the eyrie. They almost ‘looped the loop’ to get
away on noticing the squab inside the recess. The latter’s sur-
prise too was obviously great, for it came out at once into the
open to have a ‘look-see’ what the commotion was. Again, a
common mynah filching material for its nest in a niche close to
the lammergeiers’ home, invariably brought the baby vulture out,
as also did an aeroplane which circled round each day. Strangely
enough the sight of the plane made the chick squeal in just the
same way as when it saw a parent approaching with food.

The longest period spent by either parent at the eyrie was
seventeen minutes, this when a large rat constituted the meal.
Food brought in the bill, or carried in the feet, invariably caused
the lammergeier to remain longer at the nest than stuff disgorged:
in the former case each visit averaged between ten and fifteen
minutes; in the latter about eight minutes.

The actual photography of the bearded vulture presented no great
difficulties except that fresh plates not being obtainable in the
market I had to use old stock brought back two years previously
from my last visit to Kashmir. These plates had deteriorated
somewhat in quality and in consequence a larger stop had to be
employed than would have been the case with fresh material, the
result being that that depth of focus.could not be secured which
one would wish. Another drawback was that, too often, owing
to the young vulture being fed towards the far end of the nest.
photographs could not include the head and neck of the lammer-
geier. Notwithstanding this, anything from two to six exposures
were made each time the chick was given a meal at the more open
part of its home. Further, my efforts at portraying the laémmer-
geler arriving at its eyrie were simplified by the young bird giving
warning of the parental approach. Thus, when nothing of interest
had taken place before me for the space of an hour, or even two
hours, when also my thoughts sometimes strayed to such topics
as the possibility of being offered an early passage to the United
Kingdom, or where I would eventually settle, my fingers were
instantly brought to the shutter release-lever on hearing the squab
squeal; and as the huge bird dropped with a roaring crash on to
its nest-ledge, a number of high-speed photographs were obtained
of The Flying Dragon. :

Readers will realise how greatly I am indebted to our fellow-
member, Mr. A. E. Jones, not only for enabling me to photograph
the lammergeier at home but also for much of the first-hand infor-
mation brought out in this article. I take this opportunity of
thanking him for all the help so generously given.

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE MALLOPHAGA AND THE
HIPPOBOSCIDAE INFESTING BIRDS.

BY
M. ATIQUR RAHMAN ANSARI, M.SC.,

(Research Student, Imperial Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi).

While studying the Mallophaga of the birds of the Punjab, the
author came across the following two examples of phoresy between
the Mallophaga and the Hippoboscidae :—

1. Columbicola columbae (L.): Mallophaga, was carried by Pseudolynchia
canariensis (Macq.): Hippoboscidae, collected from the Indian Rock Pigeon
(Columba livia intermedia Str. : Columbidae).

2. Philopterus sp.: Mallophaga, was carried by Ornithoeca sp.: Hippo-

boscidae, collected from the Bank Myna (Acridotheres ginginianus (Lath.):
Sturnidae).

Ewing (1927) summarised the records of phoresy between these
two groups of insects. This information has been completed upto
1937 in the present paper. Jt is unfortunate that in several in-
stances full information is not available. © Either the Mallophaga
remained unidentified or the Hippoboscid was not determined. This
detracts considerably from the already too meagre information
available. The phenomenon is of such interest that it deserves a
careful and extensive study.

There are only 18 instances on record in which complete inform-
ation regarding the bird-lice, bird-fly and the bird-host is avail-
able.

Statement 1 gives the available records. Other necessary parti-
culars have also been included in the statement. This analysis of
the available records will help to clear the position, and attention
is invited to the following points :—

(a) In most cases the bird-lice carried are the true parasites of
the bird from which the Hippoboscid flies were collected.

(b) In five instances the bird-lice belong to a bird-host different
from the bird from which the Hippoboscid flies were collected, but
these birds are closely related to the bird-host of the lice and the
commonness of the Mallophaga on the fly-hosts is a possibility.

Martin (1934) records Columbicola columbae (L.) being carried
by Pseudolynchia canariensis (Macq.) from Columba livia Gmelin,
from the U.S.A. Adie’s (1915) record from India may represent the
same association, as two out of three elements are common, viz., the
Hippoboscid and the bird-host. The present record agrees with
Martin’s record in every detail, and it is interesting that in regions
so wide apart instances of enteal associations occur.

Regarding Philopterus sp. being carried by Ornithoeca sp., there
is no definite previous record. There are records of Philopterus sp.

510 JOURNAL,-BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

and P. sturni (Schrank) being carried by Ornithomyia fringillina
Curtis and one record of Philopterus sp. being carried by Lynchia sp.

There is a single record of Ornithoeca pusilla Schin carrying an
undetermined species of bird-louse, from Eucichla cyanura Bodd.
from Batavia.

Host from which Hippo-| Recorded host of the

Mallophaga boscid was collected Mallophagan sp.

1. Degeeriella rotundata Corvus brachyrhyncos C. americanus :

(Os b.) hesperis: Corvidae Corvidae
(McAtee-1922)
Cyanopica cooki :
2. Degeeriella deficiens Cyanocitta s. stelleri : Corvidae
(2 5)\ieas Corvidae

(Spencer 1928) Geospiza fuliginosa,
Geospiza fortis and
3. Degeeriella interpositas| Melospiza m. melodia: |\Camarhynchus varie-
(Kell) Fringillidae gatus: Fringillidae
(Ewing 1927)
Dendroica bryanii:

4, do. Hylocichla u. ustulata : Mniotiltidae
(Thompson 1937) Turdidae
Nesomimus parvil-
Se do. Dumetella carolinensis: \sus and Nesomimus
(Ewing 1927) Mimidae carringtoni : Mimidae

The commonest instances of phoresy are Degeeriella species
being carried from different bird-hosts by -Ornithomyia fringillina
Curtis and O. avicularia L.

A species of Degeeriella is recorded as being epaglae by Orni-
theza metallica (Sch.).

The only other species recorded is Ardeicola botauri (Osb.) car-
ried by Lynchia botaurinorum (Swenk.).

As to the significance of this ‘association’ the following sug-
gestions have been made by Ewing (1927) :—

1. The Mallophaga attempt to obtain blood that the flies them-
selves have imbibed from the birds.

2. The Mallophaga are perhaps attracted by the higher body
temperature of the fly on a dead bird.

3. The Mallophaga are attracted by some odoriferous secretion
of the. flies.

4. The Mallophaga use the flies as transport agency from one
individual or species of birds to another and from a dying or dead
host to a living one.

Considering these four suggestions more closely, we find that
the first three do not hold.

1. The Mallophaga subsist on feathers, scurf, scales and_ other
epidermal products. It is only in cases of wounds or bruises on

* ‘It is of interest to note the marked commonness of parasitic species to
the genera Geospiza and Camarhynchus, thus lending weight to the belief of
their very close relationship.’—Kellogg, V. L. & Kuwana, S.I., 1902, Proc.
Wash. Acad) Scis, iV, “p:) 459:

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN MALLOPHAGA AND HIPPOBOSCIDAE 511

the host that they feed on blood. Therefore, the suggestion that
the lice obtain blood from the flies, cannot be upheld.

2. The Hippoboscid flies are known to leave the defunct host
almost immediately after its death while -the Ischnocern Mallo-
phaga do not, as a rule, leave it, rather die in situ. If ever they
deviate from their usual habit they may do so only after the tem-
perature of the dead body has decidedly gone down and that too
for favourably warm places on the host’s body.

In the case of crows, the lice were seen to swarm about the
head region two to three hours after the death of the bird. They
were apparently so panic stricken that they moved in and out the
feathery covering for likely favourable spots, persistently biting the
feathers here and there and attaching themselves by their strong
sharp-edged mandibles to the fragments coming in their way. But
they did not quit the body at all. From this it may be inferred
that lice will fasten upon Hippoboscid fly, if the latter comes in
the way, but not purposely for reason of the higher temperature of
une tly...

3. An examination of the specimens of the bird-flies in the col-
lection at the Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Lyallpur, and the collection at the Imperial Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, was carried out. Forty-three specimens of
Ornithomyia comosa Aust. from the Indian Sand Martin, twenty-
one specimens of Lynchia maura Big. | =Pseudolynchia canarien-
sis (Macq.)] from the Indian Pigeons collected from Mandalay,
Calcutta, Pusa, Rawalpindi and Kasauli, and numerous unidentified
Hippoboscidae from various birds were examined. Not a single
example of such an association was obtained from these specimens.
Thompson (1935) examined about 150 bird-flies of various species
from the British Isles and Uganda, and failed to find a single
instance of this relationship. If the Hippoboscidae secreted an
odour attractive to the Mallophaga, the instances of association be-
tween the two bird-parasites would have been of more frequent
occurrence. Therefore, the theory of attraction by the bird-fly odour
does not seem probable.

4. We now consider the last suggestion, viz., that the Mallo-
phaga use the Hippoboscidae as a transport agency from the
dying or dead host to a living host, or from one individual or
species to another, or in other words as a means of intra or inter-
specific dispersal. It is true that the Hippoboscidae are highly
specialized Cyclorrhapidae, provided with well developed, toothed
or spined claws for clinging to the hosts, and possess mouth-
parts for piercing and sucking the blood of the host on which
alone they can subsist. They do not ordinarily leave the host until
the latter dies (Thompson 1937a). However, host specificity is not
a marked feature of the Hippoboscidae. Most species have a wide
range of hosts and extensive geographical distribution.

Ornithomyia avicularia L. and Ornithomyia fringillina Curtis,
the two commonest fly-partners of this association, are found on
a variety of birds, such as the ravens, jays, sparrows, skylarks
(Passeriformes); wood-peckers, owls (Coraciformes); hawks

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

512

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ASSOCIATION BETWEEN MALLOPHAGA AND HIPPOBOSCIDAE 513

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STATEMENT I

RECORDED INSTANCES OF PHORESY BETWEEN MALLOPHAGA AND HIPPBOSCIDAE
SS — oooos
Year| Author No. Mallophaga (Ischnocera) Attached to Hippoboscid Bird host Country
1857 | Aube 2 Species not named Abdomen Ornithomyia (avicularia ?) | Magpie [Pica p., pica (L.): | France
Corvidae]
1890 | Sharp several | Species not named -- Ornithomyia aincularia L. _|Host not named (taken | England
on wing)
1910) Warnach 1 Philopterus sp. Abdomen Ornithomyia fringillina | Blackbird (Planesticus | Germany
Curtis m. merula L.:Turdidae)
1910 | Mjoberg 3 Philopterus sturni Abdominal hairs Ornithomyia fringillina | Sturnus v. vulgaris L.:| Germany
(Schrank)® Curtis Sturnidae
7 Philopterus slurni Abdominal hairs Ornithomyia fringillina| Sturnus v. vulgaris L.:|Germany
(Schrank)* | Curtis Sturnidae
1911 | Jacobson 1 Species not named Clasped between legs Ornithoeca pusilla Schin. Eucichla cyanura Bodd.:| Batavia,
Turdidae Java
1912 | Forsius 1 Degeeriella camerata (N.)*) Wing base Ornithomyia avicularia L. | Tetrao tetrix:Phasianidae | Finland
2 Degeeriella uncinosa (N.)* | Tibia and abdomen on 9) Carrion Crow (Corvus| Finland
cornix L. Corvidae)
1913 | Harrison 1 Degeeriella hectica (N.)* | Abdominal hairs Ornithomyia sp. Regent Bird [Sericulus| N.S, Wales
chrysocephalus (Lew.):
Ptlonorhynchidae)
16 Degeeriella sp. Dorsal abdominal hairs | Ornithomyia sp. Grey Magpie [Strepera| N.S Wales
versicolor (Lath.)
Cracticidae]
1915 | Adie 1 Species not named Wing joint Pseudolynchia canariensis; Columba livia Gmelin: | India
(Macq.) Columbidae
1920 | Banks 2 Degeeriella sp. Abdominal tip Ornithomyia fringillina| Canada Jay [Ferisoreus| England
Curtis canadensis (L.) :

tal McAtee

1922 | Johnson

1927

1934

1935

Ewing
Warburton
Spencer
Thompson

Martin

Thompson

Peters

| 1

1
2

Degeeriella rotundata
(Osb.)

Species not named

Degeeriella inter posita
(Kell.)*

Degeeriella tntlerposita
(Kell )*

Degeeriella marginalis(N.)
Degeeriella deticiens (P.)*

Degeeriella marginalis(N)*

” ”

Columbicola columbae (L.)*

” ”

Philoplerus sturni
(Schrank)*

Philopterus sturni
(Schrank)*

Degeeriella marginalis(N.)

Philoplerus sp.

Degeeriella marginalis (N )*

Abdominal tergites

Abdomen

Postero-lateral
abdomen

” ”

Abdominal hairs

Abdominal sternite

Posterior abdomen
” ”

Carrying between legs

” ” ”

Posterior abdomen

Publication not ayailable to me in original

Cor-
vidae] i

Cy nishovivea fringillina \ Host not hamed | Canada
Curtis
Ornithomyia fringillina| Western Crow (Corvus | U.S.A.
Curtis brachyrhyncos hesperis: |
Corvidae)
Ornithomyia avicularia L. | Jay (Perisoreus barbouri ; | Canada
Corvidae)
Ornithomyia fringillina | Cat Bird (Dumetella caro- | Ohio
Curtis linensis : Mimidae) (U.S.A.)
|Ornithomyia fringillina| Melospiza _m. melodia: | Ohio
Curtis Fringillidae (U.S.A.)
Ornithomyia fringillina| Window (? Planesticus | Cambridge
Curtis merula L. : Turdidae)
Ornithomyia avicularia L. | Steller Jay (Cyanocitta s.| South
stelleri; Corvidae America
” ” Song Thrush (7urdus e.| England
ericetorum T ..: Turdidae)
” ” Window Surrey
(England)
Pseudolynchia canariensis| Columba livia Gmelin:| U.S.A.
(Macq.) Columbidae
Pseudolynchia canariensis| Columba livia Gmelin:} U.S.A.
(Macq.) Columbidae
Ornithomyia fringillina| Starling (Sturnus _ v.| England
Curtis vulgaris L.; Sturnidae)
Ornithomyia fringillina| Starling (Sturnus v.| England
Curtis vulgaris L.; Sturnidae)
Ornithomyia fringillina | Window England
Curtis
Lynchia sp. Pyromelana orix nigri-| Belgium
frons Bohm. ;Ploceidae) | Congo
Ornithomyia fringillina| Arceuthornis pilarts (L.) | Sweden
Curtis _ Turdidae

C—O raSGc—

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

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loyyny

Ivaxz

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN MALLOPHAGA AND HIPPOBOSCIDAE 515

_ (Accipitres); peacocks, partridges (Gallinae); herons, egrets
(Herodiones) ; etc. (Psyche 29, p. 81; Ent. Mon. Mag., 73, p. 47).
If the transport of the Mallophaga through this agency were a
common occurrence, there would have been cases of common
Mallophagan parasites on these widely separated birds. Actually
the Mallophagan parasites of these birds are quite distinct and
constitute well defined groups and in most cases have only one
true host. :

Hopkins (1939) said: ‘It may be stated definitely that in most
cases a given species of louse has only one true host, though it
may be found accidentally on unrelated hosts and more or less
normally or closely related species. As our knowledge increases
through more careful and detailed work on the systematics of the
Mallophaga, the number of instances in which a given species found
to occur normally on more than one species of host is being gradual-
ly reduced and especially it is found that for a given species of
louse to be common to two hosts, a much closer degree of relation-
ship between the hosts is required than was formerly thought to be
the case.’ In the absence of definite evidence to substantiate the
suggestion, therefore, the Hippoboscidae cannot be regarded as a
regular and orthodox means of transport but may serve the purpose
of an occasional, though important method of dispersal. The Malloc-
phaga when transported to a suitable host may establish itself, or
may die off when it reaches an unsuitable bird. This method of
transport may have been responsible for some cases of plurality of
hosts of some of the Mallophaga.

The Amblyceron Mallophaga are active, abound near the skin
of the host and are furnished with mandibles which work horizont-
ally, while the Ischnoceron Mallophaga are inactive, live among
feathers and are provided with mandibles which work vertically.
The members of the latter group when at rest maintain themselves
in position by holding on to the feathers by their mandibles. It is
probably on account of this habit that they cling to the flies and
are the only group of the Mallophaga recorded in ‘Lice-F ly’ asso-
ciation.

Conclusion.—F rom the above it appears that the transport of
Mallophaga by the ‘bird flies’ is purely accidental, and is not a
common feature.

Acknowledgments.—The author had the opportunity of examin-
ing the Hippoboscidae of the Imperial Agricultural Research Insti-
tute, New Delhi, through the kindness of Dr. Hem Singh Pruthi,
Imperial Entomologist and Director, and is greatly indebted to him.
His grateful thanks are also due to Mr. M. ‘Afzal Husain, Member,
Famine Inquiry Commission, for going through the manuscript and
for many valuable suggestions. The names of the birds were
checked by the Bombay Natural History Society and the help received
is gratefully acknowledged.

LITERATURE
Adie, H.—Ind. J. Med, Research, ii, p. 679 (1915).

Aubé,—Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr.. Ser. 3, tom v, p. clviii (1857).
Banks, N.—Psyche, xxvii, p. 20 (1920). .

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

LITERATURE (Cont.)

Ewing, H. E.—Ann. Ent. Soc., America, xx; p. 245 (1927).
Forsius, R.—Medd. Soc. Fauna Fl. Fenn., xxxviii, p. 58 (1912).
Harrison, L.—Pruc. Lin. Soc., N. S. Wales, xxxviii, p. 108 (1913).
Hopkins, G. H. E.—Entomologist, 1xii, p. 75 (1939).
Jacobson, E.—Tijdschr, Ent.. liv, p. 168 (1911).

Johnson, C. W.—Psyche, xxix, p. 81 (1922).

Martin, M.—Canad. Ent., Ixvi, p. 8 (1934).

McAtee, W. L.—Ent. News, xxxiii, p. 90 (1922).

Mjoberg, E.—Ark. Zool., vi (13), p. 10 (1910).

Peters, H. S.—Ann. Carnegie Mus., xxiv, p. 57 (1935).

Sharp, D.—Proc. Ent. Soc., London, p. 30 (1890).

Sharp, D.—Cambr. Nat. Hist., v (1), p. 350 (1895).

Spencer, G. J.—Canad. Ent., 1x, p. 257 (1928).

Thompson, G. B.—Nature, cxxxii, p. 605 (1933).

Thompson, G. B.—Ent. mon. Mag., xx, p. 134 (1934).
Thompson, G. B.—Ent. mon. Mag., 1xxi, p. 162 (1935).
Thompson, G. B.—Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., x (18), p. 309 (1936).
Thompson, G. B.—Ent. mon. Mag., xxiii, p. 47 (19378).
Thompson, G. B.—Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., x (20), p. 441 (1937).
Warnach, B.—Ent. Rdschr., xxvii, p. 121 (1910).

Warburton, C.—Parasitology, xx, p. 175 (1928).

SOME BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN COAST.

BY
Major J. C. Grapman (R. Signals).

The following list has been compiled from the collection and
observation of the butterflies of the Arakan coastal belt made by
the author during the third and final Arakan campaign from Novem-
ber 1944 to the end of June 1945. The list is by no means com-
plete, particularly as regards the butterflies of the wet season,
but a fairly comprehensive survey was made of the dry season
broods. The ‘Skippers’ were somewhat neglected and a good dozen
species were seen that were neither collected nor identified. The
areas in which the observations were made are listed below :—

The dense mixed jungle be-\
tween Cox’s Bazaar in the| Early November to mid-January

north to Ramkapellaung in i.e. from the end of the rains
the south; the hills and lito onward.
ral of the Teknaf Peninsula.
Bawli Bazaar, Maungdaw zi
Buthidaung; the foothills of } November and January.
the Mayu Range. |
Ramree Island and the islands) 21 January to 11 June, includ-
and mangrove Swamps to the ing the first two weeks of the
East. rains.
18 to 22 March. (A raid on the
Talneun Ares area during which, incidentally,
ria ; one of my officers earned a
posthumous V.C.)

All the specimens were taken at elevations between sea level and
400 ft. The vegetation of this coastal area is varied, but except for

SOME BUTVERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN COAST 517

the jungles south of Cox’s Bazaar and the hills of the Teknaf pen-
insular and the Mayu Range, it is nowhere very dense. Between
Ramree Island and the mainland there are several miles of mang-
rove swamps which did not appear to support many species of
butterflies.

The code numbers and classification of the butterflies in this
list are according to Evan’s Identification of Indian Butterflies,
second edition, the volume that gave me my introduction to Indian
Butterflies when I first arrived in this country two years ago. The
months during which each species occurred have been indicated
when the period covered by a brood was restricted. Where the
insect appeared throughout the period of observation no dates have
been given.

A map of the area may be found in Vol. 45, p. 605.

PAPILIONIDAE,

1. A 1-1¥ Troides helena cerberus, Fd.

Ramree, just before the rains. No specimens were taken so the identificat-
ion is not positive.

2. A 2-9 Tros hector, L.

Locally common in E. Bengal as far south as Teknaf which is its southern
limit.
3. A 2-10 ¥ Tros aristolochiae goniopeltis, Roth.

Not rare from Teknaf southwards. Specimens from further south have
more extensive white markings than those from Teknaf.

4. A 3-57. Chilasa clytia onpape, M.
5. v. dissimillima, Evans.

Not rare, May and June.

6. A 4-2. Papilio memnon agenor, L.

Common. The Q v. alcanor was not seen.
7. A 4-25 ~. Papilio polytes romulus, Cr.

8. Qv. stichius, Hub.
9. Qv. cyrus, F.

gd common. The Q cyrus and stichius forms were not rare. The typical
Q absent in S. Arakan where P. hector does not fly. Stichius mimics the
local form of T. aristolochiae to the extent of having very extensive white
markings on the hind wing.

10. A 4-27. Papilio demoleus demoleus, L.
ll. A 4-27. £ Papilio demoleus malayanus, Wall.

The nominotypical race flies as far south as the Mayu Range. Specimens
of demoleus from Ramree southwards appear to belong to the race malayanus.
12. A 5-4 B. Pathysa nomius swinhoei, M.

13. A 5-6. Pathysa antiphates pompilius, F.

Found round tree-tops of most hills at the beginning of the rains.
14. A6-3. Zetides doson axion, Fd.

Ramree, June, not rare.

15. A6-8 8. Zetides agammemnon agammemnon, L.

Widely distributed, but not common. I found one newly emerged 9 drying
her wings on the barrel of a recently fired three inch mortar !

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. -46

PIERIDAE.

16. B1-~. Leptosia nina nina, F
Common, found fluttering aimlessly in the undergrowth throughout the day-
17. B4-10 8. Pieris canidia indica, Evans.

Uncommon. ~

18. B6-4 £6. Delias hyparete hierte, Hub.

Common, particularly from November to January.

19. B 6-11. Delias descombesi leucacantha, Fruh.

G very common, Q@ rare, although I have bred descombesi since in Java
and found the females to be, if anything, in the majority.

Both these species of Delias were commonly seen flying over mangrove
swamps.
20. B9-27. Cepora nerissa dapha, M

21. B9-3y. Cepora nadina nadina, Luc.
Nerissa common, nadina not rare. DSF Jan and Feb; WSF June.
22. B10-5 7. Appias lyncida hippoides, M.
23. B10-6 8. Appias albina darada, Fd.
24. B10-7 7. Appias paulina adamsoni, M.
The DSF of lyncida was common in January and February. Albina and
paulina occurred earlier, from November onwards, but were never very com-

mon. The WSF Appias had not appeared in Arakan by Juhe 11th, but I
saw them in Rangoon later on in the month.

25. B1l-l. Catopsilia crocale, Cr.

Very common, but was not seen at all in the dry weather. A mass em-
ergence took place in Ramree Island on April rst.

26. B11-2. Catopsilia pomona, F.
Mh 2586 catilla, Cr.

Belo 2K bidotata, Fruh.

Appeared only in the dry season. Bidotata is a distinct form, differing
from catilla in having two quadrate, purple, sub-costal patches unh instead of
the extensive purple blotches covering a large part of the wing.

In this area pomona may quite possibly be the DSF of crocale.

29. B11-4. Catopsilia pyranthe minna, Herbst.
30. B 11-5. Catopsitia florella gnoma, F.

Both very common in the coastal scrub. Florella most in evidence from
November to January.

31. B15-4 <. Furema blanda silhetana, Wall.
32. B15-5y. Eurema hecabe hecabe, L.

33. B15-6. Eurema lacteola sarinoides, Fr. (Eurema simulatrix sarinoides,
Fruh.)

E. libythea and E. laeta were not recorded. Blanda was common, but only
locally. I have taken several dwarf hecabe from various localities from Cal-
cutta to Rangoon. Expanse 30 to 32.mm. There appears to be nothing inter-
mediate between these and the normal butterfly which has a span of at least
40 mm. One aberration of hecabe was found, having a dark streak from end
cell under. the scv unh, the streak being about 3 mm. long.

I took one Q of E, simulatrix sarinoides, Fruh., in Ramree. It was sent
to Brigadier Evans who has confirmed the identification. There is no female
in the British Museum and this specimen has therefore ingen sent to LS Lagaueltee
Evans for inclusion in the B.N. collection.

34, B17-2%. Ixias pyrene latifasciata, But.

Locally common.

SOME BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN COAST 519

35. B19-Y. Hebomoia glaucippe glaucippe, L.
DSF common down to sea-level in January and February, but fewer occurred
from March to June. The WSF appeared in Rangoon at the end of June.

36. B 20-3. Pareronia valeria hippia, F.
Common. Generally smaller than indicated by Evans; 62 to 75 mm,

DANAIDAE.
37. C2-2. Danais agleoides, Fd.

A single male taken in Ramree, March.
38. C 2-9. Danais limniace mutina, Fruh.
39. C2-11 %. Danais gautama gautama, M.
40. C 2-12. Danais plexippus, L.
4). C 2-13 ~. Danais metanippus indicus, Fruh.
42. C 2-15. Danais chrysippus, L.

All fairly common except gautama of which I have only one male taken
at Teknaf in December.

43, C3-1 B. Euploea mulciber mulciber, Cr.
Common.

44, C 3-2 . Euploea alcathoe doubledayi, Fd.
One pair from Ramree Island in June.

45. C3-7 $. Euploea core layardi, Druce.
Not rare.

46. C 3-8. Euploea godarti, Lucas.

47, v. plain apex upf.

The commonest Euploea in the area. The variety with a plain apex upf
was also common, but only males were seen.

48. C 3-10. Euploea deione deione, Wd.
49. C 3-15 8. Euploea diocletiana diocletiana, F.

50. C 3-17 B. Euploea klugii klugii, M.

ol. C 3-18 7. Euploea crassa crassa, But.

Diocletiana and klugii not rare but local, particularly the former. I found
no female diocletiana at all. I have one male deione from Teknaf, December.
Although all species occur on the mainland and in the mangrove country, the
numbers and variety on the islands are much restricted.

SATYRIDAE.

52. D2-9 B. Mycalesis perseus blasius, F.
53. D2-10 B. Mycalesis mineus mineus, L.

54. D 2-12 8. Mycalesis visala neovisala, Fruh.

Perseus and mineus were both locally common. The DSF appeared in
November and the WSF at the beginning of June. A single male visala,
WSF, was taken on Ramree Island in June.

Two very tattered WSF males of mineus, obvious survivors from the pre-
vious year’s brood, were taken on 8th March when they would be at least five
months old.

55. D 3-227. Lethe rohria rohria, F.
I found this insect only on the bamboo-covered eastern slopes of Kalein
Taung, a small hilly island to the east of Ramree.

56. D 14-11 8. Ypthima hubneri hubneri, Kirby.

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

57. D14-15y. Ypthima baldus baldus, F.

Both common, the seasonal forms appeared with those of Mycalesis.
58. D 16-8. Orsotrioena medus medus, F.

Not common. WSF from June.
59. D 22-1. Melanitis leda ismene, Cr.

There appeared to be considerable overlap of the seasonal forms. Fresh
DSF insects were appearing in June when the WSF was already to be
seen in abundance.

60. D 25-1. Elymnias hypermnestra undularis, Drury.
Male common, female rarely seen.

NYMPHALIDAE.

61. E 10-18. Discophora tullia zal, Wd.

In thick jungle, especially where there is bamboo. I have observed these
butterflies from a distance of a few inches, but never managed to catch one.
62. F 1-2. Charaxes polyxena hierax, Fd.

63. F2-2 7. Eriboea athamas athamas, Dr.
Not rare in the dry season, polyxena the rarer of the two.
64. F 18-37. Euthalia lepidea sthayara, Fruh.
65. F 18-7 ~. Euthalia jahiu jahou, M.
68. F 18-14 7. Euthalia garuda garuda, M.
Euthalia were never very common, except for garuda, which was common

in Ramree Island, February. Jahnw was found only in the jungles near Cox’s
Bazaar.

67. F 19-3. Adolias dirtea jadeitina, Fruh.

I found two males on a jungly path near a hill top on Ramree in June.
They were both very old specimens, just enough left of them for me to effect
an identification.

68. F 20-y. Parthenos sylvia gambrisius, F.
Locally common. The brood was new in November, and no new specimens

appeared after January. In one nullah near Teknaf it frequently came to the
water to drink from the mud and bask on the stones.

69. F21-y. Lebadea martha attenuata, M.
Not rare. Very little different from the description given by Evans for
L. martha ismene, Db & Hew.

70. EF 24-7 y. Limenitis procris procris, Cr.

Not rare in evergreen country.

71. F 25-2 <. Pamntoporia nefte inara, Db.
72. KF 25-3. Pantoporia cama, M.

Neither very common and extremely local.
73, 26-1 6. Neptis columella ophiana, M.
“4, F 26-2 8. Neptis jumbah jumbah, M.

Both common.

75. F 26-6 B. Neptis hylas astola, M.
76. F 26-67. Neptis hylas adara, M.

Both races occur on Ramree island, although the general one is adara
which also occurs down the coast. The contrast between the golden ochreous
underside of adara and the ferruginoud brown of astola.is very noticeable. :°

SOME BUTTERFLIES OF THE ARAKAN COAST 521

77. F 26-7 B. Neptis soma soma, M.
78. EF 26-8 6B. Neptis nandina susruta, M.
Both found at Teknaf in December. Both rather rare, particularly soma.
79. F 26-32 B. Neptis hordonia hordonia, Stoll.
Common.
80. F 30-1. Hypolimnas missipus, L.
8]. F 30-2. Hypolimnas boiina, L.

Neither very common except for the female of bolina which was much in
evidence just before the rains. The male bolina rarely seen.

82. F 31. Yoma sabina yasuki, Doh.
Not rare. Fond of rocky nullahs and generally seen near water or in
bamboo jungle.

83. F 33-y. Doleschallia bisaltide indica, M.
Quite a common butterfly, but very difficult to catch owing to its habit of
flying off into the thickets as secon as disturbed.

84. F35-1 6. Precis hierta magna, Evans.
85. F 35-37. Precis lemonias lemonias, L.
86. F 35-4 ~. Precis almana almana, L.
87. F 35-5. Precis atlites, L.

88. F 35-6 y. Precis iphita iphita, Cr.

. a . . . . . .
All widely distributed. In addition to almana and iphita, the others also
show marked seasonal variation. The WSF appears in June. I have not
seen P. orithya anywhere between Calcutta and Rangoon.

89. F 41-y. Cupha erymanthis lotis, Sulz.
90. F 42-1. Atella phalanta, Drury.

91. F 43-8. Issoria sinha sinha, Koll.
All are found together, especially on Lantana. Sinha is rather less com-
mon than the others.

92. F 45-1. Cirrochroa fasciata, Fd.
93. F45~-3 ~. Cirrochroa tyche mithila, M.
Fairly common inhabitants of shady jungle paths and nullahs.
94, F 47-3. Cethosia cyane, Drury.
Not rare, but I did not see any after mid-December.
95. F49-1Y. Ergolis ariadne pallidior, Fruh.
96. F 49-2 §. Ergolis merione assama. Evans.
Both locaily common throughout the year.

ERYCINIDAE.

97. G2. Zemeros flegyas indicus, Fruh.

98. G4-5y. Abisara echerius angulata, M.
Always to be found flitting around jungle paths and clearings.

LYCAENIDAE.

99. H 5-3. Gerydus boisduvali assamensis, Doh.
100. H 8-. Spalgis epius epius, Wd.

Not rare. Sr
101. H11-1 {. Castalius rosimon rosimon, F.
102. H 11-2. Castalius caleta decidia, Hew. —

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

103. H11-3 J. Castalius ethion ethion, Do & Hew. :

Not rare. Mostly from November to January. Rosimon widely distributed.
but the others rather local.

|
104. H13. Syntarucus plinius, F. : |
105. H 23-0. Chilades laius laius, Cr. |
May and June, Common.
106. H 24-4. Zizeeria lysimon, Hub.
107. H 24-6 B. Zizeeria otis otis, F.
Common. The only two gizeeria seen.

108. H 25-1. Euchrysops cnejus, F.

109. H 25-3 8. Euchrysops pandava pandava, Hors.
110. H 26-1 J. Lycaenesthes emolus emolus, God.
111. H 27-1. Catachrysops strabo, F. ;
112. H27-2. Catachrysops lithargyria, M

113. H 28. Lampides boeticus, L. .

114. H 29-1 ~. Jamides. bochus bochus, Cr.

All common and widely distributed except lithargyria, which was _ rather
rare.

115. H 29-4. Jamides cleodus pura, M.
116. H 29-5 B. Jamides celeno celeno, Cr.

117. H 29-9 B. Jamides alecto eurysaces, Fruh.

‘The wet season broods cover most of the year. I have seen them as late
as December and they appeared on Ramree Island early in March. DSF
form December to April. Cleodus and alecto not rare, but only occur in the
jungles, unlike celeno.

118. H 32-3 ~{. Nacaduba hermus nabo, Fruh.
119. H 32-8 6. Nacaduba curava euplea, Fruh..
120. H32-15 4. Nacaduba nora nora, Fd.
All fairly common.
121. H 44-1. Curetis thetis, Drury.
Teknaf, November and December.
122. H 46-1 6. Horsfieldia anita arracana, GrS.
Not rare, November to January.
3123. H 49-28. Amblypodia khamti, Doh.
Cox’s Bazaar.
124. H49-32 £. Amblypodia agaba aurelia, Evans.

3125. H 49-32 B. Amblypodia agaba agaba, Hew.

These two races overlap in Ramree. Island. Aurelia flying to the north,
agaba to the south.

126. H 49-36 y. Amblypodia centaurus centaurus, F.
127. H 49-39 B. Amblypodia amantes amatrix, De N.

Centaurus was very common at all times along the coast. Amantes occurred
with it, but was never so common.

128. H 53-y. Loxura atymnus continentalis, Fruh,

Locally common. DSF November to February; WSF end of May on-
wards. Si ;

29. H 57-12. Spindasis syama peguanus, M.

SOME BUTTERFLIES: OF THE ARAKAN COAST 523

130. H 57-13 B. Spindasis lohita himalayanus, M.

A new brood of lohita appeared at the end of February. It lasted only four
or five days as a host of lizards immediately set to work to pick them off
the Mimost bushes on which they were wont to sit. Their lobes and _ tails
had afforded a certain measure of protection, judging by the number of insects
I saw with these parts neatly removed with a lizard’s bite. S$. lohita seemed
to be preferred to Lycaenesthes emolus which commonly fed off the same bushes.
S. syama not rare.

131. H 60-8. Tajuria melastigma, De N.
A single male taken at Kyaukpyu, February.

132. H70-y. Cheritra freja freja, F.
Rare. I have one specimen from Cox’s Bazaar in January- and one from
Ramree in March.

133. H 80-3 ~. Hypolycaena erylus himavantus, Fruh.
134. H 83-1 ~. Deudoryx epijarbas amatius, Fruh.
135. H 85-15 ~. Rapala pheritimus petosiris, Hew
136. H 85-14. Rapala dieneces dieneces, Hew.

137. EI 85-17. Rapala jarbas, F.
I have taken all these butterflies from the same clump of bushes at Kyaukpyu
in Ramree Island. None of them are very common anywhere along the coast.

138. H 87-8. Bindahara phocides phocides, F.

Two males on Ramree Island, in a jungle clearing, early June.

HESPERIIDAE.

139. I 1-7 8. Hasora badra badra, M.
140. I1-15 B. Fasora taminatus bhavara, Fruh.
141. I 1-16. Hasora alexis alexis, F.

Occur together in the scrub near the sea shore.
142, I 2-2. Ismene mahintha, M.

143. 15. Badamia exclamationis, Fab.
Not rare.

144. I 14-368. Tagiades obscurus meetana, M.
145. 114-5. Tagiades atticus khasiana, M.

Common in palm groves and under the banks of muddy pools.

146. I 21-3 J. Sarangesa dasahara dasahara, M.

Ramree Island. Locally common.

147. I 25-1. Odontoptilum angulata sura, Fd.

Teknaf, uncommon.
148. I 42-1. Ampittia dioscorides, F.

149. I 43-9. Aeromachus pygmaeus, F.
150. I 46-2 8. lambrix salsala salsala. M.
151. I 51-%. Sancus pulligo subfasciatus, M
152. I 57-2. Udaspes folus, Cr.

_ All common except pygmaeus which was not often seen.
153, 159-1. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis, F.
Not rare. Generally flies very early in the morning or at dusk.
154, I 64-1. Matapa aria, M. | yal Doro!
155.. 177-1. Unkana attina, Hew.

Not rare. Evans gives ‘Bassein’ as the farthest north that atiina flies,

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

156. I91-1 4. Astycus augias augias, L.

157. I 91-2 B. Astycus pythias bambusae, M.
Both common.

158. I 97-24 8. Baoris conjuncta javana, Mab.

159. I 97-33 B. Baoris zelleri cinnara, Wallace.

There were several other Baoris that I did not catch or identify. Conjuncta
was not rare, zelleri common,

ANALYSIS

Number of species and forms, excluding seasonal forms, found to occur
in the area :— ;

Papilionidae. 15
Pieridae. 21
Danaidae, 15
Satyridae. 9
Amathusiidae. I
Nymphalidae. 35
Erycinidae. 2
Lycaenidae. 40
Hesperiidae. 21

Total 159

A NEW PEST OF SUGARCANE IN INDIA—ICERYA PILOSA
NARDI GREEN (COCCIDAE).

(With two plates.)

BY
T. V. VENKATRAMAN, M.SC.

(Department of Entomology, Indian Lac Research Institute,
Namkum, Ranchi.)

INTRODUCTION.

While engaged in the study of the pests of sugarcane under
the Imperial Council Scheme for Research on Insect Pests of
Sugarcane, the writer came across a large mealy-bug doing consid-
erable damage to very young sugarcane seedlings at Coimbatore,
South India. Specimens were identified as Icerya pilosa nardi
Green. The species was originally described by Green (1922) as
Icerya seychellarum var. nardi from ‘a single specimen found en
mana grass (Andropogon nardus) on uncultivated land at Diyata-
lawa, Ceylon’, and later on regarded it as Icerya pilosa var. nardi
(1937). This is the first record of the species from the mainland —
of India and mentioned by Isaac (1937) as noticed for the first
time on sugarcane in India. Since then a number of coccids in-
cluding. the above one, attacking sugarcane in eeleh are listed
by Pruthi and Rao (1942).

ourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLatE I.

T..U. cbel,

Icerya pilosa nardi Green.
(For explanation see end of article.)

Puate II.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Green.

Icerya pilosa nardi

see end of article.)

1w10n

.
«

(For explan

A NEW PEST OF SUGARCANE 525

NATURE OF DAMAGE, Foop PLANTS, AND DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA.

The pest was first noticed on young sugarcane seedlings in all
stages of development, mostly on the under surface of leaves. ‘Lue
nature of the injury caused is the extraction of the sap and the
consequent weakening of the plant. In the case of very young
seedlings, the leaves turn yellowish and the plants invariably ie.

The choice of the food plant by this insect appears to be itmited
within the family Graminae. In addition to sugarcane it is found
attacking Saccharum spontaneum in Coimbatore and S. ravennae
Einn.,, in New Delhi. ~

This mealy-bug is recorded from Delhi, Karnal, Meerut and
Coimbatore.

MORPHOLOGICAL NOTES

THE FEMALE

First-stage nymph (Pl. I, figs. 10-12).

It is more or less oval and brick red in colour. The dorsum has a thin
coating of waxy secretion. The limbs and antennae are well developed and
greyish in colour. The antenna is six-segmented, the terminal being the
longest. There are two kinds of ceriferous pores on the dorsum; six bilocular
pores along the median line and numerous small multilocular pores distributed
all over the dorsum. There are six long setae with well developed collars in
the anal region. The first pair of spiracles alone are present at this stage.
Length 0-6 mm. to 0°77 mm.

Second-stage nymph (Pl. I, figs. 13-15).

The antennae are stouter, the first, second and third segments are thick and
the rest are basally constricted. The terminal segment shows a_ distinct
division making it seven-segmented. The bilocular pores found in the first
stage loose the central partition and become unilocular, highly chitinised, and
each pore bears a seta. The multilocular pores increase in number. Length
1°8 mm. to 2°0 mm. a

Third-stage nymph (Pl. I, figs. 16 and 17).

This stage resembles the adult female in all respects except in size. The
antenna is distinctly seven-segmented and all the segments are provided with
long hairs. Both the pair of spiracles are present, the anterior being irregular
in shape. The tibia is slightly arched. The tarsal claw is long and provided
with two denticles on the inner surface. The anal ring is heavily chitinised.
Length 2:7 mm. to 2°9 mm.

Adult female (Pl. I, figs. 1-9 & Pl. II, fig. 1).

The adult female, just before gestation is quite red in colour. The dorsum
is highly convex with a dense coating of white meal. Long waxy filaments
are present all over the dorsum, which are more numerous towards the
posterior end. The posterior extremity carries a brush of stout mealy pro-
cesses. The limbs and antennae are dark red in colour. Length 4-9 mm. to
9°9 mm; breadth 2-4 mm. to 3:8 mm.

The species resembles I. pilosa Gr., in all morphological characters except
in its larger size and in the possession of distinctly serrate claws. Green (1937)
thinks that ‘it may eventually prove to be a distinct species’.

THe MALE

The first and second instars are similar to those of the female.

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Third-stage nymph.

Sex differentiation takes place soon after the second moult. The male
nymphs at this stage are distinguished from those of females by the longer
abdomen,

Fourth-stage nymph.

At this stage the male is very much elongated and the head is clearly
marked out from the rest of the body. The wing pads also have made their
appearance. The anal end of the abdomen is prominently bilobed and fleshy.
The body is practically devoid of any mealy secretion. Length 3:1 mm. to
3°4 mm.

Pupa (Pl. I, fig. 19).

The pupa is distinguished by the presence of prominent wing pads and
well developed anal appendages. The antennae are also very much elongated.
Length 3-0 mm. to 3:2 mm.

Male cocoon (PI. I, fig. 20).

The cocoon is elongated and loosely constructed of waxy filaments. It is
partially open at the posterior end. Length 8:0 mm. to 9 mm.

Adult male (PI. I, fig. 18)

The male is reddish in colour with a thin coating of white meal: eyes
dark red in colour and very prominent. ‘The antenna is ten-jointed and with
bi-nodose joints. The abdomen is provided with a pair of fleshy appendages,
each carrying 6 to 7 long setae. Length 2:7 mm. to 3:7 mm.

MATING, EGG-SAC FORMATION AND OVIPOSITION.

Males are very much fewer in number than the females. The male, soon
after emergence, wanders about for some time before it selects a female for
copulation. The whole process of copulation lasts from 4 to 6 minutes. A
single male was observed ta copulate with more than one female during the
course of one hour. ,

Although copulation was observed in a few cases parthenogenesis appears
to be the usual mode of reproduction as in other Iceryine coccids... Hughes-
Schrader (1930) has studied in detail the life-history of some Iceryine coccids
and has concluded that parthenogenesis is characteristic for the genus as a
whole, She thinks that ‘copulation may occur between the hermaphrodites and
the occasional males but it is no wise for reproduction.’

The adult female, before gestation, anchors itself near the base of the
leaf and from the pores of the ventral band the waxy threads begin to issue
to form the ovisac. The ovisac.so formed remains partially covered under the
posterior waxy -processes of the female. Oviposition commences as soon as_ the
lower layer of the ovisac is formed, the female continuing to lay eggs for
about three weeks. In the laboratory a total of 49 eggs were laid by the
largest female, a smaller one laying 32 eggs.

LIFE-HISTORY.

The first young hatched in about a week after the formation of the lower
layer of the ovisac. The average duration of the egg stage was found to be
9 days. The newly-hatched nymph remains inside the ovisac for some time
before it comes out. The earliest. first moult occurred 17 days after the
first egg had hatched. The average duration of this instar was found to
be 19 days. In moulting, a small cleft appears at the anterior’ end of the
nymph and it slowly makes its way out, dragging the body, the whole process
lasting from 4 to 5 hours. The earliest second moult occurred 16 days after
the first moult; the average duration of the second instar was -21 days.

Sex differentiation takes place in the third instar. The average. duration
of the third instar of the female was found to be 18 days. The total average

A NEW PEST OF SUGARCANE 527

duration of the life-cycle of the female was 1oz days. The third-instar larva
of the male crawls about for some time and finally goes under the leaf-sheath
to spin the cocoon. In this coccon the third and the final moult, before it
enters the pupal stage, are undergone. The average duration: of the third
instar of the male was found to be 16 days and that of the fourth instar
8 days. The male lived for 2 to 4 days. The average duration of the life-
cycle of the male was 84 days.

TABLE.

Summary of the Life-history of Icerya pilota narvdt Green.

Neen ee
Number of

individuals involved

Average length in days

Natural Enemies (P1. II, fig. 2).

The grubs of the lady-bird beetle, Novius guerini Crotch were found feeding on
all stages of Icerya and checking the spread of the pest to some extent. The
grubs rupture the dorsum of the nymphs with their large mandibles and. feed
on the body contents. In the case of older nymphs as many as 3 to 4 grubs
were found to attack a single specimen. The beetle grubs resemble the fiewly
moulted nymphs of the mealy-bug and are easily mistaken for the nymphs.
They are heavily parasitised by the encyrtid, Homalotylus flaminius (Dalm.),
and thus reduce their value as economic factors in controlling the pest. . Two
species of ants are found to visit these mealy-bugs for the sake of their sugary
excretion and these ants were sometimes observed to attack the beetle grubs
that attack the coccids.

SUMMARY.

1. The habits and life-history of Icerya pilosa nardi Gr., a new coccid pest
of sugarcane in India are described. This is the first record of the species
from the mainland of India.

2. The female moulted twice before reaching maturity. The average time
required for the differént stages of the female were: egg stage 9 days, first-
instar 19 days, second-instar 21 days, third-instar, before gestation 18 days,
and post-gestation period 35 days. Total life-history 102 days. For males,

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the incubation period, the first, and second instars were almost the same as
in females. Third instar males, however, secreted a cocoon of loose wax in
which the third and fourth instars and the pupal stage are passed. The
total period inside the cocoon occupied, on an average, 31 days. The adult
male had a maximum life of 4 days after emergence.

3. The grubs of a lady-bird beetle, Novius guerini Crot., were found
feeding on all stages of Icerya pilosa nardi and checking the spread of the
insect to a certain extent. The encyrtid, Homalotylus flaminius (Dalm.) was
found parasitising the grubs of N. guerini in certain seasons, and thus re-
ducing the value of the predators as economic factors in controlling the pest.

Thanks are due to Mr. P. V. Isaac, Second Imperial Entomologist, Agri-
cultural Research Institute, New Delhi and to Mr. P. S. Negi, Entomologist,
Indian Lac Research Institute, for kindly going through the manuscript and
offering many helpful suggestions.

REFERENCES.
1. Green, E. E.—Ind. Mus. Notes (7), 7 (1896).
2. Green, E. E.—Coccidae of Ceylon (5), 441 (1922).
3. Green, E. E.—Spolia Zeylanica, (3), 281 (1937).
4. Hughes-Schnader, S. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. (23), 363 (1930).
5. Isaac, P. V.—Sci. Rept. Imp. Agri. Res. Institute, New Delhi, 177 (1937).
6. Pruthi, H. S. and Rao V. P.—Indian J. Ent. (1), 88 (1942).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PuateE I.

Figure 1. Adult female, anterior end showing antenna, eyes & pore. X32.
Adult female, mid-leg. X32.

Adult female, claw. X450

Anterior spiracle adult, female. (Enlarged).

Posterior spiracle, adult female. (Enlarged).

Large pore (first type), adult female. (Highly magnified).

Small pore (second type), one in profile, adult female. (Highly
enlarged).

Third type of pore, adult female, one in profile. (Highly enlarged).
Long seta, adult female. (Highly magnified).

First-stage larva. X4o.

», 11. Ceriferous pores, first-stage larva. (Highly magnified).

,, 12. Anal seta, first-stage larva. (Highly magnified).

5, 13. Ceriferous pores, second-stage larva. (Magnified).

», 14. Second stage nymph, left antenna. xX 160.

55 I5. Second stage nymph, dorsal view. X20.

,, 16. Third stage nymph, left antenna. xX 160.

,, 17. Third stage nymph, mid-leg. x 4o.

>, 18 Male, antennal joint. x 160.

», 19. Male pupa. .x15.

sy 2000) Male s€ocoon ss <5:

~
-
ol

SOM WAMEY b

Pirate II, (Photographs)

Photo 1. Insects on leaves, in situa. (Nat. size).

2. Novius grubs feeding on Icerya nymphs. (Nat. size).
Lettering.—f. Adult female with egg-sac.
c.g. Coccinellid grub feeding on nymphs.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate 1

‘ig. 1. Game Warden, Punjab and Survey Staff,

| penamanmmmeseieiaea

§
NS Aes
XS <

eee ee |

N\ “
SEES

‘ . \
NS \
SION SOS. SS AS

Fig. 2.. Survey Boat on River Indus,

A FISHERY SURVEY OF RIVER INDUS

Dr. Hamip KHAN, M.SC., LL.B. (Punjab), PH.D., (Cantab), F.N.I.,
Polo RKO

Warden of Fisheries, Punjab.
(With 3 plates.)

To develop the fisheries intelligently and scientifically, survey
of rivers in relation to the fisheries ig a necessity. The main
object of the survey is to acquire a reasonavle knowledge of the
~ conditions of fundamental importance in conserving the fisheries
resources and the conditions affecting the marketing of fish.

River Indus is an uncontrolable river: in winter it dwindles
to a size of an ordinary stream, but in summer as snow melts in
the hills and monsoon rains commence, it becomes a vast stretch
of water, expanding miles and mileg in width, navigable by
steamer at Dera Ismail Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan. At present
it is navigable throughout its length in the Punjab in winter, whether
it will remain so in the years to come is difficult to say, as the Head-
works of Thal Project have been completed and the river will
partly be diverted into the canal early next winter. The river
changes its bed practically every year. Not a single map out of
the four that we had with us represented the present state of the
river. A year ago the river was miles away from Isa Khel, now
it flows under its skirts. Similarly at Dera Din Panah the river
has diverted its course entirely to the west.

The survey was undertaken jointly with the staff of Board of
Economic Enquiry, Punjab, (Fig. 1) comprising of an Investigator
and two Fisheries Recorders and the journey down the river was
commenced on the 28th February, 1944, in a country boat
(Fig. 2) in which a field Laboratory was fitted up, (Fig. 4). A
stretch of about 250 miles from Kalabagh up to Guzar Qureshi
(i.e. boat bridge on road to Dera Ghazi Khan) was surveyed in
14 days without any untoward incident. Weather was fair and
river was in partial flood due to recent rains. Village officials on
the way were quite helpful and gathered in number to listen to
our fishery development programme when a halt was made
(Fig. 3).

Game on the river was in fair abundance. Ducks were rather
fewer as they were on their return journey to their summer abodes.
The species of duck seen were Mallard, Tufted Pochard and Com-
mon Teal. Bar-headed geese were seen in good number and so
were various waders.

FISHERIES OF RIVER INDUS

Fishery Revenue.—The portion of river Indus surveyed lies
within the jurisdiction of three districts, namely, Mianwali,

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Muzaffargarh and Dera Ghazi Khan. ‘The fisheries of these dis-
tricts are leased out annually to the highest bidder from Septem-
ber to August. The receipts for the year 1943-44 were as under: —

District Tahsil Amount Total
S. Rs.
Mianwali .. Mianwali 2,900
Isa Khel 1,500 7,100
Bhakkar 3,100
Muzaffargarh .. Muzaffargarh (Indus) 1,100
Leiah (Indus) si | 3,500
Kot Adu 1,900
Dera Ghazi Khan ... Dera Ghazi Khan 600 )
Jampur 150 |
Rajanpur 1,255 i BS
Sanghar | 100 J
Grand total 12,705

Fishermen.—The contractors engage local fishermen to catch
the fish. From 400 to 500 fishermen are usually engaged by the
contractors for fishing in the tract surveyed. These fishermen
(Fig. 6) are mainly low caste menials such as Muselies (sweepers)
Jullahas (weavers) or Mohanas (Mallahs) and the Mochies
(cobblers). Occasionally Zamindars, Qureshies or Pathans take up
the profession as an exception. In off season the fishermen do
sowing and harvesting. The fishermen are not paid daily wages
but get two-third of the share of the fish caught from the contrac-
tor and the latter gets 1/3 share only. Fishermen sell their share
to the contractor usually at the rate of Rs.14 to Rs. 20 per
maund.

Fishine areas.—The fishing is mainly done in side streams,
nallas, dhands or in creeks, of the river. Fishermen allege that
during winter most of the fish are to be found in the creeks and
side streams for the reasons that (i) temperature of the river water
in winter is cold while that of the creeks is warm and water there
is shallow, and that (ii) the creeks and dhands are full of food and
afford good feeding ground to the fish. There ig some truth in it.
Record of temperature shows that the water in dhands is decided-
ly warmer than that of the river and it was observed that dhands
had plenty of aquatic weeds such as Chara and Vallisneria and
quite a number of crustacea.

These dhands appear to be the spawning grounds of fish as
numbers of fry were seen in them. ‘The fish spawn in July and
August when river is in flood and ascend side streams and creeks
to lay their spawn in shallow water. When the floods subside
some of the adult fish take up their abode in these creeks and
streams while others find their way to the main stream.

The creeks and dhands are not permanent fixture but change
every year with the vagaries of the flood and are usually known
by the name of the village or town near which they are formed.
Starting from Kalabagh, the names of dhands, creeks and _ off-
shoots of the main channel, upto Guzar Qureshi or Boat Bridge
on road to Ghazi Ghat, fished during the year 1943-44 together

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

REX SHOE QQ ASEGSIHI|G§IA_E'ikCKl NC NCES SE
2 * yy

‘Serer
Se WANE.
SSSR

ATE II

Journ.,

‘ig. 6,

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piate IIT.

Pips:

Fishing with Drag Net in a dhand of River Indus.

Fishermen of Bhakar on River Indus with a Catfish (Wallago attu).

A- FISHERY SURVEY OF RIVER INDUS g 531

with the approximate catches of fish taken out from them from
September, 1943, to February, 1944 are given in the table
below. The figures given have been collected by Fisheries Re-
corders from the contractors.

The fisheries of the main river, thus, have not so far been
exploited at all. The fishermen advance the following reasons for
their inability to fish in main channel :—

(i) The main channel is too swift and too deep for their home made nets;
(ii) They are too poor to have sufficient number of boats to fish in the main
channel;

(iii) The lease is annual and contractor is reluctant to invest any money
for the enterprise.

Method of fishing.—Fishing nets and other implements are
similar to those described by the Author in ‘Methods of Fishing’,
namely, Drag Nets, Casting Nets, Dip Nets or Kuri. The mesh
of the net is 14in. square or 6in. all round. The nets are the
property of fishermen and so are the boats which are required for
manipulating the nets. But the contractor often advances funds
for their purchase or manufacture. Netting operations were ob-
served in Langarwali dhand and also in Dhand Qureshi near
Bhakkar. A stake net or banda is fixed at the lower end of the
reach which is intended to be fished and drag nets are worked
from upstream down towards the stake net and are taken out
close to the stake net (Fig. 5). The catch in Dhand Qureshi
which had already been fished four times consisted of 7 mullee,
(Wallagonia attu) 1 singharee (Mystus aor) 1 mori (Cirrhina mrigala)
and 1 kalbans (Labeo calbasu), |

Species of fish and their distribution in the river.—Species ot
fish caught in Mianwali district in order of commercial importance
are Mullee (Wallagonia attu), Mori (Cirrhina mrigala) Singhari
(Mystus aor), Khaga (Rita rita) Rohu (Labeo rohita), Theila
(Catla caila) and Saul (Ophiocephalus marulius). In Muzaffargarh
and Dera Ghazi Khan districts, species of fish are practically the
same but Mori comes first, next Mullee, then Rohu, Theila, Pari,
Singhari and lastly Khagga. Saul is occasionally found. Jhalli
(Hutropiichthys vacha) is also sometimes caught. Mahsir | Barbus
tor) is not reported to have been caught below Kalabagh.
Mullee (Wallagonta attu) (Fig. 6), a carnivorous catfish, is found
in large numbers in the creeks and dhands probably due to the
presence of fry in these waters on which these fish feed. Carp

especially the big species, namely, Theila and Rohu are fewer in

dhands than the catfish as they prefer deeper waters and would
very likely be found in abundance in the main channel.

Food of fish.—Study of stomachs of Mullee (Wallagonia altu),
showed that the fish mainly consumed small sized fish. Stomachs
of Kalbans (Labeo calbasu) contained mud, algae and crustacea,

—— —
— ms

‘Method of fishing in the Punjab’, J.,B.N.H.S., xxxiv, 1930.

532

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

Productivity of the river Indus.—From the information collect-
ed by Fisheries Recorders from the contractors, approximate figures
of catches for 1943-44 were as under:—

District Tehsil Sept. Oct. Nov. | Dec. Janes esbeb:
Md Seer Md Seer Md Seer/Md Seer Md Seer Md Seer
Mianwali... | Isa Khal 29—27 |103—34 |282—32 |244—0 |178—0 | 80—0
Bhakkar 3—31 |109—39 |223—0 — 158—0O {110—0
D. G. Khan | Sanghar — — — 7—29 | 61—19 | 54—29
D. G. Khan
upto Guzar
Qureshi 0—35 | 1—30 | 80—5 | 28—30 |138—33 —
Muzaffar- |
garh_... | Kot Addu — — 18—29 |101—14 |141—17 |124—27
| Totals | 34—13 |215—23 |604—26 |381—33 677—29 |369—16

Grand total

These figures do not include the catches below Guzar Qureshi.

Marketing of fish.—Fishing leases are auctioned in August and
fishing commences from September. By the end of next March
the creeks and dhands are almost completely fished of all the
sizeable fish. The fry of fish escapes through the meshes of the
nets. From April onward fishing practically ceases as fishermen
have neither the capability to fish in the main channel nor facility
to market the fish in summer. Fish from fishing centres is taken
on camels to the nearest railway station and sent to the nearest
markets, namely Mianwali, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur,
Bannu, Razmak, Dera Ghazi Khan and occasionally to Jhelum.
Railway line runs along the river Indus on one side from Kalabagh
to Mahmud Kot and from there to Muzaffargarh and Multan and
on the other side upto Isa Khel and then to Bannu. The freight
charges are paid by the consignee, and the rate at which fish is
marketed varies from Rs. 30 to Rs. 45 per maund. It is estimated
that the contractors who paid Rs. 12,705 to Government for the
annual lease, sold the two thousand and odd maunds of the fish
taken out from dhands for not less than Rs. 75,000. Out of this
sum the 400 or 500 fishermen, who were paid a low price for their
share of catch got about Rs. 25,000 only i.e. Rs. 50 or Rs. 60 per
fisherman for the year, which is a poor return for all the labour
that he puts in.

Miscellanéous.—Record of air and water temperature was
maintained daily. Air. temperature ranged from 52°F. in the
morning to 84°F. in the afternoon and water temperature from
54°F. to 68°F. in the river and from 66°F. to 72°F. in the dhands.
Water in dhands was thus warmer than the river.

2. Gaseous contents.—Dissolved oxygen ranged from 4.5 cc.
p.1 to 6.05 cc.p.1 and free Co, from 5.808 to 8.595 ce.p.1 in the

2,288 maunds 20 seers.

A FISHERY SURVEY OF RIVER. INDUS 533

river and from 2.275 to 10.364 cc.p.1 in the dhands; fixed Co, from
29.324 to 30.841 cc.p.1 in the river and from 25.281 to 35.644 cc.p.1
in the dhands. The water was alkaline with pH value of 8.0.

3. Hnemies of Fish.—Besides the carnivorous fish such as
Mullee (Fig. 5) and Singhari, the river has large number of otters,
crocodiles and cormorants and fish-eaglegs which are deadly enemies
of fish. Study of stomachs of two cormorants showed that each
had 4 fish, varying in size from 4 inches to 6 inches. One fish-
eagle was seen on the bank of the river devouring a 4 pounder
Mullee (Wallagonia atiu).

4. Canals.—There is at present only one canal namely Chash-
mia canal, that is taken out from the river in the stretch surveyed
and flows towards Dera Ghazi Khan district. It does not cause
any obstruction to the free movement of fish as there is no weir.
The Thal Project, however, has a weir but the river ig not yet
diverted to it.

CONGLUSION.

Fisheries of the River Indus are not fully exploited. The few
maunds of fish which are taken out from the creeks and dhands
represent a minor part of the main fisheries. The fishermen are too
poor to adopt new methods of fishing. The contractor, as already
remarked, is reluctant to invest any money to improve the econdi-

tions of fishermen as he gets an annual lease only and may be
ousted by a higher bidder any year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT,

My thanks are due to the Chairman and Secretary, Board of
Economie Enquiry, Punjab, for affording me facilities for the gur-
vey. The staff of the Board assisted me throughout the survey
and supplied me with details of the figures collected by them from
the various sources. The Investigator, Mr. A. Latieff, B.Sc.,

helped me in keeping the records of temperature

and of gaseous con-
tents of water.

SUMMARY.

1. Survey of River Indus from Kalabagh to Guzer Qureshi covering a
stretch of about 250 miles was made by a country boat in 14 days.

2. The river is navigable throughout its length.

3. Fishing is done in side streams, creeks and dhands. The fisheries of the
main river remain unexploited as the fishermen are too poor to invest any
money in nets or boats suitable for river fishing,

4, The creeks and dhands are not permanent features and change every year
with vagaries of flood. The dhands appear to be spawning grounds of fésh.
Their water is shallow and warmer than that of the river. They contain aquatic
weeds and number of crustacea which serve as food to the fish.

5. Fishing is generally done by drag nets in conjunction with a stake net,
casting net and dip net. The mesh of the net is 1} inches square or 6 inches
alround through which fry of fish escape.

6. Species of fish found are Mullee (Wallagonia attu) Mori (Cirrhina mrigala),
Singhari (Mystus aor), Khaga (Rita rita), Rohu (Labeo rohita), Theila (Catla
catla). Occasionally Saul (Ophicephalus marulius). Thalli (Hutropiichthys

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

vacha) are also caught. Abundance of Mullee, a carnivorous fish, in creeks. is
probably due to presence of fry of fish in these waters on which the fish feed.

7. Figures collected from the contractors show that approximate catches
from the river dhands during 1943-44 were about 2,284 maunds. ‘The fish were
sent from the nearest railway station to Mianwall, Peshawar, Campbellpur,
Rawalpindi, Bannu, Razmak, Dera Ghazi Khan and Jhelum. At present the
lessees have no facilities to market the fish during: the summer. The fishing,
therefore, is restricted to winter.

8. Record of temperature and gaseous contents showed that air temperature
ranged from 52 IF. to 84°F. and water temperature from 54°F. to 68°F. in the
river and from 66°F. to 72°F. in the dhands. Dissolved oxygen varied from
4.5 ce.p.l to 6.05 ce.p.l and free Co, was 5.3808 to 8.595 cc.p.1 in the river and
2.275 cc.p.1 to 10.3864 cc.p.1 in the dhands and fixed Co, was 29.3824 to 30.841
cc.p.l in the river and 25.281 to 35.644 cc.p.l in the dhands. The water was
alkaline with pH value of 8.0.

9. Besides the carnivorous fish such as Muliee and Singhari the river has
a large number of otters, crocodiles and fish eagles which are the deadly enemies
of fish.

LIST OF DHANDS TOGETHER WITH APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF
FISH TAKEN OUT

Approxi-

|
Se ata Dhand, creek or offshoot of the mate catch
District HO TONG oe fish; Remarks
uring
1943-4
: -|Mds Seers
Mianwali ... | Mandakhel Hisk ol)
Kamar Mashani tp 30—0
Ganda Be 20—0
Adil Shah ae, 80—0
Langarwali ...| 20—0
Kundal onalt CANO —=0)
Kundian a; O=0
| Bhakhra ...| | 15—0
Alluwali an 10—0
Doaba aes 300
Kunderwali ate 20==0
| Piplan ...| 600—0
Saggowali ...| 60—0O
Mosiwali aa 45—0
Kallurkot ABE 85—0°
Nun Nasheb as US)
Bakhtawarwali aes 30—0
| Lyianwali 500 10-—0
Maibal A 10—0
Kalulwali Eke ec O==0
Shahalam Sah 10—0
Ahmed Shahwali aS —
Panj Girian ...| 1lO—O
| Kirari Nun re 20—0
Lakanwali ae 20—0
Abdullah Shahani a 80—0
Ke Laduwaii aie 10—0
Kotlajam 606 10—0
Qureshi 83 14—0
Dilkhushab ASS 10—0
'Chunchawali_—- sco] LOO
Carried over. ...|1,559—0

A FISHERY SURVEY OF RIVER INDUS 535

LISf OF DHANDS TOGETHER WITH APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF
FISH TAKEN OUT—(Cont.)

——— EEE

| Approxi- |
mate catch
District Dhand, sie Oe ce nee OW oaks Sean fish | Remarks
uring
| | 1943-4
Mds Seers
| Brought forward ...)/1,559—0
| Bhakkarwali | 15—0 |
Notak cost OED)
Behal cu 25—=(1)
Muzaffargarh_ ... | Khanpur oo 20—0
| Karor 3: 20—0
| Darotta cool! 1 I O—=)
Jhoke Hasanwali seal 5—0
Naiwali ve 2)
Phat lala 0 V4
Phat Shiemar a |
Badu Boe |
Kas Baroda :~ .
Kas Jharband | | Private
Phat Mirani | | waters
Khandar ia
Budhan 600 J
Langha e-| 15—37
Daera Din Panah soe} 80—7 |
Dera Ghazi Khan...) More Jhangi ..| 65—26
Ghali = ee 9—10
‘Taunsa ees 33—4 o>
'Lunwali es. =
Shahdanlund _ | —
Mochiwali ree a
| Kala oo) SIU 38}
Shah Sadar Din al eck
| Pir Adil Shah 5 41—30
| Laddan ans 60—20 |
Badani Bt 8—5 |
Drahma wae OE=5
| Motel. | 2,464—17

Note.—These figures do not tally with the monthly figures of catches
collected from contractors given in the text, because the fishermen do not keep a
regular record of their catches.

REVIEW

FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. iii, Ophidia 2nd
Edition. By Malcolm A. Smith, Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street,
London.

The first thing to strike one on comparing this book with its predecessor
(F.B.I. Reptilia & Batrachia—Boulenger 1890) is the illustrations—improved
both in quantity and quality. Mere numbers understate the case (166 against
58) because many of the new text-figures occupy a full page—some of them
two. It was, perhaps, a pity to have reproduced only one (on p. 77) of the
original nine drawings illustrating the general appearance of one com-
plete snake from each of the main. groups. All the new figures have been
most helpfully chosen; for example three of them are in half-tone from
photographs where that medium was obviously better suited to the subject.
In addition to showing shields and scales the new line-drawings indicate the
pattern in stippling and black—a great help because, however untrustworthy
a guide colour may be where snakes are concerned, the arrangement of the
colours, the pattern, is nearly always a sound one. I can only find one, very
trivial, criticism of the new figures—the severe profile on page 364 of the
old book is a more ‘speaking likeness’ of Psammodynastes pulverulentus than
that on page 369 of the new—but text-figures are diagrams rather than port-
raits and this particular snake happens to be an almost intimate acquaintance.
Apart from this Miss E. C. Humphrey’s work is above praise.

Amateur field-naturalists as a rule hate any innovation but I think the most
conservative among us will welcome the arrangement of genera in this book
as being far more natural than the old. Formerly one half of the ‘‘flying’’
snakes—Dendrophis and Dendrelaphis (now both Ahaetulla) were separated
from the other half—Chrysopelia—by no Isss than eleven unrelated genera,
merely because of some grooves on the last two or three maxillary teeth. These
same grooves were responsible, under the older system, for separating our
Bengal egg-eater (Elachistodon) from the African egg-eater which has the same
ingenious mechanism in its throat for puncturing eggs. It is interesting to
find that, had the older systematists examined the last two maxillary teeth of
the then Tropidonotus ceylonensis (Boulenger, p. -346) instead of assuming the
absence of grooves, they would have had to remove this snake far away from
all other Keelbacks and place it somewhere among the Opisthoglypha. It is
now in a genus of its own (Balanophis) but comes between Natrix and Pseudo-
xenodon—two good Keelback types. It is a relief therefore to read (p. 27)
that these grooves, though useful in expressing stages in evolution, have no
taxonomic value. In other words the older systematists, believing grooved teeth
to be an ancient character of primary importance, were prepared to split the
whole army of non-poisonous colubrines into two broad divisions on this one
point. Having done so they were forced to regard any similarities which
occurred on both sides of their dividing line, for example the “‘flying’’ and egg-
puncturing mechanisms referred to, as the results of parallel evolution operating
on both divisions. The view adopted in the present book is exactly the opposite ;
the grooved teeth now become the parallel evolution or, as the author much
better expresses it, a ‘“‘trend in evolution which affects the whole suborder’’.
For a somewhat similar reason—loosening of the headbones to allow of greater
swallowing-capacity is the ‘‘trend’’ in this case—the genus Amblycephalus (now
Pareas) is no longer in a family by itself and becomes a subfamily of the
Colubridae. I think some of us always rather resented such commonplace,
colubrine-looking snakes sandwiched in between two groups of poisonous snakes
in the old book and will be glad. e

One thing in this book is not clear to me. Elachistodon, the egg-eater
referred to above, is shown in a family by itself (Dasypeltidae) on pages XI,
40, and 403, and as a subfamily (Dasypeltinae) of the Colubridae on page 114.
If this is a misprint it is the only one I have noticed.

I doubt if a beginner, trying to run down a snake in the field, would find
the keys in this hook any easier to use than those in its predecessor. Keys
in both zoological and botanical works seem to come in for a lot of criticism,

REVIEW. 537

mostly based on the rival claims of two types called, I believe, ‘‘scientific’’
and ‘‘empirical’’? respectively. In the strictly scientific type adopted here (and
in most F.B.I. volumes I think) the searcher is made to follow, step by step,
the processes which led the writer to adopt the arrangement he did. This is
undoubtedly the most logical method of all but it is hardly the most helpful.
In the present work, for instance, the first thing that the searcher has to ask
himself (p. 39) 1s whether the palato-maxillary arch is incomplete and this is
followed by five further questions, all very technical and some of them involving
further dissection. These six questions are actually a summary of the reasons
for separating the blindsnakes from the rest of the order—a matter more fully dis-
cussed, and with admirable clarity and illustration, on page 41. It is quite a
concise summary—but is it a key? Surely, at this stage, some hint about the
eyes or about scaly bellies and ventral shields would have been more helpful
to a non-specialist observer and surely it is mainly for non-specialists that a
key to the families is intended—anyone capable of answering. the palato-
maxillary conundrum might be expected to know that it was a blindsnake he
was dealing with.

Personally I can see no objection to a purely empirical key—the sort that
does not hesitate to lump together totally unrelated groups provided they
possess some outstanding character in common—and, if this is permitted, it
opens up possibilities for simpler keys. At some stage in the identification of
any snake a scale-count is inevitable—usually at least two, midbody and ventrals—
and this suggests the possibility of numerical sorting. Wall’s ‘‘How to Identify
the Snakes of India’’ (1923) is unfortunately a little out of date now but,
even so, I think many of us still find this excellent, statistical key the simplest
means of running down an Indian snake.

Seeing that Dr. Malcolm Smith’s keys are certainly no more difficult to
use than those in many similar zoological and botanical works it is, perhaps,
unfair to air the whole subject of keys in the review of a book which, above
all, aints at making things clear to the uninitiated throughout and especially
in the thirty-five pages of his Introduction. Nevertheless I feel that the
importance of designing zoological or botanical keys with an eye to the
unspecialized user should be stressed—it is through unspecialized observers in
out-of-the-way stations that much useful information comes to light.

The inclusion of English ‘‘trivial’? names is welcome. The author has wisely
not attempted to issue one to every species but most of those in common _ use
will be found here, among them those that became current throughout India
when Wall was writing in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal.
Trivial names—especially group-names—sometimes serve as an anchorage in the
shifting sands of scientific nomenclature. This is the first time that I have
met the useful group-name ‘‘racer’’ outside American literature. The author
here applies it to the whole genus Coluber and to some Elaphe—reserving “‘rat-
snake’? for Ptyas. Ditmars uses ‘‘racer’’ for all Coluber too, but calls our
two Indian Ptyas ‘‘racers’’ as well. On the other hand I think he would call
some, at least, of our Elaphe ‘‘rat-snakes’’, because they constrict and are
relatively slow-movers.

Apart from what I have said about keys—and they, after all, are no more
formidable than Boulenger’s—the ordinary person will find this book easy to
work with because all technicalities are really@well explained in the Introduction.
He might reasonably ask for a glossary of technical terms to direct him to
these explanations but—and this will serve him far better—he can start by
reading the first thirty-five pages which will tell him all he needs to know. I
ought to have done this myself. ~ ;

In all 389 species and 17 sub-species are described, against 264 in Boulenger’s
book which, however, did not include the whole of the Indo-Chinese sub-region.
An account of the regions dealt with and the geographical divisions was pub-
lished in Volume I of this series (on the tortoises) and has not been repeated
here—a pity, I think, because otherwise this volume is completely self-contained
and records all at present known about Indian snakes in a single handily-sized
book,

E. O. SHEBBEARE.

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL..HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

AN ARPEBATL

The Librarian of the India Office in London has advised me to
write to you to enquire if you can help me. I am reading a paper
on ‘‘Hinged Teeth in Mammals’’ to the London Zoological Society
on March* 12th. Later I wish to complete the work by studying
the male tushs of musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), Chinese tufted
deer (Elaphodus cephalophus) and Chevrotaine (Tragulidae).

It is impossible to procure skulls, mounted heads or preserved
heads of any of these in this country, even the Natural History
Section of the British Museum being without specimens owing to
bombing. I know that I ask the impossible almost but I should
be grateful if you could wave your magic wand and procure me
any macerated, mounted or fresh heads (in formalin or spirit) of
the males of these two deer or any male specimens of Chevrotaine.

County BOROUGH OF WEsT HAM,

ORTHODONTIC CLINIC, JAMES AITCHISON,
84 West Ham LANE, H.D.D., ).D.Ssa(Glasn),
STRATFORD, E.15. Supdt. of Casualty Services.

11th February, 1946.

MISC E re EANE OUS NORES

Bie —MUSK- SHREW (SUNCUS CAERULEUS) ATTACKING
A BULL-FROG.

Referring to K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji’s observations in respect.
of a Musk-shrew attacking a Bull-frog (Journal, Vol. 46, p. 180),
I am inclined to believe that the Musk-rat, not being a rat,
occasionally takes it into its head to add some juicy diet to its insect
menu and the easiest: prey is the frog. I have witnessed it
attacking a Bull-frog of full size, the latter, true to the creed of
passive resistance, making no attempt to escape.

SoA, Kurita Roan, ANDHERI. Woe Wo Weal SiG,
28th August, 1946. ’ Advocaie.

2.—NESTING HABITS OF THE FLYING-SQUIRREL (PETAU-
RISTA PHILIPPENSIS.)

Whilst felling an Ironwood tree on our estate in the Anamallai
Hills last September, I noticed an adult flying-squirrel (Petaurista
philippensis) glide away from a hole in the tree.

After the tree had fallen I examined it carefully and found the
nest hole, which was about 60 feet up. The nest, which was about
5 feet long and a foot in diameter, filled a natural hollow in the
tree and it had an entrance at each end. It was well lined with
grass, moss, and a quantity of fur.

The nest was empty but a careful search revealed a baby flying-
squirrel on the ground.

Its eyes had not yet opened though it was more than a foot
long. As it was alive I took it home with me and fed it on well-
watered milk by means of a piece of bicycle valvé-rubber inserted
into the end of an ordinary teat. It took to this readily and had
about 4 ounce every 3 hours. |

Unfortunately it caught a chill and died after I had had it a
week; and even then its eyes had not opened.

I enclose a photograph of it which I thought might be of interest
to you. The foot rule which is alongside gives you a fair idea of
its size. .

As can be seen from the photo its head is out of all proportion
to the rest of its body and also the last 5 inches of its tail is curiously
flattened, a peculiarity that I have noticed in one or two adult
specimens. Another interesting thing was that the bony “‘yard-
arms’’ which extend the skin, ‘‘wing flaps’’, from the front paws,
had not yet developed; instead the ‘“‘wing flaps’’ ended at the
elbows.

When handled it would make a series of high whistling noises,
ending with a squeak.

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46°

In colour it was not unlike an adult, except that its tail and feet
were jet-black, and it also had a black band across its shoulders.

The underparts were white and light-grey.

young flying-squirrel.

I do not know whether the flying-squirrel undergoes any colour
changes before it reaches the adult stage, but recently I was shewn
a half-grown specimen which was a light fawn in colour all over,
with no other markings at all.

Hich Wavy ESTATE,

CumsuM P. O.,
Mapura DIsTRICT, A. F. HUTTON.

S. INpIA.
17th September, 1946.

[Little or nothing is known regarding the breeding habits of
flying-squirrels generally, and Mr. Hutton’s description of the nest-
ing of P. phillippensis is a welcome addition to the meagre information
available about the habits of this species. Being nocturnal in habit,
it is more or less common knowledge that flying-squirrels spend
the day in holes and other suitable retreats where they are safe
from the attacks of most enemies. Eps. |

MISChLLANEOUS NOTES 541
3.—‘RECORD ELEPHANT?”’.

With reference to ‘‘Mannlicher’s’’ letter in your issue of April
26th under the above caption: the diameter of the elephant’s
forefoot (204”) gives the circumference of the foot as 63.6”. Twice
the circumference of an elephant’s forefoot will give the elephant’s
height—almost to an inch. In the case quoted the height will there-
fore be 10/7”; so ‘‘Mannlicher’’ measured his elephant very
accurately: not an easy matter, for it is very difficult to get an
accurate measurement of the height of a fallen elephant, or even
a bison. I have shot 2 elephants over 10! height—both, curiously
enough, single tuskers.

Sanderson was quite wrong in laying down that a 1o ft. elephant
did not exist; others, who should know better, have expressed the
same opinions over io ft. tiger! I think Sir Victor Brooke’s
‘Celebrated Tusker’’ might quite possibly have been 11 ft. high
{again a single tusker).

Mucknas (tuskless males) in S. India are generally of colossal
size—in bulk, not necessarily in height.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., Rey Gee viORRTS SMereAe
via Mysore,

2oth May, 1946.

4.—DEATH OF SIX ELEPHANTS.

In March 1945 six elephants (4 cows and 2 calves) fell over a
precipice on the Biligirirangan Hills, and died a lingering death.
The circumstances surrounding the event are something of a
mystery; but that the local aborigines, the Sholagas, were not
unconnected with the tragedy is more than a rumour.

The small herd was in the neighbourhood for several weeks,
and had made serious inroads into the Sholaga’s plantain
topes: this much is acknowledged. The rest of the story has been
related to me by a Sholaga; and though I cannot vouch for the
truth of his statement, yet I feel it is probably not entirely divorced
from the actual occurrence. The story goes that late one evening
the aggrieved Sholagas spotted the elephants grazing on the hill-
side just above the precipice; and saw their chance to be delivered
of the herd once and for all. Escape to the north was not possible,
the precipice being the highest on that side. Up the hill eastwards,
and along the slope southwards were the only escape routes open.
Quickly forming 2 parties: one lot climbed to the steep ridge above
the precipice; while the second party worked round to the south
west of the precipice. On the top of the ridge were rocks in
abundance. The lower party started a jungle fire which, fanned
by a stiff breeze, swept up the hill-side, effectively cutting off escape
to the south, and menaced the elephants, which then commenced
to climb the hill. It was then that the Sholagas on the ridge came into

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

action. Elephants are petrified by rolling rocks. I have watched a
large herd get into an absolute panic when a single rock rolled
down a hillside on which they were grazing. A number of large
boulders were rolled down on the unfortunate climbing elephants.
and in a few seconds they were beating a panic-stricken retreat
down the hillside; trumpetting shrilly. On the edge of the pre-

cipice they bunched; but only for a few moments; the rocks.

continued to hurtle down; and one or more may have actually
knocked the calves over. A game path runs down the southern
end of the precipice; all right for deer, and possibly bison, but quite
unfeasible for elephants in normal circumstances. It is thought
that, in their terror, the wretched animals tried to negotiate this

possible slender avenue of escape and tumbled over the precipice

one by one. There they lay with broken legs and internal injuries
until death ended their agonies.
I was not able to visit the spot until November 1945—when

only the skulls, skeletons, and large pieces of skin remained; also

curiously enough, the soles of the feet of the 2 calves.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

NCTA aon En

via MyYSsorE, Ree Cr VIO IRS eenian vas
S. INDIA,

6th January, 1946.

5.—“AN ALBINO BOAR”

The following account of a white boar killed on 27th May,
1946, may be of interest. It will be very kind of Society to let
me know whether it is a freak of nature or anything else or was it
albino.

A party of 3 spears were pigsticking about 45 miles from

Udaipur, far away from any villages. A sounder broke out with

an absolutely white boar in charge of the harem. It was hunted

and eventually killed. The following points will be of interest :—

(a) It fought like hell. As a matter of fact it came in before
being speared and died fighting.

(b) It had two scars of about 6 inches long. These showed that

it fought with other wild boar to take possession of the

harem.
(c) Height 32 inches.
(d) Very good tushes. Total of each lower tushes 84 inches.
(e) Hairs completely white. I am enclosing few for your
inspection.
(f) Nose, eyes and hoofs were pink in colour.

(g) I eaquired from the villagers and also sent our Tent Club

shikaries to find out whether there were domestic pig

in villages nearby. Report showed that there were

none within 15 miles.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 543

(h) Please let me know if any other gentleman has killed or

seen a wild boar of this type. Major Maxwell of
Mewar Bhil Corps was hunting with us; he has stuck
pig all over India. He said that it was the first time
he had seen a pig of this type.

BATHERA HOUSE, R. D. SINHA,

UpatpuR — RAJPUTANA. Major.

30th May, 1946.

[Albinism is not uncommon among certain groups of mammals
and birds but is apparently rare in others. Among the rodents,
especially rats albinism is quite frequent; among deer and ante-
lopes it is not uncommon; but, among the larger animals it is less
frequent. Albino tigers, bison and elephants have been recorded
occasionally, but as far as we are aware an albino wild pig is a
rarity and has not been recorded. Albinisum is a result of a colour
deficiency in the pigment layers of the skin—its reverse, melanism,
is an over pigmentation of the dermal layers.—Ebs. |

6.—BIRD NOTES OF THE ARABIAN AND RED SEAS.
(An Analysis of Five Voyages.)

(1) Bombay—Suez 16-6-42—27-6-42
I) Suez—Bombay 28-6-44—10-7-44.
I) Bombay—Suez 7-2-45—19-2-45.
(IV) Suez—Bombay 30-4-45—9-5-45.
(V) Bombay—Suez 14-6-46—27-6-46.

Shear-water sp. Puffinus pacificus or Pterodroma aterrima.

Frequent in the Arabian Sea from Aden to goo m. east of Aden
in May °45 and June °44 and ’46.
The former species is more likely to occur in this area.

_ Description:—Size of Manx Shearwater. Wholly brown, wings
rather long, with paler bar on coverts of some. Primaries and tail
nearly black. Tail long and slightly wedge-shaped, but in others
shorter (possibly a different species). Bill dark.

Persian Shearwater, Puffinus persicus.

Sparse near and east of Aden in February and May ’4s, and
doubtfully present in the northern part of the Red Sea in June ’42.

Wilson’s Petel. Oceanites oceanicus.

In February °45 sparse from Aden to 600 m. east of there.
Also there in June and July, as well as in the Red Sea. In June
"44 a few were seen within 500 m. of Suez. In June ’46 huge
numbers were passed for three hours about 240—270 m. east of
Aden, and for one hour near the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

White-eyed Gull. Larus leucopthalmus.

Sparse in Suez in February °45, 90% being immatures. In

April, May and June they were frequent at Suez and near the Straits.

of Jubal. A single bird at the mouth of the Red Sea in July 744.

Aden Gull, ‘Larus hemprichit.

Abundant in and near Aden and the mouth of the Red Sea at
all times.

Yellow-legged Herring Gull. Larus cachinnans.
At Suez in February ’45, but not in April, May and June.

Lesser Black-backed Gull. Larus fuscus.

In February frequent at Bombay, near Aden, in the Red Sea
and at Suez. In April and May at Suez and Aden, and in July
common at Aden, 90% being immature birds.

Brown-headed Gull. Larus brunnicephalus.

Frequent in February and May in Bombay but not seen in
June °46.
Blackeheaded Gull. Larus vidibundus.

In February very abundant at Suez; none in April, May and
June.
Gull-billed Tern. Gelochelidon nilotica.

Sparse in Bombay Harbour in May ’45.

White-cheeked Tern. Sterna repressa.

Frequent in Aden in June °42, and what was probably this:
species of tern in large flocks from Aden to 600 m. east of three,
in May ’45. Also sparse in the lower Red Sea in June ’46.

Description: —A smallish tern with a dark mantle and red bill.

Crested Tern. Sterna bergit.

In Aden, up to goo m. east of there, and in the lower Red Sea.
during April, May and June. Not seen in February. Never
common except in Aden Harbour.

Brown-winged Tern. Sterna anaetheta.

In June ’42 sparse east and west of Aden.

It was probably this tern that was present in large flocks 150 m.
north and south of the Twelve Apostles in the Red Sea in May ’45.

Description:—Small. Head white with crown darker. Upper-
parts brown, under-parts pale, with darker leading edges to wings.

Little Tern. Sterna albifrons.
Common at Suez in April, May and June, but not seen in

February.”

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 545.

Common Noddy. Anous stolidus.

More than twenty around the stationary ship at the mouth ot
the Red Sea in July ’44, and sparse near the Twelve Apostles in
May °45.

Pomarine Skua. Coprotheres pomarinus.

In May °45 good views were obtained of one near Suez and one in
the middle of the Red Sea, mobbing first ‘Larus fuscus, and on the
second occasion Larus hemprichii.

- Description:—Upper-parts brown, paler bar on the primaries.
Under-wing's and collar brownish, rest of under-parts pale or white.
Neck white. Two protruding tail-feathers very noticeable.

Brown Booby. Sula leucogastra.

One at Aden in June ’46, but otherwise only in the Red Sea,
especially near the Twelve Apostles.

Red-footed Booby. Sula piscatrix.

Odd birds seen near Aden and in the Red Sea (including one
near Suez in June °42) and occasionally from Aden to goo m. east
of there.

Red-billed Tropic-bird, Phaéion aethereus.

Odd birds at sea from 400 to 900 m. east of Aden in February
and May, two in the Red Sea near the Twelve Apostles and two
near Suez, in May.

Red-necked Phalerope. Lobipes: lobatus.

Ten phaleropes 450 m. east of Aden in February °45, twelve
there again in May, and sparse flocks of ten or less in the Red
Sea near the Twelve Apostles in February ’45.

They were almost certainly this species and not Phaleropus
fulicarius.

LOENOWERLE,

FEOCK, TRURO, Pala oVEANGi NRE Ni:
CORNWALL, ENGLAND,

3rd July, 1946.

7.—BABAR THE GREAT ON FLAMINGOES.

Some time ago, there was an appeal’ in the Journal inquiring
information about seasonal movements or any other general
information about flamingoes. The other day, when reading the
Autobiography of Babar the Great, Emperor of India, I came across
some of his observations on birds? and as they throw.some light

7 Ali., Sdlim 1944. Fhe Common Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber): An
appeal. J.,B.N.H.S., Vol. 44, pp.- 476-477.

2 Leyden., J. and W. Erskin, 1826. Memoirs of Zehirudinis Mohammad
Baber, London. pp. 165-166.

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

on certain problems regarding peas I quote a few passages
HEME t —

‘...we reached Ab-Istadeh, Heat a wonderful — large sheet
of water presented itself to our view.... When I came within one
kos of Ab-Istadeh, a singular phenomenon presented itself. From
time to time, between this water and the heavens, something of
a red appearance was seen, like the ruddy crepuscule, which again
by and by vanished and so continued shifting till we had come
near it. When we came close up, we discerned that this appear-
ance was occasioned by immense flocks of Baghlan Kaz (wild geese)
not ten thousand or twenty thousand, but absolutely beyond
computation, and innumerable, and in their flight, as they moved
their wings, their red feathers, sometimes appeared and sometimes
were hid. But they were not wild geese alone, innumerable flocks of
every species of bird, settled on the banks of this water, and the
eggs of countless multitudes of fowl were deposited on every corner
of its banks. A few Afghans, who come here and were employed
in gathering these eggs, on seeing us fled and threw themselves
into the lake...it was of one uniform depth, reaching up to the
horses belly.”’

Ab-istadeh means stagnant water, and it is the only lake in
Afghanistan, still known by the same name. It lies at a height
of about 7ooo ft. from sea level (32°30’N.and 68°E) and about
seventy miles south of Ghazni near the head of Tarnak river. It
is an open country! from meridian of Mookoor to the hills on
the right bank of the Gomal river and from Ghawasta to Ghazni,
which is the basin of Ab-Istadeh. Waters of the river Ghazni
from the north, of the Nahar from the north-east and of other
brooks, which remain after watering the cultivated lands and also
the superfluous waters of the spring rains in the valleys of Zurmet
and Kutta-waz, all flow down into it. It? is about forty-four
miles in circuit, having salt and bitter water of about uniform depth
(not more than 12 feet deep in the middle) and fish entering the
salt water from the Ghazni river sicken and die. Its borders are
covered with low tamarisks. A plane tree, a poplar or a willow
may be seen hither and thither near a Karaiz (under ground aque-
duct for irrigation purposes), but no natural wood is present and
the country is naked and uniform.

Keeping in view that flamingoes affect salt-water’ and keep
to sea-coast only when there is no inland salt-water lake and that
the breeding colonies are situated on some lake or lagoon of little
depth, with bare shores, it becomes evident that all environmental
conditions are favourable for the birds to spend their breeding
season in Ab-Istadeh. Again when we look at the _ pictures*
of a flamingo city, which recently appeared in the Journal (populated

* Elphinstone, M. 1939. An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul. London.
V0) 2p tO:
Ee st Ge 5 dal , 1875. Afghanistan. The Encyclopaedia Britannica, oth
Edition, London, Vol. I, p. 230.
®* Evans, A. H. 1922. The Cambridge Natural History. Vol. 9, p. 107.
* Ali S. 1945. More about the Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus
(Pallas) in Kutch. J.,B.N.H.S., Vol. 45, pp. 586-93.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 547
by a vast number, not less than half a million birds), the emperor’s
wonder at the immense number appears quite natural. All these
features lead us to conclude, as also the translators of the auto-
biography think, that the birds in question were flamingoes.

The word Baghlan Kaz used by the emperor to denote the bird
also requires a little consideration. Baghlan does not mean wild
as it has been erroneously translated, but it is a city to the north
of Kabul. It is obvious that Baber, by using this word, means to
refer to the same distinct kind of kaz or goose which he had
previously seen at Baghlan. |

Cumming! has recorded only two species of flamingoes to
occur in Afghanistan, viz., Phoenicopterus ruber roseus Pallas, and
Phoenicopterus minor Geoffroy, from Kohak, which is situated to
the south-west of Ab-Istadeh, but Whistler does not take into
account the former though he is confident that both species do
occur in the country. The Emperor notices red birds and
emphasises on this very character of redness by repeating it and
using different words as red appearance, ruddy crepuscule or red
feathers. Under these circumstances one is inclined to believe that
the birds referred to above belonged to the species P. ruber roseus.

Some twenty-two years ago, a large flock of flamingoes was
seen by Law? flying past over the sea to their winter quarters
as early as the month of August. He remarks, ‘‘When one finds
that a bird which migrates out of India in May at the earliest,
returning as early as the 19th August, one is naturally led to
suppose that the bird has been so journeying these few months
somewhere in close neighbourhood of India’’. The earliest move-
ments of the birds for their summer quarters do not appear to
begin from May, but somewhat still earlier, as Cumming has noted
a flock flying overhead at Kohak (outside India) on 28th April
travelling northwards. The above incident at Ab-Istadeh, as it
appears from the date given for the incident preceding it, cannot
have occured otherwise than at the end of March or in the month
of April.

It may be surmised from the above account that the flocks of
flamingoes fly during their migratory movements north-wards in
early summer or spring over Kohak, Ab-Istadeh and Baghlan in
Afghanistan and that one of the breeding places of these birds
possibly the one nearest to India, is Ab-Istadeh, where the birds,
most probably, belonging to the species P. ruber roseus Pallas
gather in large numbers from the month of April onwards.

FACULTY OF SCIENCE,
KABUL, S. A. AKHTAR.
5th July, 1946.

_—_—_—_———

* Whistler, Hugh. 1945. Materials for the Ornithology of Afghanistan.
J.,B.N.H.S., Vol. 45, p. 480.

* Law, S. C. 1924. A note on the early arrival of Flamingoes in India.
J.,B.N.H.S. Vol. 30, pp. 226-27.

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

8.—OCCURRENCE OF BAR-HEADED GOOSE, [ANSER
INDICUS (LATHAM)|] NEAR HYDERABAD CITY (DECCAN)

On the 30th November 1945 I went with a party on a duck
shoot. Two small tanks exist about 18 miles south-west of
Hyderabad City about 13 miles cross country south of Himayat-
sagar reservoir.

First the large tank was visited with no result and we decided
to go back home as there was no chance of getting any game in
the other tank. To our joy, one of us spotted a big bird swimming
in the middle of the tank. My younger brother shot it with a .22
bore rifle and broke its wing but the shot was not fatal, however, we
could at last bag it and when it was taken out, it was found to be
the Bar-headed Goose. The villagers told us that they had never
seen such a ‘duck’ before. We made enquiries from other brother
shikaries also and their reply was in the negative.

So far as I could find out from the papers, this bird has been
reported from Mysore, Travancore, Madras and Bombay, although
it is not so common as in Northern India. I think this was one
of the stragglers to reach Hyderabad State, because large gaggles
have never been observed here.

Mr. Salim Ali, who has conducted an Ornithological Survey of
Hyderabad State may be able to explain its migration better, and
I shall feel much obliged if anybody else may be kind enough to
enlighten me in this matter.

M. RAHIMULLAH, p.sc.

[In ‘‘Reminiscences of Sport in India’? Major-General E. F.
Burton (published about 1870) observes that on a march between
Hanamkonda and Parkal Lake ‘‘the wild country was studded with
fine sheets of water which were full of ducks and geese of all kinds’’.
The geese referred to were presumably Bar-heads, but there seem
to be no more specific records from Hyderabad State.

The species has been observed on the Godavari River near
Nasik, and shot in the Kistna District adjoining Hyderabad territory
on the east. It was evidently ‘‘extremely common’’ on the Chilka
Lake (Orissa) in the eighties of the last century (Hume, Game
Birds, iii, 82) and small numbers are still said to visit the place in
winter. The birds visit favourite tanks and paddies in Mysore
fairly regularly, and a few have been known to straggle further
south to the extreme limit of the peninsula.

It would be interesting to learn what factors are at work in
decreasing the numbers of these annual visitors to peninsular India,
as undoubtedly appears to be the case. Eps. | .

9.—THE RED-CRESTED POCHARD (NETTA RUFINA)
IN SOUTHERN INDIA
On 9/2/46 when shooting at Tyravallur lake, about 30 miles
from Madras, we got four Red-crested Pochard (Netta rufina), twe
drakes and two ducks. i

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 549

~When I veturned to camp I looked this species up in Fauna of
British India (Stuart Baker) and found that he says that there are
hardly any records from Southern India, so I thought I would write
to you.

On several occasions lately I have seen the Common Pochard
(Nyroca ferina) on various lakes round here, but have not yet taken
any. I believe them to be rare in Southern India also.

I have preserved two skins of the Red-crested Pochard and
have done soft part studies of them, which I can send if confir-
mation is required.

I would be obliged if you could let me know what the status
of these duck is in Southern India. On Tyravallur there were
about 200 Red-crested Pochard which regularly flighted from one
end of the lake to the other over some islands, providing ample
opportunity for observation.

R.A.F., lal (Gi IGIVIMES IDEN] 15y/Opy,
S.E.A.A.F., 82 Squadron.

11th February, 1946.

[From all accounts the Red-crested Pochard is rare in South
India. A flock of the size observed by our contributor is certainly
quite exceptional.

The Common Pochard is an irregular winter visitor to S. India,
but by no means as rare as has been supposed.—Ebs. |

10.—MAGPIE ROBIN’S NEST IN A HOUSE.

Although the magpie robin (Copsychus saularis) is a common
bird of gardens, I was not aware that it ever made its nest in an
occupied house almost like a sparrow. The house has a flat roof
partly shaded by the spreading branches of rain trees. In the
middle a square brick chimney stands about 34 ft. high. The top
is covered by a large flat slab of stone—the smoke finding its way
out through grills in the four sides, and the robin finding its way
in by the same entrance.

In the centre is a partition dividing the chimney in half; a couple
of bricks are missing from one side of this, and in the niche is the
nest, almost overhanging the chimney.

On 4th June I first noticed the nest; there were 3 young birds.
By the oth they were half fledged. On the 15th one of the young
fell, or was pushed over the edge and fell down the chimney. I
restored it to the nest. There did not appear to be room for 3
half grown birds anyhow it soon re-appeared in the fire place on
the ground floor. The cat ate it.

On the 20th a second almost fully fledged youngster came down
the chimney. It could flutter along the ground, almost air borne.)

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

I restored it to the nest which was empty, a second youngster
having disappeared meanwhile. The third was too restless to
stay put, and soon came down the chimney again like Santa Claus,
although there was now plenty of room in the nest. I restored
it a second time, not to the nest but to the flat roof under the
branch of an overhanging tree in which an agitated and chirping
mother was waiting on events. She did not however go to her
offspring which lay low. After several minutes the young bird
with a short runway at its disposal took off, cleared the low para-
pet and planed down to the lawn where I lost sight of it. I think
the mother did too; the cat was probably the more vigilant of the
two.

I thought possibly one of the 3 youngsters might have been a
euckoo; but no bird much larger than a robin could possibly have
squeezed through the grating into the chimney. The nest filled
the entire niche, and if a young bird fell or was pushed out it had
to go down the chimney.

The nest was of long flexible fibres very like fine needles to
look at, but may have been midribs of compound leaves. A long
strand of very fine copper wire was incorporated, no lining of
feathers or soft grass of any kind.

‘CINNAMARA P. O., }
ASSAM, F. KINGDON-WARD.

th July, 1946.

{

a
11.—BIRD NOTES ON THE DHAL LAKE, KASHMIR.

While sitting on a houseboat at Nasimbagh we spent much
time watching the peculiar habits of the Kashmir sparrow.

These birds would spend half their time hovering over the
water like kingfishers. Every now and then diving at the water.
On one occasion we saw a sparrow actually catch a minute sprat
and, fly with it on to the roof of the houseboat. I was unable to
climb the stairs fast enough to see whether he threw it in the air
and swallowed it head first like a kingfisher or returned to his
sparrow habits and pecked at it.

There were a pair of osprey on the lake but I never located
their nest. While watching one of these birds fishing he suddenly
dived, went completely under water, and for some time looked as if
he might never get out. However, after three attempts he got into
the air carrying a large fish say 2 feet. While I was still
watching the fish gave a jerk and bird and fish fell almost into the
lake before the osprey improved his grip and got the fish safely to
aA “tree;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 551

On another day I saw two large divers and followed them in
a shikara. Whenever I got near they dived and came up roo yards.
away. However I was able to see that they had large cormorant-.
like beaks, yellow facial skin reaching to the eyes some white on the
lower Dreace and were generally a brownish colour.

If I had been in Upper Burma where hundreds of shag appear
in the cold weather I would have said Shag. However I am told
that there are no such things in Kashmir. I wondered if this note
would result in my hearing of any one else having seen a shag in
Kashmir-or further north. The time was early June and I never
saw them again.

NEpoU’s HOTEL,

SRINAGAR, C. E. MILNER.
26th July, 1940.

12,—ANCHYLOSED FANGS AND SOLID TEETH IN
SNAKES.

Comparison of the length of fangs in some American snakes
with that of the snake which possesses them suggested that the
same principle would apply to their solid teeth which had become
anchylosed to the jaw.

In measuring these small teeth one must guard against the
measurement of ill developed teeth which are not yet anchylosed
or the confusion of loose teeth from the erect row with some of
the soft teeth of a hinder row.

Bitis arietans Merr. would seem to possess anchylosed teeth
corresponding with the length of the snake at all ages, the front
tooth of specimens eighty to ninety mm. in length being one miili-
metre longer than the rest.

The same would seem to be true of Déndroaspis augusticeps
Smith whose big front tooth is only two millimetre long in speci-
mens from 220 to 225 mm., and in Naja with 6 mm. canes the
long narrower teeth of Bilis: being related to slow movements.

Loss of teeth is infrequent except during dissection and it is
uncommon to come across a broken tooth among the rows of teeth
which are commonly alternately anchylosed, so that an anchylosed
tooth seems to grow with the jaw.

Persistent pulp is readily seen in these solid teeth even after
anchylosis, as it occurs in an anchylosed fang, and is evident before
a tooth has developed along with the socket to which it becomes
attached.

Once a fang or solid tooth has become anchylosed it could
hardly be extracted without leaving some trace and loss of a whole
tooth or fang strongly suggests that it had never become properly
attached to the jaw.

Hinder teeth loose in the gum seem to represent those which
are functional in fishes, there are two or three rows in the front

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

of the jaw only in some snakes and lizards and these would not
appear to be capable of moving forward to replace teeth lost from
the erect row,

BRITANIA BUILDINGS,
WEst STREET, DURBAN, F. GORDON CAWSTON.

SoutH AFRICA.

REFERENCES

Bogert C. M., ‘Dentitional Phenomena in Cobras and other Elapids...’ 1943
Bull. Amey. Mus, Nat. Hist. Vol. 1xxxi, pp. 285-360.

Klauber Laurence M., Occasional Papers from the San Diego Society or
Natural History 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939.

13.—CONSIDERATION OF THE SUCCESSIONAL THEORY
OF LEER:

_ Where replacement of teeth is provided for in Nature it is almost
always by vertical succession and the apparent exception of the
elephant dentition would seem to be explained by the fact that the
jaw is too small to accommodate all the teeth. :

In fishes loss of teeth is sometimes provided for throughout life
by new teeth erupting between the bases of functional teeth but
there is no revolving of the tooth-bearing area so as to cause
replacement from a hinder row of teeth.

Selachian teeth are set in several rows, the number of which
is constant for the species, though each row may not be complete.
This corresponds with the rows of teeth of many fishes including
what are popularly known as the Mussel Crushers.

It is sometimes thought that the hinder rows of teeth in the
Mussel Crusher are for replacement, of teeth lost from the front
row but this idea is proved to be false by X-ray examination or
dissection which reveals the unerupted teeth.

Evidence that the hinder rows of teeth in selachians are for
replacement is lacking, though an individual tooth in the living
loose gum would inevitably help to close the space caused by
lost of a tooth from the front row.

In some species there are very small sharp teeth in front of
the large foremost row of vertical teeth and these slender teeth
show no indication of wear and tear whilst overcrowding of the
anterior ones renders loss and replacement impossible.

One is forced to the conclusion that there is no provision for

replacement of selachian teeth, that the hindermost ones never
come into use and that the term ‘succession of teeth’ cannot. pro-
perly be applied to this dentition.

Reptilian teeth also show no evidence of revolving of the tooth-
bearing area, with the possible exception of the fangs of snakes
whose serial form is perplexing in view of the unlikelihood of
replacement of the back fang’s

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 553

Three rows of teeth in the front of the jaw of prehistoric reptiles
should not be associated with replacement and X-ray examination
or breaking of the fossilised jaw would probably reveal evidence
of vertical succession.

In the African and Indian crocodiles there are three rows of
teeth which may be described as erupted, reserve and residual, the
last remaining undeveloped in the oldest crocodiles and the size of
the teeth corresponding with age.

The difficulty of appreciating that reptilian and piscine teeth
can grow after eruption is due to the fact that their persistent
pulp or pulp canals enables them to increase in size and in depth
of the buried apex.

There is no support for the theory that the small loose teeth
in the gum of a Python ever serve for replacement and, unfortu-
nately, snakes in captivity do not survive very long especially if
their teeth are interfered with.

These extra teeth are of use in holding fast-moving prey and
a snake which has no poison glands needs an extra strong hold
besides its rows of back-wardly directed teeth of which the python
has a large number.

There is no sign of tooth development in the jaw below the
solid teeth of snakes and it is unlikely that loss of a solid tooth is
ever provided for in a snake’s short life, nor is it likely that reserve
fangs ever become functional.

An extra anchylosed fang in some snakes suggests that it is
about to replace the one which is in use but there is no record of
rudimentary poison glands or of a reserve fang having successfully
replaced an artificially removed one.

Persistent pulp in a functional fang indicates continued growth
and this would seem to correspond with the growth of crocodilian
teeth whose exposed ones sometimes have a complete hole through
which the replacing tooth has moved.

In the Batoidei the number of teeth in a species is not constant
and it would seem, from examination of both adult and embryonic
material, that the number of teeth are added-to at the anterior
border as often as at its posterior end.

The successional theory would seem to depend on the integrity
of William André’s report of abnormal teeth in the jaw of a shark
whose jaw had been penetrated by the spine of a sting-ray.

Unfortunately it would not appear that anyone has looked for
the foramina in these ‘abnormal’ teeth and a more possible explan-
ation is that the ‘abnormal’ teeth are all teeth which were split
through the foramen at the time of the injury.

It may be noted that the split, if such occurred, has taken
place at the weakest portion of a tooth, namely where the pulp
canal extends from the basal portion to the highest point of the
tooth and corresponds in each such tooth.

Until experimental proof is forthcoming, and such is often cruel
rather than convincing, vertical succession of teeth would seem
to be the only one in these animals and, possibly, also in the case
of olluscan teeth. |

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIE1Y, Vol. 46

In studying the embryonic radula I was impressed by the fact
that the foremost teeth were often devoid of cusps in the embryonic
state and corresponded with that of adult molluses, though the
latter often possess many rows of blunted teeth.

If as the individual mollusc grows the cusps of the teeth tend
to coalesce then the number of teeth in each row with three cusps
would increase in number without the need for supposing that the
front part of the vadula was continually shed. |

These older molluscs certainly contain broader and longer
vadula in many of the fresh-water species than do the immature
ones and it would seem certain that the rows are added to from
both the sides and at the nascent posterior end.

BRITANIA BUILDINGS,
WeEstT STREET, DURBAN, F. GORDON CAWSTON.

SoutH AFRICA.
JREFERENCE.

André William ‘An attempt to prove that the teeth of Cartilaginous Fishes.
are perpetually renewed’ Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 74 1784.

Cawston F. Gordon ‘Succession of Teeth in Sharks, Selachii.'

1938 Brit. Dent. Jour. |Ixv, No. 9, pp. 573-580.

1939 The Dent. Record 59 No. 1, ‘A consideration of the Possible Succession
of Teeth in Fishes and Reptiles.’

1940 ‘A consideration of the Replacement of Teeth in Sharks and Fangs in
Snakes.’

The Dent. Record. Ix, No. 11 pp. 435-439.

1941 ‘A consideration of the Teeth of Embryonic and Immature Skates and
Rays in relation to the successional theory of teeth.’

S. African Dental, Jour. xv, No. 4, pp. 95-98.

1943 ‘Some notes on the possible replacement of teeth in Gavialis gangeticus.’

CurrentesciencemViol 12a INOweA ne penenI4e

14.—HABITS OF THE BAKA FISH [BARBUS (LISSOCHILUS)
HEXAGONOLEPIS McCl.]

I am wondering if you can throw any light on the curious
behaviour of the fish in the small river hereabout; they appear to
collect in one pool, literally thousands of them, and you can
traverse for miles up stream and see no fish at all. These fish
are mostly Baka, running up to 6 or 8 lbs. We notice it every
year at this time and always the same pool. Are they spawning
or waiting for a spate, or what fishing is utterly spoilt and they
don’t seem to move again until it gets warmer in Feb. Min. temps.
have been 42-43 recently; unusually low.

MonaéaBARIE T. E.,

MiikAjJan P. O., Poe IMS IRIAN NY 3
ASSAM,

sth January, 1946.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555

| Regarding Mr. Pizey’s enquiry Dr. Hora writes :— J

‘The Baka fish of Assam is the same as Katli fish of the Nepa-
lese. I have written 3 articles’ about this fish in the series of
Game Fishes of India. For its general habits those articles can
be consulted. The only explanation that I can think of the
behaviour of this fish is that in the hills at this time due to cold
the water in the shallower parts of the stream becomes very cold
and the fish are likely to be benumbed. Deeper water is more
warmer and, therefore, the fish congregate in those water and save
themselves from cold. I think that is the explanation for the
peculiar behaviour of Baka observed by Mr. Pizey. The breeding
season of this fish starts from April in some warmer waters and
is continued up to September-October in higher altitude or colder
waters. So what Mr. Pizey has observed cannot be the spawning
movements of the fish. The cold water is responsible for the fish
not taking any food because it is well-known that during cold,
the movements of fish are inhibited and therefore much energy is
not spent.’—EDs. |

15.—0THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA.

The September issue of the Journal was not delivered to me
here till the 5th instant, hence the delay in writing to you.

With reference to the last para of your footnote at page 376 I
spent 14 years in Iraq and made extensive enquiries about fish
and fishing in the country and sent you a number of specimens for
identification. Some of these you sent to the British Museum,
but up to 1938 the Curator told me he had not been able to deal
with their identification and classification. He showed me Heckels
descriptions and I found that the correct spelling for “Scheich’ was
‘Scheick’, which of course was the German way_.of spelling our
word ‘Sheikh’. Unfortunately not having Heckels book with me
in Iraq I was unable to identify the various fish I and others
caught or which were netted, poisoned, or otherwise obtained by
the Arabs and Kurds. The 215 lbs. fish referred to, I was
informed by the Arabs, had been speared by them, and the 123 lbs.
was hooked on ‘‘Atta’’. I was unable to get any authentic
information about any large fish caught on fly or spinnings, so
when I hooked and landed one of 118 lbs. on spoon it was con-
sidered I held the record for the largest fish hooked and landed
On normal spinning tackle. A year or two after I retired from
Iraq in 1933, Major Wilson landed a 120 lbs. but I have never
heard any details. I wrote annually about the results of my fishing
trips to the Editor of the Fishing Gazette and he published my
reports; I also sent him a photograph of the largest fish caught in
a net on the Euphrates just below the Hindiyah Barrage in january,
1925, and he published it. This fish was 7 feet long, 4 feet in
girth and weighed 252 lbs. 48 hours after capture! The original

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

photo is still with me and I can send it to you if you would care
to see it and publish it. The Arabs informed me that the biggest
one they had ever captured was about 300 lbs. and I should think
that that is about the maximum weight these fish ever attain to.

With the exceptional facilities that I had I was able to try out
the fishing in various parts of Iraq and I had intended writing
you a comprehensive article in 1938 for the Journal, but the tension
in Europe then and since made me give up the idea, however if
you would still care to have such an article I might attempt to
write it now. Just before I left Iraq the Govt. there were taking
an interest in the fish life of the country and by now they may be
in a position to give you any information I am unable to do.

RIxDAL COTTAGE,

ABBOTSHAM, O. G. KIERNANDER.
BrpEFrorpD, N. DEvon, Major.
ENGLAND,

5 February, 1946.

(Dr. Hora in a letter to us gives the spelling of the Barbus
referred to, as Barbus schejk Heckel. He says:

‘Barbus schejk (Heckel) is a large carp inhabiting the rivers in
Mesopotamia. It has been all along confused with some other
closely allied forms such as Barbus xanthopterus, etc. It is not a
Tor type of fish but a Puntius in virtue of its interrupted labial
groove. : :

The photographs appearing in J.,B.N.H.S., xxvi, pp. 679 and
680 are not really of Barbus schejk but of Barbus esocinus
(Heckel).’—Eps. |

16.—_ EIST OF-CROP PESDS OF DHE PBOMBAYSR Rats TD RIN eve

Messrs. Trehan and Pingle’s very interesting paper under the
above title (1946, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 139) contains
several statements somewhat at variance with my own breeding
experiences in Calcutta. It seems worth while, therefore, recording
them.

Amsacta moorei Btlr.—I have not bred this species, but the
remark ‘hibernates as pupa in the soil’ shews a most unusual habit
for an Arctiid. Arctiids are cocoon spinners and, although the
cocoon may sometimes be placed under a clod of earth, I hardly
think that this can be described as ‘in the soil’, which gives the
impression of a subterranean pupa of the Noctuid type.

Spodoptera mauritia Bsd.—It is strange that this should be
single-brooded in the Bombay Presidency; in Calcutta it comes to
light all through the year. I have bred it in most months, both
in the hot and the cold weather, and I have never noticed any
tendency towards delayed emergence in the pupae.

Nymphula depunctalis Guen.—This, again, comes to light all
through the year in Calcutta.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 557

Sylepta derogata F.—When cotton plants are not available, it
will probably be found feeding on other Malvaceae. In Calcutta
it is a serious pest on Hollyhocks early in the year.

Utetheisa pulchella L.—Is it certain that the species is pulchella
and not lotrix Cr.? Friends in the British Museum inform me that
the latter is the common species in India. The easiest point of
difference is the black tornal spots of the forewing, which are
elongate in lotvix and round in pulchella. An alternative food-plant
is Heliotropium indicum. I doubt pupation ‘in’ the soil.

Prodenia litura F.—A continuously brooded species, with in-
numerable food-plants.

Eublemma olivacea Wik.—The larva is here described as green.
Mine were a purple-brown with rings of small yellow-green dots.

Herse convolvuli L.—There is also a green larval form. In
Calcutta the life cycle occupies about five weeks, I] have had moths
emerge thirty days after the laying of the ova.

Achaea janata L.—The normal habit of this group is to pupate
in a slight cocoon between two leaves.

Pericallia ricini F.—I have found this to be continuously
brooded in Calcutta. It certainly spins a cocoon in which to
pupate, a favourite site in Calcutta being in the angle, or under
the coping, of a wall.

Trabala vishnu Lef.—I would call this a large caterpillar. I
have seen single plants of Castor growing in Calcutta completely
defoliated by it.

Dichocrocis punctiferalis Guen.—Described as a dark brown
caterpillar, my description was dirty whitish grey, slightly tinged
with pinkish.

Acherontia styx Westw.—There is also a brown and a yellow
larval form. 7 :

Papilio demoleus L.—It is surprising that Papilio polytes L. is
not also recorded.

Ophideres fullonica L., O. materna L.—The larvae feed on
Tinospora cordifolia Miers, and on other species of Menispermaceae.

‘CALCUTTA,
roth July, 1946. D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.s.

17,—DRAGON-FLY PREYING ON A SCORPION.

On noticing a fairly large red bodied Dragon-fly of the type
common here, flying with something striking out at right angles
to its line of flight in front of it, I watched it land and proceeded
to investigate. It settled on a doorstep and it had hold of a baby
scorpion which was valiantly trying to use its dimunitive tail
against the dragon-fly’s head. The fly seemed to have hold of the
scorpion somewhere in the region of the thorax. I did not observe
further as on being disturbed the dragon-fly went off with its
burden.

PENGKALAN Bukit Estate,
Muar, JOHORE, MALAys, J. Ac HISLOP;
30th May, 1946. | i} Major.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

18.—SEA ANEMONES AS ENEMIES OF BIVALVES

It is well known that the large sized sea anemones generally
feed on small fishes, shrimps and crabs which they paralyse with
their tentacles. Broken pieces of animal and vegetable matter
contained in the sea water are also wafted into the stomach and
digested. The molluscan eggs and larvae and shell fish with thin
and fragile shells may also form a part of the food of larger
coelenterates. It is however not known whether the sea flowers
are capable of feeding on hard shelled bivalves.

The other day while collecting shells from the Mahim sea shore,
I noticed a fully developed bivalve (Donax scortum) idly ploughing
its way across a mud-flat. It had not proceeded a few yards before
it appeared to bury itself in the mud. In a short time however I
could see the two valves thrown out to the surface without the inmate
within. The disappearance of the animal was a surprise to me.
Searching in the spot where the living Donax appeared to bury
itself I found a large sea-anemone which with its mouth closed and
tentacles drawn in resembled a ball of jelly. Probably this jelly
fish must have swallowed the mussel. I poked the animal with a
rod to see if I could trace the shell fish inside its stomach. I was
not successful in my attempt as the jelly got mixed up in the black
slimy mud.

Any way concluding that the sea anemone had been responsible
for the disappearance of the Donax the question remains as to how
the former managed to extract the latter from its shell.

While moving all bivalves keep the shell valves slightly open
exposing the foot. In this particular instance the naked foot of
the Donax having come into contact with the venomous tentacles
of the sea anemone must have got paralysed and the jelly fish
would have pulled the mollusc out of its shell. This explanation
however is based on the assumption that the pulling power of the
sea anemone is more than that of the adductors of the mussel. I
leave the explanation to be confirmed at the hands of more ex-
perienced naturalists.

C/o THE CEMENT MarKETING Co. oF INDIA,

ESPLANADE HOUSE, WAUDBy ROAD,

Fort, BoMBay, T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM, B.a.
2nd July, 1946.

19.—MALAYAN NATIONAL PARK.

The King George V Memorial Park, to give its full title, is
about 1,700 square miles of uninhabited and partly unexplored
country surrounding the highest peak in Malaya—Gunong Tahan,
7,186 feet. It lies partly in each of the three States of Pahang,
Kelantan and Trengganu and is mostly hilly tree-forest with some
small patches of flatter grass-jungle and a little savannah and
high-level scrub. I believe it is true to say that Government
instituted the Park chiefly on the advice of the late Theodore

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 559

Hubback—certainly it' would never have become a concrete fact
but for his enterprise and energy. Unfortunately he was murdered
in the jungle during Japanese occupation.

Before the Japanese invasion Government was spending about
seventy thousand Straits dollars a year on maintaining and develop-
ing the tract as a national park. This was spent mainly on the
pay of a European superintendent, game-rangers, boatmen, etc.,
on keeping them provisioned, mostly by out-board motor-boats and
on making and maintaining paths and buildings. There were two
timber rest-houses, one at each end of the park, and twelve ranger’s
posts each with two huts of grass and bamboo built over a concrete
floor. Each post was occupied by a Ranger and two other men
who patrolled beats and kept the paths clear.

The objects of the park were, firstly, to preserve the fauna and
flora of a typical tract of inland Malaya in perpetuity and, secondly,
to make this accessible to the public as early as possible as a holi-
day resort and for scientific and educational study. Transport
difficulties limited the second object to about a dozen small parties
before the war and the park was never fully opened to the public.
These few experimental trips proved, however, that even with the
very limited resources then available it was almost always possible
to show visitors sladang! at close quarters and that other birds,
beasts, scenery and fishing provided ample attractions for those
who appreciate an out-door holiday. The many unofficial appli-
cations received for similar excursions revealed a growing interest
in nature and camping holidays among both Europeans and the
educated members of the Chinese, Malay and Indian communities.

Though it is too early to expect Government to decide on a
post-war policy for the park, there is no harm in my setting down
my Own views on its future possibilities. To begin with then
though it is hardly likely that the whole project will be scrapped
and the park abolished Government may not feel justified in contin-
uing to spend large sums indefinitely on an unproductive venture,
especially during slumps. It is therefore most important to make
the park self-supporting as early as possible—if this is possible at
all. There are many who think that it is not—but the same has
been said at the beginning of most, if not all, such schemes—of
the Kruger National Park certainly, and I believe also of the
famous parks of North America, though Americans and Canadians
‘seem to take more interest than we do in such matters.

The general opposition argument is:—‘Who is going to pay
to go into a forest where he is not allowed to shoot?’ and the
special lines for Malaya:—‘You can’t show game in heavy jungle’
and ‘Nobody in Malaya wants to leave the tarmac’. Of these
‘three the first has been out-of-date since the observation of wild
life and animal photography became popular, the answer to the
second is to use an elephant instead of field-glasses and the third

* Sladang is the Malay name of Bos gaurus which we ordinarily call bison in
India or, perhaps more correctly, by one of his vernacular aliases such as Gaur
(Hindustani), Gauri-gai (Gurkha) or Mithun (Assamese). It is, I believe, the
largest of living bovines and quite the most impressive sight in the Park.

104

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

I now know to be a calumny on a large and growing section of
the Malayan public.

Originally we intended to exclude motor-cars from the park
entirely but later decided that about fifteen miles of unmetalled or
laterite motor tracks in the west of the area would be necessary if
our aim is to show the greatest amount of wild life to the greatest
number of visitors. The conversion of the railway from Kuala
Lipis to Merapoh into a road by the Japanese makes this project
more attractive since it would make possible short trips to an
interesting part of the park for visitors in their own cars—an
important gain from a box-office point of view. One of these
motor-tracks would connect Merapoh with Sungei Ngeram a
fishing camp which may be considered the headquarters of the
western end of the park, though the rest-house there was un-
fortunately burnt down during Japanese occupation. From here
motor-tracks could be made to a well-known salt-lick to the north
and to a sladang’ grazing-ground and fishing river to the east
There would be room to extend this system of motor-tracks later
if desired as much of this part of the park is comparatively easy
country. -

For more extended tours, lasting ten days or so, travel would
be by footpaths between temporary camping-grounds on fishing
rivers, combined with boat-journeys on navigable reaches. Hitherto.
transport has been the limiting factor for journeys of this kind.
Porters are scarce and the best of them unable to average much
more than thirty pounds a piece while the weight of their own food
reduces the ‘pay-load’ by every day away from their supply-base ;
besides a crowd of porters is a real disadvantage if one wishes to:
watch wild life. This is where elephants come in—one animal can
carry the loads of twenty-five men, can live entirely on what grows.
in the forest? and, instead of being a handicap, is the greatest help
in approaching wild animals which allow a pad elephant almost
within touching distance ignoring its riders completely. Before
the war two elephants were bought and two more caught and
trained. One of these was shot during Japanese occupation but
the remaining three with their Tharu mahouts would form the
nucleus for a useful working herd. With a dozen elephants and
perhaps a few saddle-ponies a fairly large number of visitors could
enjoy trips in the park.

Given the elephants the only preparation necessary before this
sort of touring could be started is to provide sufficient tents and
camping gear, to clear a few camping sites (leaving all sound trees ~
in the upper canopy of the forest), to repair and improve existing
paths and to align new ones—work that could be extended almost
indefinitely according to the success of the scheme. Where paths
pass through sladang country it would be a good idea to remove
the lower storey of the forest and clear the undergrowth to a width
of a couple of chains on either side of the track. This light top-
shade, as we found by small-scale experiments, encourages the
carpet of short grasses (Paspalum, etc.) characteristic of the forest

—, ————

+ See footnote, p. 559.
* Malaya is the best country for elephant-grazing that I have come across.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 568

floor, without allowing the invaston of lalang, tebraw and other
coarse grasses (Imperata, Saccharum, etc.). Though sladang eat
the coarse grasses eagerly enough when tender shoots sprout
after a fire, I believe that their principal food is the short grasses.
and that it is only by increasing the grazing that we can increase
the herds.

This, however, is not the place to elaborate detailed plans, still
less to attempt to forecast the future in terms of profit and loss.
Though I am all for caution and gradual expansion along lines.
found, by trial and error, to be profitable, I still believe that it
would be cheaper, in the long run, to spend enough money in the
next few years to make the park at least partially self-supporting,
than to continue spending indefinitely the minimum that will keep
its boundaries intact. It may be said that the present is no time
to consider such amenities as national parks—with famine
threatening half the world—the present moment is certainly no time
for spending but it is never too soon to consider how to spend to
the best advantage when times improve. If the moment is
inopportune the era is all in our favour—times change quickly after
a war; a new generation takes the stage, thousands who would
never have seen a tropical forest in normal times have made its
acquaintance through jungle warfare; and though the majority of
ex-guerrillas may feel that they have had enough ‘bush-whacking’
for one lifetime, there will always be a minority who fall for the
fascination of the jungle and would like to revisit it, at least for
a spell, in peace and comfort. I have met some of them who felt
like this and it is from among such that we shall recruit our future
visitors and out future game-wardens.

The speed of modern travel can be relied on to make our
potential ‘audience’ more and more a world-wide one; I should not
be surprised if there is a demand for air-strips in the park before
long—I think I know of two sites; one of them within reach of a
reputed haunt of Rhinoceros sondaicus (if he is not already extinct
on the Peninsula) at any rate near R sumatrensis country. Once
inside the real jungle well away from human habitation, there was
no malaria even in pre-war days; to-day, should it appear, D.D.T.
around the affected camp would make short work of it. There is
perfect site for a rest-camp or small hill-station on flattish land
at about 4,000 ft. in the heart of one of the most attractive parts
OP WS IPawel se,

The necessities of jungle-warfare have led to improvements in
every sort of equipment and the tents, hammocks and everything
I saw with the para-troops when I came out of prison, were an
eye-opener though I thought I had up-to-date views on camping-
gear. Then again photography has not stood still—lighter cameras
and cinés, faster lenses, more sensitive fine-grained film and, above
all improvements in flash-light equipment have all made animal
_ photography a very different matter to-day and it is likely to become
one of the greatest attractions to the Park. Any modern camper
of imagination will realize, far better than an old-timer can, what
such things as the new fishing-tackle, the portable transmitters,

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the ‘dropped’ provisions and all the rest of the new-fangled benefits
will mean to him. In short I believe that, with the changing
times, the inaccessible, unwanted King George V National Park
of Malaya has a future at last—if it is given a dog’s chance.

Tue SANDS HOUSE,

SouTH NEWINGTON,

BANBURY, OxON, E. O. SHEBBEARE.
ENGLAND, .

20 August, 1946.

20.—A FIVE-BUNCHED INFLORESCENCE OF-A BANANA
(MUSA PARADISIACA LINN. VAR.)

(With a plate.)

The Plate shows a very interesting banana plant, a vegetable
variety locally called ‘monthan’ (Musa paradisiaca Linn.) which
was found at Colachel in South Travancore. While Jacob (1) has
recorded a fasciated inflorescence of a normal banana producing a
dozen different ‘hearts’, here is a case where five different bunches
have developed from a single plant. The plant was quite normal
for all outward appearances except for the very stout pseudo stem.
Out of the five bunches three were big and well developed, each
having a shot blade. The other two inflorescences formed a double
bunch coming out of a common shot blade. It is interesting to
note that all the bunches emerged simultaneously and in the same
direction. A dissection of the pseudo stem showed that four
distinct inflorescence-stalks had their independent origin from the
underground rhizome, the thickest of which had forked into two
after emergence. The suckers from this stock however failed to
imitate the benevolent mother. The local people considered the
plant to be sacred and divine.

Acknowledgment :—I express my great gratitude to the Govern-
ment Lecturing and Systematic Botanist, Sri S. N. Chandra Sekara
Iyer, M.A., for the encouragement and help he has given me in
producing this note. Also my thanks are due to Mr. G. S. Money
who was kind enough to take the photos.

REFERENCE.

K. C. Jacob ‘A Fasciated Inflorescence in a Banana’, Journal of the Bombay
Nat. Hist Soc., 1928.

Botany SECTION,

MaprAs AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND TRUPAPUR A. DAVIS,
RESEARCH INSTITUTE, LAWLEY ROAD, Research Student.
COIMBATORE.

18 October, 1946.

PLATE IT.

JOURN., BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc,

Dav

Photo by

Travancore

Musa with 5 Bunches Monthan, Colachal, South

JouRN., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A Multi-headed Palmyra, Muttom,

South Travancore,

PLATE II.

——— eS eo

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563

21.—A MULTI-HEADED PALMYRA (BORASSUS
PLABELLIFER L.)
(With a plate.)

Branching in palms though a very rare phenomenon has been
recorded in some cases. Jacob (1) and (2) has reported stem
fasciation in Coconut and arecanut. Yegnanarayana Iyer (3) has
recorded a coconut tree with two stems and another with seven
branches. Wray (4) has reported a ‘double coconut tree’. Palms
like Indian Doum (Borassus dichotoma White) are normally
dichotomously branched. However, not much is recorded about
the branching of the common palmyra (Borassus flabellifer Linn.)
During my tours, at places like Mannargudi, (Tanjore District)
Vellaikoil and Tennalai (Coimbatore District) Tinnevelly near
Tambarabarni river, Kallukutti (South Travancore), I have come
across palmyras with two to five crowns. The Plate shows a
monstrous palmyra with more than eighteen branches. The palm
was quite normal up to twenty feet height after which it branched
into two and again into a number of other branches. Twelve
branches are fairly long and distinct each possessing a separate
erown. Three of these branches again divide. The lower-most
branch on the left side (Plate) gives rise to five more small heads.
It is interesting to note that all the branches develop in a vertical
plane. Visitors to Muttom, the Light House Station in South
Travancore, can never miss this very interesting and rare freak.

REFERENCE.

1. K. €. Jacob, Journal of Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 37.

j <. C. Jacob, Journal of Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 41.

3. A. K. Yegnanarayana Iyer, ‘Curiosities in Coconuts’ Mysore Agrl.
Journal, Vol. 20, 1942.

G. Wray, ‘Freak of Nature’, Jamaica Agri. Soc. Journal, 40, 618.

Rev. E. Blatter, S. J., ‘The Palms of British India and Ceylon’, page 157.

K. R. Srinivasan, ‘Instance of Fasciation in Palmyra’, Bom. Nat. Hist.
Soc., Vol. 46, 1946.

to
key

non

BOTANY SECTION,

MaAprAS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND TRUPAPUR A. DAVIS,
RESEARCH INSTITUTE, LAWLEY RoapD, Research Student.
COIMBATORE.

18 October, 1946.

22.—VARIATION IN THE NUMBERS OF FLORAL PARTS IN
JASMINUM MALABARICUM WT.

In my excursions about Khandala during the last six years, the
variations in the flowers of Jasminum malabaricum Wt. have been
a constant puzzle. This year during the month of April, when
Jasminum was in full bloom and very abundant about St. Xavier’s
Villa, Khandala, I decided to study the question in detail in order
to try and fix the limits of such variations.

Large numbers of flowers were at first collected by myself, and
as far as possible, from different plants. Then, in order to avoid

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

any personal bias on my part, I had the help of our Mali, St.
Xavier’s Villa, to do the collecting; his instructions were to collect
one branch from every plant in flower which he could see in St.
Xavier’s Villa and Convalescent Home grounds; all our plants
were, then, collected within an area of about one square mile, with
St. Xavier’s Villa as the centre.

After collection within the narrow limits indicated, all plants were
taken to my improvised laboratory and their identification checked
individually; all the specimens dealt with for the purposes of this
enquiry belonged to Jasminum malabaricum Wt.; if there was any
specimen that appeared in the least doubtful, it was put aside and
left out of my calculations. One of the first results noted was a
very large variation not only in the number of floral parts, but also
in their structure, size, etc; in fact, about the only feature that
seemed to be constant was the number of stamens, which in every
flower examined was only two. In this note, however, I shall rest-
rict myself to variation in numbers.

In the first part of my inquiry every calyx and corolla was
counted independently, that is to say, first I counted all the corollas
then all the calyxes ; in this way about 3,000 flowers were examined.
At a later stage, however, after noting some sort of correspondence
between the numbers of calyx and corolla segments, I tried to
discover the relation between such numbers; for this purpose about
600 new flowers were counted, and this brought the total of flowers
examined to nearly 4000.

The task of counting so many flowers would have been alto-
gether impossible for me, but for the kind help and assistance of
the Rev. R. de Rafael, the Head of our Physics Department, with
whose help and advice a method was deviced for dealing with large
numbers of flowers in a relatively short time. The whole inquiry
took from April oth to April 15th of this year.

The following tables and graphs will give an idea of our results.
The number of calyx segments was found to vary between 4 & 8,
that of corolla segments between 4 & 11; the number of 3249 flowers
counted for the calyx and 954 for the corolla seems ample enough
to warrant our conclusions.

TAB ILI Il
KIC No. Calyces No. Corollas
examined examined

4 333 1
5 1,643 27
6 1,219 181

7 50 403
8 ae 266

9 66
10 : 9
11 % 1

Total .. 3,249 154

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 505,

Graphs Nos. I & II give a graphic representation of the distri-
bution of calyx and corolla numbers; the structure of the graphs
is clearly what one would expect from a normal distribution; this

4
_
200
100.
es ee eee ee) fe OLE BIO teen San dit ast icalatte. SPIED -<
4 5 6 vi 8 4 5 6 1 8 9 10 iM
Number of Calyx segments Number of Corolla segmenta

is even more clear when the number of flowers examined is plotted
not against the calyx or corolla numbers, but against their res-
pective logarithms.

At this stage, as stated above, it was found desirable to corre-
late the numbers of calyx and corolla segments. As will be seen
from Table II, whole flowers were counted, i.e., first the corolla,
then the calyx and the results were at once put in tabular form.

ADVAN 183 1L, 13,
Showing the Relation between Calyx and Corolla Numbers

TABLE II
NUMBER OF COROLLA SEGMENTS

he ACO 2 Be Kos 7 gs | 9 | 10 | Total
| | |
| eaten
2 4 Teale LS 28 6 | 60
7 | |
(ele nr seaeeen | etree & iSeenctac e| eS ee
3 | | |
12)
B 5 | i | 8 | &e 161 Ti | Meee 350
: =a ae a ee
a |
2 | |
6 6 1 14 72 52 3) J 148
by |
9 | | | | |__| — _ | —__-_
S |
o 7 1 Sree | 5
eee ae i | ob | | pe ae
Total 1 16 | 128 | ae 132 25 4 563

5606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Table No. II was submitted to Prof. D. D. Kosambi, the statis-
tician on the staff of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,
Bombay; after working out the correlation values between calyx
and corolla numbers, he sent me the following answer: ‘Corre-
lations calculated both in the integral units as well as the suggested
logarithmic units (Loge values for calyx and corolla numbers)
these values are respectively °

(= O.A75 ayers
l=0.277

and the difference is barely significant. Both correlations, however,
are highly significant indeed, though I do not know whether
linkage is to be suspected between the two characters. This
question of linkage which I suppose is most important from the
geneticist’s point of view, can only be settled by «experiment.
However, if you have reason to believe that the groups of plants
from which specimens are observed are fairly close in geographical
distribution and sensibly homozygous, I suggest that evidence
exists to justify the hypothesis of linkage.’ As a matter of interest,
all our plants came from a very narrow area, and this coupled with
the correlation between calyx and corolla numbers very strongly
suggests the presence of linkage; this point, however, will have
to be left out of this paper, as it goes beyond the limits of my
inquiry.

Conclusions:

1. When the calyx and corolla segments are counted independ-
ently of each other, the most frequent numbers for calyx and
corolla are 5 and 7 respectively.

2. When calyx and corolla are correlated among themselves,
the same results are obtained, the most frequent combination being
Ie, ORs

3. In the case of calyx, numbers, there is a high peak at K 5,,
and an almost equally high peak at K 6; outside these two figures,
there is a very rapid decrease in either direction.

4. In the case of corolla numbers, there is a high peak at C 7,
and from this figure there is a fairly gradual decrease in either
direction.

St) XAWIERGS) COULECE:
ForT, BomMBay,
15th July, 1946. 181, SAIN TAPIA) Sole

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V, M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,
VEPERY, MADRAS (P.I.C. NO. Q.H. MS. 5)—27-3-1947--1,300 copies. C3023,
EDITORS : S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN AND S41JM ALI, 6 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

sis A pe
1 Fi arian WAiy

- Vol. 46, No. 4. APRIL, 1947, Price Rs. 12 nett.

THE
JOURNAL

Bomzay Naturan History Socrery.

EDITED BY

S. H, PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S:, C. McCANN, F.L.S.. AND
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46, No. 4.

PaGs
Some BHAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXV. By
N. L. Bor, C.1.8., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., 1.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, M.Sc.
(With 1 coloured and 6 black and white plates) ad seeded OOF
Tae Earty STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XVII. By
D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ae oe oe en OT O
CavE Fauna. By E. A. Glennie sei wee Be Cs MOO.
THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE OF S.S. Samluzon. By
Major W. W. A. Phillips, F.1.S., M.B.O.U. oe bs see) 5993
REPTILES OF COCANADA. By Garth Underwood (With two graphs) ... 613
FreLD NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF SOUTH TINNEVELLY, SOUTH INDIA,
By Cx G. Webb-Peploe. ( With a plate) ene eas aoa 629

CakCA OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS. By J, L. Bhaduri and B. Biswas. (With
a text-figure) ees nee see bts sce «6645

FISHING CONTRIVANCES USED IN H. E. H. THE NiIzam’s DOMINIONS,
By S. Mahmood, M.sc., and M. Rahimullah, D.Sc., F.z,S. 78.033 64G

Somge& COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL

CHARACTERS. By E. Sayeedud-Din. (With three plates) «3309 4059
STUDIES ON THE SPOTTED BOLLWORMS OF CoTtrton—Zarias fadia S.,

AND E. zmsulana B. By M.C. Cherian and M.S, Kylasam Ape isheyes
BIRD LIFEIN AN ASSAM JUNGLE. By F.N. Betts ae fee OOM
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY oF Aphis Nerii (FONSC.) .. 684

Notes ON SOME BUTTERFLIES FROM PENANG AND WELLESLEY
PROVINCE, MALAYA. By J. W. Rawlins pane Wee ses SLOST

NOTES ON BIRDS COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA~—1935 To 1945, By

A.C, Trott re eh ste a. er ae O9t
THe MOVEMENTS OF THE Rosy Pastor IN INDIA—(FPastor roseus L.)

By Humayun Abdulali. (With a map) eee ane we «=. 704
REVIEWS :—

Memoir of the Angler’s Club, Madras dats exe 4% ce UHLOD

United States National Museum Bulletin 186. The Birds of

Northern Thailand ys re ors Cat an CAVE)

FaR RIDGES... Sas Fes ie ass cop Cl
APPEAL ae 5 cer 500 j 712

RESEARCH REQUEST are ie sie : Rey edhe

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 46, No. 4

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: -—

1. The sense of smellintigers. By T. E.H.Smith (p. 713).
Destruction of cattle by tiger ev masse. By R.C. Morris (p. 714).
Five shots within two hours at the same panther. By H. Gibbon
(p.714). 4. Reversal of feeding habits in a deer and a dog. By Sivatosh
Mookerjee (p. 715). 5. Natural death of elephant. By H.Gibbon (p. 716),
6. ‘The size of Indian elephants. By P. D. Stracey (p. 717). 7. The Record
Serow. By Van Ingen & Van Ingen. (With a photo), (p. 718).
8 Shamming death. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 719). 9. Spot-light
shooting. By Major-General G. de ra P. Beresford (p. 720). 10. On the
nesting of the Red-browed Finch [Cadlacanthis burtoni (Gould).] By Major
H. P. E. Waters (p.721). 11. The status of the Pied-crested Cuckoo and
Great Indian Bustard in Jasdan State. By Shree Yuvraj of Jasdan (p. 722).
12. The Koel [Audynamis scolopaceus (Linn.)] as an Egg-stealer. By
A. EB. Bagwell Purefoy (p. 723). 13. Breeding of the Blue-cheeked Bee-
eater [(Merups superciliosus persicus) Pallas] in Bhavnagar State. By K.S.
Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 723). 14. Breeding of Palm Swift [Zachornis
batasiensis palmarum (Gray) ] and Coot (Fulica atra atra Linn.) in Bhavnagar.
By K, S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 724). 15, A Swimming Peregrine. By
W. T. Loke (p. 725). 16. Painted Sandgrouse and other Game Birds in
Mysore. By G. V.R.Frend (p. 725). 17. Occurrence of the Malay Bittern
(Gorsakius m. melanolophus) in Mysore. By G. V. R, Frend (p. 727).
18. The Kentish Plover (Leucopolius alexandrinus Linn.) breeding in Kathia-
war. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 728). 19. Woodcock (Scolopax
yusticola Linn.) feeding with poultry. By E. G. Deeks (p. 729). 20. Note
on the migrations of Swinhoe’s Snipe (Capella megala Swinhoe) and Fantail
Snipe (C. gallinago Linn.) in Malaysia. By J. E. Kempe (p. 720). 21. Oc-
currence of the Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus Linn.) and Great European
Bustard (Ofis tarda Linn.) in the Punjab. By A. D. H. Bivar (p. 731).
22. Recoveries of ‘Ringed’ Duck. By Editors (p. 732). 23. Dawn-chorus
in a South India forest. By C. G. Webb-Peploe (p. 732). 24. Mango-
fruit—on the menu of the Common Python (Python molurus). By Sivatosh
Mookerjee. (p. 733). 25. Sex of Mahseer and Bokar caught in N.E. India.
By F. Woolley Smith (p. 734). 26. Krait’s method of defence against cat,
By V. M. Vasu (p. 735). 27. Additions to ‘The list of Butterflies of the
Simla Hills’ published in Vol. XLI, No.4. (Seealso Vol. XLV, No.2). By
M. A. Wynter-Blyth (p. 735). 28. Additions to ‘the Butterflies of the
Nilgiris’ published in Vol. 44, No. 4 and Vol. 45 No. 1. By M. A.
Wynter-Blyth (p. 736), 29. Note on the Butterfly [Valeria valeria
hippia (Fabricius) 2 form Philomela.] By M. A. Wynter-Blyth (p. 736).
30. An aberrant form of Neptis hyplas astola. By E. W. Maude. (With a
plate) (p. 73s). 31. The male genital tube in Indian Lampyridae. By
J. Samuel Raj (With two diagrams) (p. 738). 32. ‘Termite Fungi’. By
C. McCann (p. 739). 33. Kandia corymbosa Wight & Arn. (Aubtaceae)
A new record for the Bombay Presidency. By C. McCann (p. 740). 34. The
Genus ceropegia—A Comment. By R. Seshagiri Rao (p. 742). 35. Notes
on self pollination in two Orchids. By B. G. L. Swamy. (p. 743).

IN)

ni | Pais Cath aa “2
mG { Awa rea stapey a

Pk wos

or ay gest mies
Pt iene? pF PTS Bie ha
Ree Oe a bw 8 TR epi Ee) :
Jay eee P ih
Wad ate tt. Wits =
i 7 4
a “
: -
- t . ‘
re "
ae .
) 1 -_ ‘ = 7
/ F hae ® 4 = -
“lt ¢ qv s* =

Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXVII.

SARE

a NARS
ae

Gauge Sint
greene” cag 193g

Changeable Rose
HIBISCUS MUTABILIS LINN.

(nearly natural size)

JOURNAL
OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1947. VoL. 46. No. 4

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

INS ee BOR G.E.E:. M-A-,..D.SC., aBelsS-h))lePsSs;

Forest Botanist,
AND
M. B. RAIZADA, M.SC.,
Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

PART XXV.
(Continued from Vol. 46 (1946), p. 413).

(With one coloured and 6 black and white plates.)
Malvaceae

This family, which takes its name from one of its genera, Malva,
the Mallow, contains 42 genera with over 900 species and is con-
fined, with few exceptions, to the tropics of both hemispheres.

The family comprises herbs, shrubs and trees. Mucilage cells
either singly or in rows, occur in the bark and pith. The leaves
are alternate and often more or less palmately divided but it
frequently happens that both entire and palmately divided leaves are
found on the same plant. Stipules are present, but they fall off
early and leave a scar at the base of the petiole. Young parts are
usually covered, sparsely or thickly, with hair. The pubescence in
Malvaceae is termed stellate because the individual hairs are not
single and simple but a number are attached to one point and
radiate from it like the rays of a conventional star.

The flowers are usually large and showy and are most often
solitary in the leaf-axils. Below the calyx is a structure known as
an epicalyx, which in this family consists of a whorl of bracteoles.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The epicalyx functions as an extra protection for the young parts
in the bud. The five, usually large and brightly coloured petals
are twisted in the bud. They are free to the base where they are
attached to the staminal-tube and fall with it when the flower withers.
The stamens are numerous. The filaments are joined together into
a complete tube which arises from the base of the petals and sur-
rounds the filiform style. The top of the staminal-tube is usually
produced upwards above the anthers and ends in a jagged or toothed
edge. The anthers are kidney-shaped and ‘1-celled.’, The pollen-
grains are large and spherical and adhere to one amainer in masses.
The extine of the grain is covered with spines. The ovary is
superior and generally 5-celled with many ovules attached to the
inner angle of the cells. The style is long and filiform; stigmas
the same number as or double the number of the carpels, capitate.
The fruit is usually a dry capsule, very rarely fleshy, or a peer
The seeds are sometimes hairy.

The flowers of the Malvaceae are termed protindrous) | ine vmune
anthers mature earlier than the stigmas. When the petals untwist
themselves the stigmas are hidden within the staminal-tube and the
anthers mature and burst before the stigmas emerge. By the time
the stigmas have emerged the anthers have turned downwards but
the slimy spiny pollen-grains adhere for sometime to the dehisced
anther-cells. There are five nectar. pits on the inner surface of the
calyx-tube ; one between each pair of petals. The nectar is protected
from the rain by the fringes at the bases of the petals. Insects
which come to take the nectar carry away some of the pollen with
them and transfer it to the stigma of an older flower. Some
American species of Hibiscus are said to be cross-fertilised by birds.
Although cross-fertilisation ts the rule in these brightly coloured
plants, self-fertilisation is quite a common phenomenon.

Many shrubby plants belonging to this family are cultivated in
Indian gardens for the sake of their gorgeous flowers. Hibiscus is
perhaps the best known genus but Pavonia, Malvaviscus, Malvas-
trum, Thespesia and Gossypium, as ornamental plants are by no means
to be despised.

It has been mentioned above that the seeds of some species are
enveloped in hairs. This is a device to secure wide dissemination
of the seed. This characteristic of certain genera is of very great
importance to mankind. For it is not too much to say that, if cot-
ton, the hairy covering of the seeds of Gassypium was, not available
to man, life as we know it, would be very different from that in a
cottonless world. These long 1-celled hairs which can be spun into
thread enter into a host of indispensable articles. It can also, as
if to counteract its usefulness, be used to produce a devastating
explosive.

Many of the species growing wild in India are well known for
their possession of a very tough fibre which is developed in the bast.
Urena lobata, a pretty pink-flowered untidy undershrub, is very
common all over India in plains and hills. The fibre of this plant,
which resembles flax, can be made into cloth, string-bag’s, fishing-
lines, twine and so forth. Several species of Abutilon, another

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 569

genus of Malvaceae, yield a fibre which: has some repute but for
which no commercial demand exists as yet.

Mucilage is found in large quantities in the roots, stems and
leaves of certain species and this property led to their extended use
as medicines in ancient times. A very considerable number of
malvaceous species are mentioned by Dioscorides and by the
herbalists of the seventeenth century. These species were pres-
cribed in various ways as tonics, aperients, aphrodisiacs, palliatives
and curatives for all sorts of diseases. The followers of Pythagoras
considered that magical formulae, written upon the leaves of Malva,
were far more potent than when written upon any other surface.
This particular plant also has the dubious honour of being mentioned
by the Latin poet Martial who in the following lines—

Exoneraturas ventrem mihi vilica malvas

Attulit et varias, quas habet hortus, opes.
sings of its virtues as a purgative.

Although members of the Malyaceae have been known in Europe
since very early times, competent botanists consider that no mal-
vaceous plant can be deemed beyond all doubt to be indigenous to
Europe. As stated above the real home of the family is in the
warmer regions of the earth.

Hibiscus Linn.

(This name is derived from ebiskos, ibiskos, Greek words used
by Dioscorides to designate Alihaea officinalis, the Marsh Mallow.)

Herbs, shrubs, climbers or trees: Leaves alternate, usually
palmately lobed or cut; stipules early caducous. Flowers large,
showy, axillary or rarely in a terminal raceme. Bracteoles below
the calyx, 4-12 or rarely 0, usually free from one another and from
the calyx; calyx bell-shaped, 5-lobed; lobes valvate. Petals 5,
connate at the base and adnate to the staminal-tube. Staminal-tube
5-lobed or 5-toothed at the top, giving off the free ends of the
stamens at different levels. Ovary 5-celled; ovules 3 or more in
each cell; styles 5, connate below; stigmas capitate. Fruit a 5-
valved or 5-celled capsule. Seeds reniform, globose or obovoid,
glabrous, velvety, cottony or scaly.

This genus contains about 200 species of which a fair number
are indigenous to India. Some of the indigenous species are used
as food, some as medicines, while others are valued for the fibre
which they yield. A few of these which are valued for some reason
or another but not cultivated in gardens for show, are the follow-
ing :—

Hibiscus abelmoschus Linn.

The Musk Mallow.

(Arabic Hab-ul-mushk from which the specific name is derived.
The Sanskrit name is Gandapura.)

An annual or biennial plant found in the hotter parts of India.
The seeds are musk-scented and contain an oil which is extensively
used in native medicine; it is said to be antispasmodic, stomacnic,
diuretic and to be of value in venereal diseases.

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Hibiscus cannabinus Linn.
Deccan Hemp, Ambari Hemp.

(Hind: Ambari).

A small herbaceous shrub which is extensively cultivated as a
fibre crop outside the great jute areas. The fibre is said to be
stronger than jute. The seeds contain an oil which is a good lubri-
cant and illuminant. Burkill says it is suitable for the manufacture
of linoleum paints.

Hibiscu esculentus Linn.
Ladies’-Fingers.
(Hind: Bhindi).

A tall herb cultivated evervwhere in India for the sake of its
young capsules which are largely eaten as a vegetable. Opinion
as to the palatability of Ladies’-finger vary, some liking them, while
others consider them to be absolutely revolting in the insipidity.
The latter opinion is due to the amount of mucilage they contain
which, when the vegetable is boiled, appears in large quantities.
The unpleasant aspect of the vegetable can be got rid of by boiling
the capsules in vinegar. The plant 1s also valued for its medicinal
virtues. Decoction of various parts of the plant are used in venereal
diseases.

Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.

The Rozella or Red Sorrel.
(Hind: Patwa).

A shrub which is very extensively cultivated in India. It has red
stems and a succulent, red, fleshy, edible calyx. The calyx can be
made into jellies or preserves and has a very delicate flavour. The
stem yields a fairly strong’ fibre.

A number of species of Hibiscus are cultivated. in gardens for
their very showy flowers. As always happens the horticulturists
have bred, crossed, rebred and recrossed the various species until
we have a bewildering set of names and colours among which the
original species are almost lost. In the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, Vol. xx, 1906, p. 892, et seq. Mr. Mil-
lard gives a list of the varieties of Hibiscus as known to him at that
time. He lists 7 double and 24 single varieties.

More recently Mrs. Robinson (Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,
Vol. xl, 1938, pp. 1-7), published a paper on the ‘Raising of Hibis-
cus from seed’ in which she discusses upon the many varieties of
Hibiscus, their pollination, and other interesting themes.

It may interest readers to know that in Hawaii up to the year
1913 over 1000 crosses of Hibiscus were made. It is not too much
to conclude that in the intervening years several thousand more might
have been accomplished.

M. B. RaizapDa,

Changeable Rose.
Hibiscus mutabilis Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

BoMBAY NAT, HIstT.

M. B. RatzaADA

The Coral Hibiscus.
biscus schizopetalus (Mast.) Hook. f
New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 57t

When making a cross it is advisable that the unopened anthers
of the female parent be cut away. This is accomplished by removing
the petals of a bud that is going to open the next day. One can
easily judge this by the size of the bud. Having removed the un-
opened anthers the staminal-column is placed in a pollen bag, i.e.,
a bag which prevents the transference of pollen to the stigmas
through the agency of wind or insects. Dry pollen from the male
parent should be deposited upon the receptive stigmas and the
pollen bag replaced until the stigmas wither. As has already been
mentioned the stigmas of certain species do not appear until the
pollen has been shed several hours after the flower has opened.
In such cases the anthers may be removed after the flower opens.

Seeds resulting from natural or artificial pollination are ripe in
about 6 weeks. These seeds may be planted as soon as dry or
they may be kept for some time as their viability is high. All seeds
resulting from cross must be sown as the amount of variation
resulting from a cross is considerable and all seedlings obtained must
be raised in order to get material for propagation and for further
crossing’.

In Hawaii the seeds of Hibiscus are usually planted in pots
‘25 in. deep in a 1 in. deep layer of coral sand or top of the soil.
Seedlings are transplanted after 1 month when they are 2 in. high.
When they reach a height of 5 in. they are again transplanted.
The seedlings are said to flower from 9-12 months after the seed
has been sown. |

In order to perpetuate the desirable characters of the hybrid as
revealed by the flowering of the seedling, these hybrids must be
propagated by grafts or cuttings. Cuttings of well matured wood
.5-1 in. diameter and 5 in. long do best. Cuttings should be
planted 3 in. deep in sand and if the latter is kept well watered roots
should form in 6 weeks.

With few exceptions all varieties are scentless. The flowers
usually open in the early morning and stay fresh for about twelve
hours or so. When picked, all varieties stay just as crisp and fresh
with or without water. They are, therefore, not suitable for table
decoration.

Most hibiscus plants flower best in the hot months, although a
few blooms appear in off-season. The cultivation is easy and
demands but little care and plants can easily be multiplied by
cuttings, although the hybrids are often slow in striking. The
plants lend themselves to a variety of uses: they will grow as
shrubbery masses, either tall or short; they can be trimmed into
hedges for which purpose the common single red, H. rosa-simensis
is the best ; they will cover arbors and will even form standard trees.

Hibiscus are sun-loving plants and should not be planted in
shade. They grow so rapidly that much pruning is necessary. and
it is the lack of such care that makes them so often look ragged
and unsightly. The blooms occur on the new wood, so that heavy
pruning also induces extra flowers. The plants prefer a deep rich
soil and a good unfailing supply of moisture.

in this part of our series we shall only deal with the ‘Undiluted’
as it were, species to be found in our gardens. It is not possible

572 fOURNAL, BOMBAY ,.NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

to trace the innumerable hybrids which have been produced at
various horticultural centres.

IKKEY TO THE SPECIES OF HIBISCUS.

Flowers double, changing in colour from white to red. H. mutabilis.
Flowers single or double, not changing as above.
Petals cut and lobed. H. schizopetalus.

Petals not cut, entire.
_ Stamens prominently exserted; flowers never lilac
or purple H. rosa-sinense.
Stamens not exserted ; flowers lilac, purple or blue. H. syriacus.

Hibiscus mutabilis Linn.
Changeable Rose.

(Mutabilis means changing in Latin, and refers to the flowers of
the species which change colour from white to red during the course
of the day.)

Description.—A deciduous shrub or small tree with brownish
bark on the old stems ; younger parts greenish covered with a stellate
tomentum, among which are to be found erect simple, golden
glandular hairs... Leaves alternate, petiolate, stipulate, 4-9 in. long
and has broad, deeply cordate, 3-5-lobed, crenate on the lobes,
stellate tomentose on both surfaces, but much more thickly on the
jower surface, yellow glandular hairs present; middle lobe long,
caudate, acute; petiole up to 9 in. long terete, tomentose; stipule
linear-subulate. :

Flowers large, single or double, 3-4 in. across, pedunculate,
axillary ; peduncles 2-3 in. long, terete, stellate-tomentose, glandular
hairy, articulate about .3 in. below the flower. Epicalyx of 6-9
lanceolate, tomentose lobes; calyx bowl-shaped, yellowish-green,
glandular hairy, 5-lobed; lobes triangular up to 1 in. long acute,
valvate. Petals 5 or several times that number, orbicular, obovate,
shortly clawed, white at first, fading to pink. .2-2.5 in. long,
glabrous, becoming hairy below. In cases when the corolla is double
the extra petals arise from the staminal-tube. Stamens numerous;
anthers 1-celled. Ovary covered with a dense mat of short silver
hairs. Capsule sub-globose, ‘8 in. in diameter, hirsute, endocarp
with dense white hairs. Seeds brown, densely bearded on one side.

Flowers.—Sept.-Oct. Fruits Oct.-Nov.

Distribution.—Roxburgh states that this plant is a native of
China. It has, however, been cultivated in this Gate for a very
long time as an name ntal shrub.

Gardening.—A very common large deeuene shrub with large
heart-shaped leaves. During September and October it bears in
constant succession, a profusion of large, handsome, usually double
flowers, somewhat like an immense double rose, which are white as
they open fading to a deep rose tint. Haines, however, states that
the sequence of fading, white to red, does not always occur and
that occasionally individual flowers are red or pink from the bud.
Propagated by cuttings which root readily, or by seed for even the
double-flowered form fruits freely in this country. It should be cut

BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc, Plate III.

Photo bv M. B. Raizapa.
Chinese Shoe-flower,
Hibiscus vosa-sinensts Linn. (Double flowered form)
New Forest, Dehra Dun.

ern MATA FAN GSATA TF AAART

“UUIT SUSUBUIS-DSOA SNISIQUET

‘VaVZIVY “dH “IOMO]-9OYS ssoulys &q 004

"AI 93%Iq "00S “ISIH] ‘LVN AVaNOg

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 573

back after flowering. The shrub is not particularly ornamental
when not in bloom. The flowers are, however, handsome and
provide colour in the garden when it is badly needed. It is not
particular in its soil requirements but insects sometimes attack it
readily making it rather unsightly.

Hibiscus schizopetalus (Mast.) Hook.f.
‘Coral Hibiscus.’

(Schizopetalus means split petals and refers to the beautifully cut
and laciniate petals of this species.)

Description.—A glabrous shrub sometimes rambling. Leaves
alternate, stipulate, petiolate, ovate or elliptic in shape, shining,
crenate-serrate on the margins except at the base, 3-5-nerved from
the base, 2-3.5 in. long; stipules minute, subulate, caducous ; petiole
5-1 in. long.

Flowers axillary, drooping and fuchsia-like ; peduncle 6 in. long,
jointed in the middle, glabrous. Epicalyx of 7 minute, subulate
bracteoles, or absent. Calyx .7 in. long, cylindrical spathaceous,
at length split into 2-3 lobes; lobes obtuse. Petals 5, oblanceolate
in outline, clawed, the margins beautifully cut or laciniate, of a deep
crimson colour, reflexed, 2-3 in. long. Staminal-tube very long up
to 6 in. in length, red, slender, divided at the top into an irregular
number of lobes. Ovary pear-shaped, minutely hairy; style very
long slender, dividing at the top into 5 long arms, each of which
terminates in a capitate stigma. Fruit a long capsule, with smooth
seeds.

Flowers.—April-Sept. Does not set seed in this country.

Distribution.—A native of tropical Africa; common in gardens
throughout the country.

Gardening.—A large, evergreen, shrub with slender drooping
branches. The flowers are red or orange-red, drooping and fuchsia-
like, with the petals deeply cut and fringed. It was discovered by
Dr. Kirk, Consul at Zanzibar who found it first in 1874 on the coast
hills at Mombasa where it grows both in dry rocky slopes and in
damp mountain glens, in dense shade, amongst bignonias, balsams,
and ferns. Propagated by cuttings.

The coral hibiscus has been frequently crossed with other varieties
and thus many of the newer sorts show a longer central column and
petals more frilled than are found in ordinary kinds. The colour
tange also varies except that it is not blue or purple.

Hibiscus rosa-Sinensis Linn.

Chinese Rose, Common Garden Hibiscus, Chinese Shoe-flower.

(The specific name refers to the origin of the plant.)

Description.—An evergreen shrub but in favourable situation
reaching the dimensions of a small tree, glabrous (younger parts
slightly pubescent). Leaves alternate, stipulate, petiolate, 2.5-5 in.
long, ovate-acuminate, coarsely serrate, glabrous and_ shining,
sometimes lobed, 3-nerved at the base ; stipules ensiform or subulate;
petiole up to 1 in. long.

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Flowers solitary from the upper axils, pedunculate; peduncles
longer than the petioles as long as the leaves, jointed .5 in. below
the epicalyx. Epicalyx of 6-7 linear bracteoles shorter than the calyx,
connate at the base, often with a few hairs along the margins. Calyx
campanulate, including the lobes, 1.25 in. long, light green in colour
with darker nerves, 5-lobed; lobes triangular-acute, .5 in. long.
Petals 5, crimson, with a darker eye, obovate-obtuse, covered with
short white hairs in the bud, afterwards glabrous, clawed, ciliate
on the claw, up to 4 in. long by 2.5 in. wide at the broadest part.
Staminal-tube 3.5 in. long or more, terminating above in short
linear-acute lobes; stamens numerous; anthers t-celled, yellow.
Ovary conical, obtuse, .4 in. long, cream-coloured, covered with a
very short erect pubescence. Style filiform, dividing into 5 branches
.25 in. below the capitate red hairy stigmas. The fruit is a capsule
up to .75 ‘ins long:

The colour of the corolla of this species is extremely variabie in
cultivation. Double-flowered forms are common and in others the
corolla may be magenta, cherry, bright red, yellow or striped white
and red.

After the pollen has been shed the corolla begins to fade and
wraps itself round the stamens and any pollen which may still be
sticking to them. The stigmas are, however, still receptive and
are guarded against self fertilisation. Sun birds certainly do aid
in cross-fertilisation here.

Flowers.—Practically ail the year round but profusely from
April-September. Does not set seed in this country.

Distribution.—Probably a native of China, now common in all
warm countries.

Gardening.—A large, evergreen showy shrub which is commonly
cultivated for ornament throughout the tropics. It includes
numerous single and double varieties, varying from very large
brilliant crimson flowers, often 5.5 in. in diameter, through red to
salmon-coloured and yellow flowers. It is a favourite ornamental}
bush and is commonly grown in gardens throughout the plains of
India. Propagated by cuttings as the plant never seeds in this
country.

Medicinal and Economic uses.—The flowers are considered ref-
rigerant and emollient and an infusion of the petals is given as a
demulcent. The leaves are said to be emollient, anodyne and
laxative and the root is considered valuable in cough. According
to Roxburgh the petals are used to blacken shoes, hence the English
name of the plant. The Chinese are said to utilise them in the same
way, and also to make a black dye for their hair and eyebrows from
the petals. The bark yields a good fibre.

Hibiscus syriacus Linn.
Shrubby Althaea, Rose-of-Sharon.

(The specific name refers to the alleged native country of the
plant.)

Description.—A shrub reaching 9 ft. in height, young parts
covered with a soft sparse pubescence. Leaves alternate, petiolate,

Hist. Soc.

M. B, Raizapa.

Rose of Sharon,
Hibiscus syriacus Linn,
New Forest, Dehra Dun.

BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate VI.

Photo by M. B. RaAtizaDA.
Rose of Sharon.
Hibiscus syviacus Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPIEKA 575

stipulate, triangular, rhomboid, or rhomboid-ovate in shape, 5-nerved
at the cuneate base of which 3 (the midrib and 2 lateral) are strongly
marked, glabrous on both surfaces or with a few scattered tufts of
stellate pubescence; 2-3 in. long; margins with crenate teeth in
the upper two-thirds; petiole up to 1 in. long; stipules minute.

Flowers axillary, solitary, seated on stout peduncles which are
shorter than the petioles. Epicalyx consisting of 6-7 sp. linear, .
narrow lobes, shorter than the calyx. Calyx bowl-shaped with the
lobes .75 in. long, 5-lobed; lobes triangular acute, valvate in the
bud, stellate-tomentose outside. Petals 5, pale purple or white,
orbicular, clawed, 2 in. long by 2.5 in. wide at the broadest part,
ciliate with white hairs. Staminal-tube short, not exserted, about
1.5 in. long, white or very pale purple. Ovary pubescent; style
filiform; stigma white. The species is also extremely variable as
regards the colour of its flowers; purple-pink, deep-purple, white,
violet-red and pink forms are all met with.

flowers.—June-August. Does not seed in this country.

Distribution.—Native country uncertain, but probably not Syria
as Linnaeus supposed, now commonly cultivated in the plains and
in hill stations throughout India.

Gardening.—A deciduous shrub which is immensely variable in
character of flowers, the colour ranging from blue-purple to violet-
red, flesh-colour and white; also in full double forms. Like other
species of Hibiscus it will grow in any good soil, but thrives best
in the hills and cooler plains districts. This species is of slender habit
and the growth is thinner than with the majority of other species.

ropagated easily by cuttings.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.
Part XVII.
(Continued from Vol. 46, p. 430.)
RHOPALOCERA.
PAPILIONIDAE.

Papilio polytes L., romulus Cr.
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliv, 78. 1943.

Ovum—Spherical, the base flattened. Clear lemon _ yellow.
Under a lens, the chlorion very slightly pebbled. Laid singly on
the upper, or under, surface of a leaf of the food-plant.

Described from ova found in Calcutta in September 1944.

Talbot, quoting Bell, describes the ovum as being ‘spherical,
hardly perceptibly rough on the surface. Pale orange, opaque,
shiny, smudged with pale brown. Diameter 1.2 mm.’

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Papilio demoleus L., demoleus.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i (2nd edit.), 188. 19390.
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlv, 189. 1945.

Ovum—Spherical, the base flattened. Pale greenish yellow.
Under a lens, the chlorion very slightly pebbled. Laid singly on
the upper, or under, surface of a leaf of the food-plant. Smalier
than the ovum of P. polytes.

Described from ova found in Calcutta in September 1944.

Talbot describes the ovum as pale yellow.

PIERIDAE.
Delias eucharis Drury.

Horsf. & Moore, Cat. Lep. E. I. Co., 80, pl. 1, figs. 1, 1a. 185%.
Moore, Lep.* Ceyl:, i, 140; pli '54; fig. tbs) 1881"
Forsayeth, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., iii, 337, 385. 1884.
Davidson & Aitken, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 358 1800.
Moore, ‘Lep. Ind., iv, 175, pl. 534, figs. 1, 1a-d. 1904.
Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, ii, 142. 1907.

Bell, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, 1149, pl. 1, fig. 17. 1912.

Ghosh, ‘Mem> “Dep. Agr.-Ind)) Ents, ser." 5. (),027, pli in, figs:
¥-4.° IOQT4.

Talbot, Monograph of Deltas, 497, pl. lui, fig. 6. 1937.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, (2nd edit.), 355, pl. iti,
f2SS1 1.227 1930.

Pupa—Head with a short forward-pointing snout and a. short
erect tooth above the base of the antenna. Thorax keeled with a
slight depression between the pro- and meso-thorax. <A _ slight
projection at the origin of the wing cases. Abdominal somites with
a slight dorsal crest and with a dorsal series of six spines, of which
the fourth is the largest. A subdorsal series of very small spines,
one each on the meso- and meta-thorax, and seven on the abdomien.
A series of eight short spines just above the wing cases, one each
on the meso- and meta-thorax, and six on the abdomen. Colour a
clear, bright, lemon yellow. The cephalic snout, the dorsal spines
and the first, second, fourth and sixth abdominal spines above the
wing cases black. The keel at the front of the meso-thorax marked
with a black patch. Wing cases marked with black along the
costal margin, the outer margin with a black line, just within which
is a series of seven conical black spots. Eye, leg and antenna
sheaths marked with black. Venter blotched with black. Cremaster
black with a transverse black dorsal bar just anterior to it. Sus-
pended, usually in a vertical position, by a girdle and tail pad of
white silk.

Described from a pupa found in Calcutta 19-11-44, from which a
male emerged 23-ii-44.

Bingham, quoting Davidson & Aitken, describes the ground
colour as bright yellow; Talbot, quoting Bell, as ‘slightly greenish
light yellow’ and his figure in the Fauna of British India shews an
almost apple green pupa. All the pupae I have seen have had no
trace of any green coloration.

- THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN. LEPIDOPTERA 577

NYMPHALIDAE.

Atella phalanta Drury.
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 40. 1940.

Another form has the head brownish yellow, the clypeus out-
iined with black and filled in with white, and with a black spot on
either side. Ground colour of body purple brown, minutely white-
speckled, and with a double, pale, dorsal line. A zig-zag cream
sublateral stripe. Spines black in some examples, pale pinkish in
others. Venter purple brown on the thoracic somites, pinkish on
the abdominal. Legs black. Prolegs pinkish. Spiracles black
ringed with white.

Another form of pupa is leaf green with all the spines metallic
silver tipped with red. A silver spot on the eye and a silver streak
along the inner and outer margin of the wing case, both streaks
and spots marked above with a red line. The amount of silver
varies considerably, it being almost obsolete on some pupae.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 9-iii-44, pupated
12-lil-44 and a female emerged 17-iii-44.

LYCAENIDAE.

Zizeeria maha Koll., maha

Ovum—Button shaped and intricately sculptured. Colour bluish
white. Laid singly on the underside of a leaf of the food-plant.

Larva—Head black, retractile. 31st somite retractile. Ground
colour dull green, with an indistinct darker dorsal line. Segments
fairly deeply cut. Clothed with moderately long, whitish pubes-
cence.

Pupa formed on a leaf, resting on a carpet of white silk and
supported by a girdle. Typical Lycaenid pupa in shape, the head
and anal end obtuse, the division between the thorax and abdomen
not very deep. Colour yellow green, the wing cases and a dorsal
line darker. Except for the wing cases, clothed with short white
pubescence.

Food-plant—Ovxalis corniculata L.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 14-iii-44,
pupated 17-11-44 and a female emerged 23-11-44.

Rathinda amor F,
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 399. 1938.

Another form has the ground colour pale yellowish green, the
tips of the projections dull brown. A transverse line joining the
lateral projections on the 5th somite, and a subdorsal line on the
6th to 8th somites brown.

A fuller description of the pupa is as follows. Shaped very like
that of a Syrphid but somewhat humped just before the thorax.
Attached to a leaf or twig by the cremaster. Colour bright green,
the head, thorax and wing cases slightly darker, and with a narrow

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

triangular chestnut, or dull brown, dorsal mark on the abdominal
somites.
Food-plant—Nephelium litchi. :
Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 14-t1-44,
pupated 18-ili-g4 and a female emerged 26-11-44.

HETEROCERA
LASiOCAMPIDAE.
Estigena pardalis Wk.

Ovum—Egg-shaped, slightly flattened at the sides. Colour
chalky white, a diffused olive brown blotch surrounded by a broken,
olive brown ring on the side and an olive brown spot at the end —
opposite the micropyle. The micropyle itself an olive spot. Under
a lens, minutely punctuate. Laid singly, or in twos and threes, on -
a leaf or twig of the food-plant. Hatched 16-11-44.

Ist instar—Head and body dark grey. 2nd and 3rd somites each
with a dark transverse dorsal band, 4th somite backwards with a
subdorsal black spot edged above with orange. A lateral series of
tufts of short hair and a dorsal series of tufts of longer, coarser,
black hair. Shape tapered from head to anal claspers.

2nd instar—Very similar, the lateral tufts larger. 2nd somite
with a dark, velvety, transverse slit with a tuft of short orange
bristles in front; 3rd somite with a transverse blue band with a
black spot at each end. 11th somite with a double orange dorsal
watt.

3rd instar—Very similar. The lateral tufts springing from
tubercles, those on the thoracic somites larger than on the abdominal.
Abdominal somites with a dorsal series of four red spots arranged
in a quadrilateral in place of the orange and black subdorsal spots.

4th instar—Head brownish grey, streaked with darker. Ground -
colour of body brownish grey minutely speckled with black. 2nd
somite with a transverse dorsal slit, lined with velvety black skin
and filled with black bristles, the anterior margin armed with buff
bristles and with a slight edging of similar bristles posteriorly.
3rd somite with a transverse dorsal slit, lined with dark blue and
edged, before and behind, with black bristles. 4th to roth somites
each with an anterior and posterior pair of red dots on the dorsum.
r1th somite with a double dorsal wart clothed with short buff bristles.
A series of sublateral tubercles tufted with pale brown hair, those
on the thoracic somites considerably larger and that on the 1st
somite double. Legs dark purplish brown. Venter brownish grey
with a median blackish stripe, the undersurface of the sublateral
tubercles, except on the 6th to 9th somites, blackish.

Final instar—Similar to preceding, except that the transverse
slit on the 3rd somite is lined with black instead of blue. Ground
colour sometimes somewhat mottled, in which case the 8th and 11th
somites have a dark dorsal blotch. The warts on the 11th somite
larger and clothed with buff scales. Spiracles buff ringed with
black.

THE ‘EARLY: STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 579

Pupa in a longish cylindrical cocoon with blunt ends, spun of
soft pale silk and heavily impregnated by, but not stiffened with, a
whitish chalky substance. Pupa pale olive brown, apparently
smooth but so covered with the white chalky substance that it appears
pubescent. Spiracles dark.

Food-plant—Carissa carandas L.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta, one of
which spun 16-11-44. and a male emerged 25-ili-44.

SPHINGIDAE.

Acherontia lachesis F.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 63. 1946.

Ovum—Pale green slightly tinged with orange. Ovoid in
shape, very minutely pebbled. Laid singly on the upper or under
surface of a leaf of the food-plant. Hatched 29-viii-44.

Ist instar—Head rounded, pale green. Body pale green, be-
coming darker after feeding, a few short colourless hairs. Horn
black, long and straight, the tip bifid. Moulted 2-ix-q4.

2nd instar—Similar, the dorsum rather bluer green. Head and
thorax with raised granules. Later in the instar oblique blue
lateral stripes appear from the 4th somite backwards. Horn tuber-
culate. Moulted 5-1x-44.

3rd instar—Head green, with a paler V-shaped mark from
vertex to each side of the mandibles, covered with raised granules.
Body yellow green, a darker green dorsal stripe and a lateral series
of oblique blue stripes, edged below with whitish, from 4th somite
backwards. Horn long, straight, yellow green with black tuber-
cles, the tip black and bifid. Legs pale lilac. Spiracles black.
Thoracic somites with pronounced raised yellow granules, the rest
of the body with less pronounced shagreening. Moulted 7-ix-44.

4th instar—Very similar to preceding. Head with a black stripe
behind the arms of the pale V. Body without the darker greet.
dorsal stripe, the abdomina] somites with dark bluish specks on
the secondary segmental divisions dorsally. Thoracic somites with
the secondary divisions forming raised ridges and bearing raised
vellow tubercles. The lateral stripes more pronounced. Legs
black with whitish tubercles. Horn long, slightly upcurved at the
end, green, shading into yellow apically, and bearing large tuber-
cles. Moulted 10-ix-44.

Final instar—Yellow form—Similar to the green form (Sevasto-
pulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliv, 419. 1944) but the ground
colour a slightly greenish yellow and the blue of the dorsal dots
and above the lateral stripes replaced by mauve. Buried 16-ix-44.

One larva was a distinctly bluer green in the 3rd and 4th instars
and had the whitish edging of the oblique lateral stripes expanded
into triangular patches. The final instar, however, was the usual
vellow form.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta.

Bell & Scott give the following description of the early instars :—
‘rst instar—Head and body pale yellow; horn black, long, straight,
bifid. In the succeeding instars, head and body green, horn green;

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

pale yellow oblique stripes develop, and pointed tubercles which dis-
appear in the fourth instar. A grey and a canary-yellow, as well
as the green, form may appear in the third instar.’

Acherontia styx Westw., styx.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 7, pl. 76, fig. 1b. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 67. 1892.

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 527. 1928.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 59, pl. viii, figs. 1, 2.

1937: .

Ovum—Pale yellow green, a very short ovoid in shape. Much
smaller than that of A. lachesis F. Under a lens the chlorion very
minutely pebbled. Laid singly on the upper or under surface of a
leaf of the food-plant. Hatched 24-ix-4q.

Ist instar—Head round, pale green. Body pale green, becoming
darker after feeding. Horn straight, black, of medium length only,
the tip bifid. Moulted 27-1x-44.

2nd instar—Very similar. The head and body studded with
white granules, those on the body placed along the secondary seg-
mental divisions. Horn tuberculate. Later in the instar oblique
white lateral stripes from the 4th somite backward appear. Moulted
29-1X-44.

3rd instar—Very similar, the white lateral stripes more pro-
minent and faintly edged above with blue. A darker green dorsal
stripe. Horn green, the basal half purplish above, studded with
small tubercles, the tip bifid. Legs pale pink. Later in the instar
the area below the lateral stripes becomes suffused with bluish white.
Moulted 1-x-44.

4th instar—Very similar. The head with a pale stripe from
vertex to outside the jaws. The upper blue edging of the lateral
stripes almost meeting dorsally and the white continued on the
somite behind as a yellow line. Moulted 3-x-44.

Final instar—Head green with a black stripe along the cheek.
Body with the thoracic somites yellow green, the 4th somite back-
wards rather bluer green and with dark blue dots along the secondary
segmental divisions dorsally, and with a diffuse yellow spot on the
anterior edge of each somite. 4th to roth somites with a lateral
series of oblique stripes, which continue almost to meet on the
dorsum of the somite behind, these stripes cream shading into yellow
in the dorsal portion and edged above with dark purplish blue, the
stripe on the roth somite extending to the base of the horn. Horn
yellow, tuberculate, rather short and straight, the tip slightly curved
down and then up. Spiracles white with the central slit black.
Legs black ringed with white. Buried 7-x-44.

There are also yellow and brown forms but I have not bred them.

Pupa in a subterranean cell, the walls secured by pressure and
Bright mahogany brown, the abdominal somites with
Meta-thorax with a subdorsal triangular
Cremaster black, triangular,
Spiracles small and black. <A

not by silk.
a diffused dark dorsal line.
patch of very rugose, dark cuticle.
rugose and ending in a bifid spine.
male emerged .23-x-44.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 581

Food-plant—My ova were found on Jasmine and the larvae fed
up thereon. Bell & Scott give the following list :—Dolichos lablab,
Eugenia jambolana, Coccinia, Jasminum spp., Nyctanthes, Solanum
spp., Datura, Bignonia megapotamica, Tecoma stans, Sesamum indi-
cum, Vitex negundo, Clerodendron spp., Citharexylum subserratum,
Coleus. Seitz gives Ligustrum lucidum in China.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta.

The earlier descriptions are very brief. Hampson, for instance,
gives ‘green, with oblique lateral yellow streaks on somites 4—r10’,
and Moore is little better. Seitz also gives a very brief description
and adds ‘the larva often found in wandering, betraying itself by
cracking with its mandibles.’

Nephele didyma F.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 11, 2, pl. 72, fig. 1b. 1882-3

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 108. 1892.

_ Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 326, pl. iv, figs. 13,
14. 1937-

Ovum—Almost spherical. Bright emerald green. Laid singly
on new leaves of the food-plant. Hatched g-ili-44.

Ist instar—Head yellow green. Body yellow green, becoming
darker after feeding. The intersegmental areas yellow. A slight
crimson suffusion dorsally just anterior to the horn. Horn black,
erect, the tip minutely bifid. A few very short black hairs on the
body. Moulted 11-11-44.

2nd instar—Very similar, ground colour green speckled minutely
with yellow. A faint white subdorsal line from 6th somite to base
of horn, more evident towards the end of the instar. Red suffusion
extended slightly further forward along the dorsum. Brown form—
Head orange brown, ground colour of body dull olive brown, the
markings as in the green form. Moulted 13-i11-44.

3rd instar—Very similar to preceding. Traces of a pale oblique
stripe running from below the spiracle on the 4th and 5th somites
to the subdorsal area of the somite behind, the posterior stripe more
prominent and sometimes reticulated about midway with purple. A
dark dorsal line. A pale median line from 1st to 5th somite on the
venter. Legs purplish. Spiracles black. Horn very dark reddish
brown. Brown form—Similar to the green except that the ground
colour is purplish brown and the pale markings are slightly tinged
with pinkish. Moulted 15-i1-44.

4th instar—Very similar. The oblique stripe on the 5th-6th
somite white, that on the 4th-5th obsolescent. An indistinct white
stripe from the subdorsal line on the t1oth somite to the ante-
rior edge of the anal clasper. Brown form—Marked similarly but
the lateral area below the subdorsal line very much darker than the
dorsum, and the angle formed by the subdorsal line and the oblique
stripe from the roth somite filled in with pale lavender. Moulted
17-11-44.

Final instar—Green form—Head green. Body green minutely
speckled with yellow. A dark dorsal line. A yellowish white sub-
dorsal line from the middle of the 6th somite to the base of the horn,

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

becoming wider and clearer as it approaches the horn. A faint
pale oblique stripe running from the spiracle of the 4th somite to
the subdorsal area of the 5th and terminating in a white dot. A
parallel stripe running from below the spiracle of the 5th somite to
the subdorsal area of the 6th, the portion below the subdorsal line
wider and whiter, and veined with purple. <A pale stripe joining
the subdorsal line at the anterior margin of the roth somite and
running to the origin of the anal proleg, the angle so formed
suffused with whitish. Venter with a whitish median line. Spira-
cles mauve ringed with buff. Legs lavender with a dark stripe
along the anterior edge. Prolegs green, the feet lavender. Horn
slightly downcurved, of medium length and ending in a small conical
point, deep lavender and minutely tuberculate. Brown form—
Marked similarly, but the’ ground colour a deep tobacco brown,
sometimes tinged with olive, and the subdorsal line and oblique
stripe to the anal clasper pinkish white, the angle formed between
them suffused with pinkish. In some examples the oblique stripes
are more prominent than in others. Resting position with the
forepart of the body raised. Before pupation becomes slightly
suffused with pink. Pupated 25-11-44.

Pupa in a slight cocoon amongst litter on the surface of the soil.
Shape slender, the proboscis sheath extended forward and shaped
like a duck’s bill. Head, proboscis sheath and wing cases paie
pinkish brown, the latter with indistinct dark transverse bars.
Thorax and abdomen purple brown, the former somewhat paler, a
dark dorsal line from base of the proboscis sheath to the cremaster,
and a pale subdorsal line on the abdomen. ‘The area below the
subdorsal line dark purple brown. Venter pinkish brown, a pale
line separating the ventral and lateral areas, and with traces of a
dark median line. Cremaster ending in two conical points, a central
furrow on the ventral surface. A male emerged 8-iv-44.

Food-plant—Carissa carandas L.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta.

Hampson’s description is ‘green, with a pale stripe from 7th to
iith somites’. Moore describes it as follows:—Larva. Young.—
Olive-green, minutely dotted with olive-brown; from 4th segment
a dorsal row of slender oblique violet-brown streaks, below which
is a longitudinal line extending to tip of horn; a reversely oblique
violet-brown streak also on 7th to r1ith segment; spiracles black.
Adult—green, with an oblique pale-bordered stripe on 3rd to 5th
segment and a longitudinal line from 8th segment to base of horn;
spiracles black. Pupa pale dull red; wing cases with a few dusky
spots; abdominal segments minutely spotted, and a lateral darker
streak; spiracles and caudal spine black.’ Bell & Scott describe
the first instar larva as honey-yellow.

Theretra clotho Drury, clotho.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 63. 10946.

1st instar—Head greenish yellow. Body greenish yellow,
becoming greener after feeding. Horn black, Jong, thin and

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LHPIDORLERA §83

straight, the tip bifid. lore-part of body slightly tapered. Moulted
25-x-44.

2nd instar—Head yellow green. Body green with a subdorsal
yellowish line. 4th somite with a subdorsal ocellus consisting of
a black pupil in a white ring. Horn with an orange spot at base,
the rest black, long, thin and straight, the tip bifid. Moulted
SORE

3rd instar—Ocellated green form—Similar to the unocellated.
But 5th to roth somites each bearing a subdorsal ocellus consisting
of a white bar edged above and below with dark blue, these ocelli
decreasing in size and becoming more rounded from front to rear.
Moulted 2-xi-44.

4th instar—Ocellated green form—Similar to the unocellated
form except for the extra ocelli, which are cream edged with dark
blue, and otherwise similar to the preceding instar. Moulted 5-xi-44.

Final instar—Ocellated green torm—Similar to the unocellated,
with the exception of the additional ocelli on the 5th to roth somites,
consisting olf a cream pupil ringed with dark blue, shape oval,
becoming rounder and smaller trom front to rear.

Described from larvee found in Calcutta.

NOTODONTIDAE.

Sluuropus ulternus W1k.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 110, pl. 119, fig. lb. 1882-3,

Hamps., ffauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 150. 1892.

Gardner, Ind. Journ. Ent., v, 97. 1944.

Ovum—Round, flattened above and below, porcelain white, the
micropyle a dark dot. Laid in ones and twos on the lower surface
of a leaf of the food-plant.

ist instar—Head large, dark brown, shining. Body dark brown,
shining. 2nd and 3rd pairs of legs very long and slender, and
always in motion. 3rd to gth somites each with a paired dorsal hump.
Anal processes repiaced by a pair of longish, down-curved processes.
The anterior and posterior portions of the body held erect. A very
good ant mimic both in appearance and behaviour.

~ Half-grown larva—Head large, dark purple brown. Body dari
brown, rather shiny. A yellow brown dorsal blotch on the 5th
somite and a large white one on the 7th and 8th. st pair of legs
longer than in normal lepidopterous larvae and stout, 2nd and grd
pairs very long and slender. grd to Sth somites cach with a
pair of dorsal tubercles, those on the 4th and 5th largest, qth to
6th somites each with an additional small lateral tubercle. gth
somite expanded sublaterally into a leaf-like process. 1oth somite
backwards expanded sublaterally so that this portion of the body
is roughly triangular and terminates in a pair of down-curved pro-
cesses, slightly expanded just before the apex, which replace the
anal claspers. The ventral surface of the hind part of the body
very dark brown and shiny, the dorsal surface humped and marked
with pale brown just anterior to the hump. The usual resting posi-
tion is with the abdominal claspers only gripping the support, the
anterior and posterior portions of the body held erect, with the legs

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46
folded back under the thorax. In this position it does not look like
a lepidopterous larva at all, but rather like an irregularly curved,
dead leaf. :

Penultimate instar—Shape similar to the earlier instars. Colour
dull blackish, a white dorsal and subdorsal line from the 5th to gth
somites, and a shiny black blotch just above the 1st and 2nd pairs
of abdominal prolegs, with another, marked behind with white,
above the 4th.

Final instar—Very similar to the preceding, the ground colour
sprinkled with minute white specks. The lateral blotch above the
ist and 2nd abdominal prolegs still present, but not shiny and
edged in front and below with white, that above the 4th absent.

Pupa in a loose cocoon of pale brown silk spun among leaves.
Mahogany colour, shiny. Apex of abdomen blunt, cremaster a
minute bunch of spines bent at right angles about half way along.

Food-plant—Ricinus communis L., Cassia fistula L. Gardner
gives Cassia javanica, C. glauca and C. fistula.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta, one
of which spun 26-11-44 and a male emerged 8-11-44.

Moore’s description is as follows:— ‘Larva purplish-black,
naked; two dorsal conical protuberances on fifth to ninth segment,
subanal segment tumid; two angular processes from anal segment ;
anal prolegs obsolete ; head large; second and third pair of foreleg's
long; anal segments carried erect. Cocoon silky, ferruginous.
Pupa purplish-black.’ Hampson writes ‘Larva dark red-brown; a
pale dorsal line; grey subdorsal streaks on 5th and 6th somites ;
paired dorsal prominences on 6th to 8th somites; the terminal
somite swollen and carried over the back, with two angular pro-
cesses from the extremity; the anal prolegs absent; 2nd and 3rd
pairs of legs long.’

LIMACODIDAE.

Narosa doenia Moore.

Hering, Seitz Indo-Austy. Bombyces, x, 677. 1931.

Head pale brown, retractile. 41st somite green, retractile. Body
bright apple green, a subdorsal yellow line, curved outwardly so
that the ends are rather closer together. Venter transparent, the
ventral area separated from the lateral by a cream stripe. Clothed
with short bristly pubescence. The larva has the appearance of
being covered with a glassy layer, below which small bright yellow-
green specks can be detected at certain angles, Shape ovoid, con-
vex, the segmental divisions not well marked.

Cocoon almost spherical, of the usual hard Limacodid type,
dark brown with an overlay of paler brown, this overlay absent at
the points of contact with the support. Spun in the fold of a leaf
of the food-plant. Empty pupa skin brownish yellow.

Food-plant—Ricinus communis L,

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 18-xi-43, spun
21-xi-43 and a male emerged 22-iil-44.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPLEKA 585

The description in Seitz is as follows:—‘The larva of the type
of the lohor larva, but smaller and light green, lives on Erythrina.
Cocoon globular.’

NOCTUIDAE.

Autoba (Eublemma) olivacea Wk.
Gardner, Indian Iorest Records, vi, 273. 1941.

Head brown. Body purple brown. tst somite with a black
dorsal plate, divided by a white line down the centre and speckled
with whitish. 2nd and 3rd somites with an elongate subdorsal
and a double sublateral raised greenish-white spot, another smaller
spot at the base of the leg. 4th to 11th somites with a double
dorsal, a subdorsal, a double lateral and a sublateral raised greenish-
white spot, the subdorsal spot placed posterior to the dorsal. rath
somite with a transverse series of four similar spots. Venter with
traces of transverse series of similar, but smaller, spots, the spot
on the ventro-lateral area and the one next to it larger. All these
raised spots giving rise to single, medium length, whitish hairs.
Anal somite speckled with greenish white. Legs black. 1st and
2nd pairs of prolegs obsolete. Lives in a spun together leaf or
under a roof made of the felted hairs of the food-plant.

Pupa in cocoon spun in the fold of a leaf of the food-plant and
mixed with felt thereof. Dark purple brown, slightly darker on
the dorsum. The wing cases and thorax tinged with olive. Pro-
thorax with a slight frontal keel. Cremaster broad and flat, ending
in a point on each side.

Food-plant—Brinjal.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 4-x-44, spun
13-x-44 and a female emerged 21-x-44q. |

(GEOMETRIDAE.

Pingasa (Pseudoterpna) ruginaria Guen,
Prout, Seitz Indo-Austr. Geometridae, xii, 49. 1932.

Head pale green with a pale stripe behind, very slightly bifid.
Ground colour pale green, a dark dorsal line. The thoracic somites
with a darker green lateral stripe. 4th to 9th somites with a dorsal
series of dark green V-shaped marks edged indistinctly with whit-
ish, the apices directed backwards. A subdorsal white line from the
roth somite backwards. A sublateral yellowish white line. Venter
slightly darker green, with a median white line and a series of
V-shaped white marks with the apices directed forwards. Legs
whitish, a stripe from the base of the third pair joining the sub-
lateral stripe. Later in the instar the dorsal area of the Ist to
4th somites, a transverse band posteriorly on the 5th to 9th, and
the dorsal area of the roth and s1th somites suffused with purplish.
The venter with the white Vs and the contained area similarly
suffused. This is not an immediate, prepupational change.

Pupa in a spun together leaf. Ground colour pale pinkish buff
minutely speckled with greenish black, the speckling rather thicker

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIELY, Vol. 46

along the dorsal, subdorsal and sublateral areas and forming’ in-
distinct stripes. Wing cases heavily speckled along the
costal and inner margin, and less heavily along the veins.
Thoracic spiracles placed in a deep pit in a black spot and with a
transverse black band joining them. Head marked with black
frontally and with a greenish black stripe along the proboscis sheath.
Cremaster a blunt triangle, hollowed out beneath and ending in a
cluster of hooked bristles.

Food-plant—Litchi (Nepheltium litchi).

Described from a tull fed larva found in Calcutta 1g-ill-44,
pupated 26-ili-4q and a female emerged 7-1v-44.

Seitz gives no actual description, but mentions the following :—
‘Piepers has described the mimicry of the larva, which simulates
a small snake, the head and legs being held a little separate to re-
present the open mouth, a pale lateral stripe on the body widening
anteriorly.’ { have not seen the original description but I feel that
mimicry of a snake, however small, by an inch and a half long
larva is somewhat fanciful.

PYRALIDAE.

Myelois pectinicornella Hamps.

Head dark chestnut. Body very pale pink. ist somite with
a narrow black dorsal plate divided down the centre. A subdorsal,
lateral and sublateral series of minute black specks, each giving
rise to a short colourless hair. 12th somite with a larger dorsal,
semi-circular, black spot in addition to the others, which are larger
than on the other somites. Anal flap and claspers black. Legs
black. Abdominal prolegs very pale pink. Spiracles blackish.

Pupa in a shuttle shaped cocoon of tough white silk, covered
with frass and debris. Pale chestnut brown dorsally, below
brownish yellow. Thorax with a serrate dorsal ridge, 1st
to 7th abdominal somites each with a double dorsal conical spine,
both ridge and spines very dark brown. Cremaster two stout down-
curved spines. Spiracles black.

lood-plant—Pongamia glabra, Several larvae live in a_ pod,
feeding on the ripe seeds, and the cocoon is spun therein.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 23-i-45, spun
24-i-45 and a female emerged 8-11-45.

(l'o be continued)

CAVE FAUNA

BY
E. A. GLENNIE

This short note on cave fauna will be restricted to a consideration
of those forms of animal life capable of living generation after
generation in parts of caves remote from any entrance and in fotal
darkness. These will be referred to as ‘troglophils’. In contrast
with these we have those animals which live outside caves on the
surface or below ground as far as the lowest penetration of roots
of trees, or in the holes made by worms, foxes, etc.

There is an intermediate fauna of very great interest. This is
the fauna which uses the thresholds or antechambers of caves.
Some of them go in to hibernate—flies, moths, reptiles, etc. ; others,
such as swiftlets and bats, use the cave as a habitation going out-
side for their food. Associated with this last class is a great con-
course of creatures living as parasites, or on the droppings or on
the moulds growing thereon. These may be mites, myriapods,
insects, molluscs, ‘eopeds: etc.; and then there are the animals that
prey on them,—beetles and their larvae, spiders, etc.

In one such cave in the Simla Hills which housed a large colony
of bats, there was such a multitude of large snails that they could
not be avoided. Every footstep crushed five or six of them.

Some members of this threshold community are potential troglo-
phils, but usually the effect of the occupation of part of a cave by
large numbers of bats or swiftlets is to drive away all troglophils
not ecologically adapted to this environment, to the unpolluted parts
of the cave. Thus in Swiftlet Pot in the Chakrata Tahsil, U.P.
the main part of the cave, where the swiftlets nest, contains no
troglophils. These are found in this cave only in a very small
deeper chamber cifficult to reach. Here the true cave collembola
and spiders are found in surroundings unaffected by the birds.

The study of this threshold fauna is important. It can be
pursued not only in natural limestone caves, but also in any large
cavities in rocks, in artificial caves such as at Elephanta, in the
entrances to ancient mines and in the deeper chambers and passages
of old forts. Naturalists who have not got the opportunity or the
inclination to penetrate deeply into extensive caves will find this
study well worthwhile.

Troglophils may derive from ancestors which entered the
cave at different periods of its formation. Hence since deep caves
are almost invariably due to the solution of limestone by water, a
brief account of the origin of limestone caverns is required here.

Limestone caves are usually considered to have been formed by
solution or erosion due to surface water trickling through joints and
fissures. If there is an actual stream running through the cave,
or near by, it is pointed out as the stream which made the cave.
This is seldom the case. As J. Harlen Bretz says ‘Most caves are
out of adjustment with the topography of their region, and there-

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

fore are older than the present cycle of erosion.’ This is em-
phatically the case with all caves in India seen by the writer.

According to the modern theory of cave formation there are
three stages in their development. These are:

First or Phreatic Stage.

This is due to solution by water under pressure, that is, below
the local water table. Often it will have commenced beneath a
peneplain towards the close of a previous cycle of erosion. Some
clay-filling may occur at this stage.

Population of the water-filled solution cavities is only possible
for minute animals since these must filter through the very narrow
cracks in the overlying rocks or soil.

Many minute crustaceans are less than a millimetre in greatest
dimension and their entry will usually be quite possible. At the
same time minute fragments of vegetable or animal matter will
percolate through and provide food. In this connection it is
interesting to enquire whether the water table below the Indo-
Gangetic alluvium contains a subterranean population. If this is
so, it may be brought to the surface in areas of tube well develop-
ment. Only careful examination over a long period would disclose
the existence of these tiny transparent animals.

Second stage: Removal of Phreatic Water.

Following uplift of the land introducing the present cycle of
erosion, the phreatic system of cavities begins to drain out, at first
in the upper parts only; later as uplift or external erosion proceeds,
perhaps the whole will be drained.

In the parts of the system now drained, isolated pools containing
Stage 1 fauna may remain. In the air-filled cavities stalactites and
stalagmites and other calcite deposits will begin to form.

These cavities now offer a home for land troglophils. So long
as there is no obvious opening, their colonization will depend on
the extent to which narrow joints in the rock contain a subterranean
population. Dr. Racovitza of the Speleological Institute, Cluj, has
suggested that the innumerable narrow joint cracks in limestone
hold a teaming population, and that the population of the larger
cavities is only a small fraction of the whole.’ This is difficult to
prove or refute. There are great numbers of large subterranean
cavities isolated from the surface. These may be detected by
geophysical methods or penetrated by chance by mine-shafts. If
on first penetration of such a cavity, immediate examination for
fauna (and flora i.e. fungi) could be made, the results whether
negative or positive would be useful.

It is a fact that certain cave beetles show a marked development
of sensory hairs on their elytra which seem designed to protect them
from becoming jammed during wanderings in narrow cracks, and
others, e.g. opilionids, even in the remotest parts of caves are only
to be found under stones or in crevices.

* Biospeologica II, 1907 p. 386, by E. G. Racovitza (archives de zoologie ex-
périmentale, Paris Libraviie H, Le Soudier),

CA VE FA UNA 589

The early stages of some cave beetles have never been found in
spite of intense search, though the adults are common. The
assumption is that this part of their lives is spent in crevices.

The absence of local races or subspecies in separate caves in the
same area would be an argument in favour of migration along
joint cracks.

It must be remembered too that, to a creature whose height is
less than a millimetre, a fissure two or three millimetres wide is a
roomy passage. Hence without any obvious surface openings a
subterranean cavity may become populated by land _ troglophils
during the Second Stage.

Third or Vadose Stage.

In this stage the water in the cavities is not confined under
pressure but has a free surface.

As soon as the joints or fissures are sufficiently open to admit
rain water freely to the air-filled cavities below, the third stage com-
mences. If at any time a surface stream, eroding its banks or
deepening its bed discovers a cave and pours into it, this stage
proceeds at an accelerated pace.

The rainwater or the stream carrying debris and silt commen-
ces secondary erosion and solution, or clears away to lower parts
the clay-fill of the first stage where this existed.

The intruding streams are misfits in the caves and alter them

Surface streams and flood water will wash in water- and land-
animals; most of these will be unsuited to cave life but will provide
food for the troglophils. Others will add to the cave population,

Some parts of the caves may be untouched by vadose streams ;
other parts may be affected for a time and then be cut off by the
deeper erosion of the main stream channels. Finally the surface
drainage may cut down so far below the cave that there is no
further flooding in of water-forms, but the way is clear for the
entry of land animals.

This brief description of the origin of limestone caves is very
incomplete. Those who wish to read more about it should refer
to the works of Professors William Morris Davis’ and J. Harlen
Bretz.”

3. I have tried to give a picture of the continuous invasion of
caves from the first stage of their formation to the present time.
The earlier stages may have occurred at a remote period long
before the emergence of Man, and at that time the cave may have
been in very different surroundings and climate.

So little collection has been done in Indian caves that there is
little evidence, so far, to show to what extent animals from the
earlier stages may have lingered on in caves after vanishing from
the surface.

———_—_—— OOOO

* Origin of limestone caverns by W. M. Davis Bulletin of the Geological
Society of America, Vol. XLI (1930), pp. 475-628.

* Vadose and phreatic features of limestone caverns by J. Harlen Bretz
The Journal of Geology (University of Chicago Press) Vol. L, No. 6, Part II

(1942), pp. 675-811.

§90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Troglophils are usually representatives of groups not much
studied, and the discovery of a new genus or species in a cave does
not necessarily mean that it is not to be found on the surface.

Thus, for instance, the recent discovery of a_ palpigrade
(Avachnida) in an Indian cave has no special significance, although
it is believed that this is the first find of this family in India. It
has a world-wide distribution and may well have surface forms in
India which have not yet been recorded.

The large cave Campodea which the writer found in two widely
separated caves in the Simla Hills is probably a survival in caves
from a time when Campodea of this size were widely distributed
as surface forms. This striking creature is much larger than the Cam-
podea of the Mamouth Caves of America, which are themselves
larger than any known surface forms.

A Collembola found in certain caves in the Dehra Dun District,
U.P., is described by Dr. R. S. Bagnall as an Onychiurus of excep-
tional interest since it combines the features of two distinct groups.
So this also seems to be a sort of living fossil.

4. If the long survival in caves of certain troglophils is
established, the question arises—To what extent are the present
survivors similar to their surface representatives at the time of their
first migration into caves? or in other words—What changes have
occurred during their sojourn in caves?

Before attempting to answer these questions, it is first necessary
to enquire what sorts of creatures are capable of colonising the
deeper parts of caves, i.e. What are the potential troglophils?

These are:

I. LAND ANIMALS.

A. Non-predators

Those dependent on green vegetation, or dependent on specific
food not obtainable in caves are excluded. The food of non-
predatory troglophils is decaying vegetable or animal debris, moulds
and other fungi.

Large animals cannot survive for want of food sufficient to
support them for long.

Hence non-predatory troglophils are derived mainly from those
small creatures living on the surface in humid micro-caverns i.e.
in fox holes, underground ant nests, etc., in cracks of rocks or under
stones, under bark, under dead wood or leaves, or deep in wet moss,
ELC.

The importance of humidity must be stressed. Troglophils are
characterised by an intolerance of a dry atmosphere.

Migration into caves is not deliberate but is the result of response
to an urge to seek any dark damp place and in some cases narrow
and confined places.

The chief non-predatory troglophils are:

(i) Primitive wingless insects of the order Apterogota-
Collembola (Spring-tails).
(ii) Certain families of Diptera e.g. Mycetophyllidae,
(iii) Avachnida—Mites.

CAVE FAUNA 5Q1

(iv) Myriapoda—Diplopoda (millipedes).
(v) Worms.
(vi) Molluscs (snails).
Collembola usually form the chief non-predatory part of a cave
community, and provide sustenance for many of the predators.

B. Predators

These are in general those which, on the surface, live in the
same situation as the non-predators which are potential troglophils,
as in A above, in order to prey on them.

Also the larger true spiders and others which begin as threshold
colonists and spread into the deeper parts.

Thus we have:

(1) Beetles.
Staphylinidae.
Cryptophagidae.
Pselaphidae.
Certain groups of Carabidae, etc.

(2) Orthoptera.
Crickets.

(3) Apterogota.
Campodea.

(4) Arachnida.

True spiders,
Opilionids.
Mites.

II. WaTER ANIMALS.

As in the case of land animals, those water animals which are
preadapted to some extent to cave life are potential troglophils.
These will be those which are nocturnal in habit, or which live in
holes, under stones or in mud.

Water troglophils have a tendency to shun the light. Unlike
many land troglophils which, if the humidity is sufficient, may stray
outside, fully adapted water-troglophils find light an effective barrier,
and will remain in the dark parts of the cave, even though there
is a free and easy passage out into the light.

Water animals may be:

1. Fish.
2. Crustaceans.
3. Worms.

The only cave in India containing permanent water which I have
entered was in the Kaimur Hills of Bihar. There I found a colony
of catfish in an isolated pool beyond the reach of any possible flood
water about 200 yards from the entrance of the cave.

5. It is evident from the preceding section that most potential
troglophils are already adapted wholly or in part to cave life.

There is a marked uniformity of environment in a cave; in con-
sequence accelerated evolution due to climatic vicissitudes, etc. is
absent. The population, however, may be small and isolated, and
in such a case chance variations eyen though not adaptive may be

592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOULELY, Vol. 46

fixed. In this way different sub-species or closely related species
may come into existence after a relatively short time. If the
changes are adaptive, selection will assist the evolution.

6. Adaptations are those changes advantageous to life in caves.

A ‘living’ cave is one where stalactites and stalagmites are in
active formation. Every stalactite has a drop of water hanging on
its end, occasionally falling and quickly replaced by a new drop.
A film of water covers walls and floor forming occasional pools.
The percentage humidity is over 90. The air is clean and fresh,
but without noticeable draughts, and the temperature does not vary
more than a degree centigrade throughout the year.

A cave in this condition is ideal for troglophils.

Though the air is apparently still it circulates freely and remains
good. In places even a mile or more from the entrance there may
be a strong draught, sufficient to blow out a candle, but troglophils
avoid such places because of the increased evaporation and seek
out the parts where the conditions are more equable. They also
tend to avoid the main streamways.

The special conditions are:

i. complete darkness.
ii. uniform temperature.
ii. uniformly high humidity.
Proved adaptations are increase in size of sensory organs, e.g.,
i. Increase in length of special setae.
», antennae, palps, etc.
5, legs where they are used for
tactile purposes.

il. ) ee) %)

11. ”) ) i]

Other changes are:
1. loss of colour and pattern.
il. degeneration, reduction or elimination of eyes.
iil. marked intolerance of reduced humidity.

These are usually considered to be adaptations, but their only
advantage is in economy of metabolism. This may be important
where food is scanty. Evidence in favour of this provided by those
ereatures which live on the droppings in bat-infested caves. Here
darkness may be complete, but the food is unlimited. Change of
colour, degeneration of eyes, etc., does not take place’.

The loss of colour may be very marked. The legs of some
spiders are as transparent as glass and so are the long cerci of the
large cave Campodea.

Fish speedily become white when introduced into a cave but
quickly regain colour when returned to the open.

If the functionless eyes of some cave spiders are the result of
disuse, this is an acquired characteristic and should not be heritable.
Possibly the newly hatched spiders do have eyes which can be used,
and would continue to use them if brought up in the light under
suitable conditions. This would be an interesting line of enquiry.

The reduction or complete elimination of eyes, however, is a

1 Encyclopedia entomologique, VII, Faune cavernicole de Ja France, 1926,
p. 63 by Dr. R. Jeanne].

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 593

fundamental change. Here we may have the result of the per-
petuation in an isolated community of a chance variation which
would be disadvantageous on the surface, but in a cave may be an
advantage because economical, and so it would be favoured by
selection.

7. A cave is a natura! laboratory where some of the variable
factors in the outer world are under control.

Some creatures live on in them though they are no longer to be
found outside. Indeed it seems to be a significant fact that at the
limits of the region of dispersion of a group of animals the living
forms are often only to be found in caves.

Careful collection and recording will in course of time shed much
light on the course of evolution and on the places of origin of
genera and their channels of distribution.

Ancient artificial caves, whether rock dwellings, temples or
ancient mines, if of sufficient extent and humidity, and of known
date may provide information of great value if their troglophil
population is statistically examined in comparison with the same
forms on the surface in the locality.

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE
OF*S2°S SAMLUZON

ST. JOHN N.B. TO KARACHI, INDIA

4 June, 1945 to 7 July, 1945
BY
Mayor W. W. A. PHILLIPS, F.L.S., M.B.O.U.
Introduction

The observations contained in the following diary were made
during a voyage of approximately five weeks duration, across the
North Atlantic from St. John n.B. to Cape St. Vincent, then through
the Mediterranean and Red Seas and up that part of the Indian
Ocean known as the Arabian Sea from Aden to Karachi.

With the exception that we could not change her course, the
Samlugon our ship, was practically our own. By the kindness
of her Master, Captain Howe, and his Officers, we were permitted
to go where we wished, at any time of the day or night, consequently
we were able to spend many interesting hours on the bridge, in the
bows or gazing over the stern, watching the many oceanic birds
that crossed our path or crowded into our wake.

Conditions for the observance of bird-life were as good as they
could be from ship-board, but even so, it must be remembered

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

when reading the following pages, that an element of uncertainty
must always be present in identifications made by sight alone.
There was no possibility of securing specimens to confirm identifi-
cations and, in some cases, especially with the petrels and to a
lesser extent with the shearwaters, accurate identification ‘in the
field’ or in this case ‘in the ocean’ is by no means easy. With the
aid of a pair of 7x50 U. S. Navy MKI binoculars, or (when they
were not available) a smaller pair of 6 x 24 Zeiss Sports field glasses,
and with the assistance of the reference books listed at the end of
this paper (some of which were available during the voyage), I have
endeavoured to be as accurate as the circumstances permitted.

S. S. Samluzon is a Liberty ship of some 10,000 tons burthen.
Her speed was normally a steady average to knots an hour, except
while plunging into heavy, head-on seas, when, owing to being
deeply laden, often several knots an hour were lost.

All times recorded are Sun times, according to the approximate
position of the ship—that is to say, they are the ‘apparent’ time of
the ship. Clocks were advanced at 17.00 hours, each evening, while
we were steaming eastwards. The ship’s position was fixed at
mid-day each day, in accordance with the usual maritime procedure.

Owing to the voyage having taken place during the months of
June and July when the vast majority of Northern Hemisphere birds
are normally engaged in breeding and so are closely restricted, in
range, to the vicinity of their nesting grounds, comparatively few
land-birds were encountered and many species of sea-birds, so
commonly to be seen during voyages at other seasons of the year,
were conspicuous by their absence. No migrations were in progress,
so only a few wandering land-birds were crossing the seas and, as
the majority of gulls were in their Northern home waters, such
harbours as Port Said and Suez, where during the winter months
large numbers of Black-headed and other species congregate and
do such useful work in scavenging the ship’s refuse, were compa-
ratively empty of bird-life, except for a few immature or non-
breeding birds and those resident species that presumably breed
somewhere in the vicinity.

These factors account for fewer birds having been observed,
during this voyage, than would normally have been the case on a
long sea voyage during any other season of the year. On the other
hand, such observations that I was able to make have, I consider,
a special value in that they were made at this particular time of the
vear when migration is in abeyance and most birds are normally
restricted to their nesting areas. Except for a few vagrant land-
birds (all of which would be either immature or non-breeding birds)
and some of the oceanic forms, such as Wilson’s Petrel
(Oceanttes oceanicus), which are reputed to breed in the Southern
Hemisphere during the Northern Winter period, the great majority
of the birds observed were, I think we are safe in presuming, within
easy range of their breeding haunts. This factor adds greatly to
the interest of this diary and presents a reasonable theory for the
noticeable restriction of certain species observed, to certain verv
definite and comparatively small areas, in which they were present
in large numbers while being totally absent from neighbouring areas,

PHE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 595

DIARY
June 4, Monday, Saint John Harbour, N.B. Lat. 45°14 N. Long, 00°30 W.

Sailed at 418.30 hours. Wind cold, moderate from N. E.; snow reported
on the hills, about 20 miles north, a tew mornings previously.

Steaming down the harbour, past Partridge Island, the ship was ac-
companied by many Herring Gulls, presumably of the American race (Lurus
agentatus smithsonanus). On the wing, these gulls are very similar to the
Iuropean race. The great majority of them were in full plumage, but here
and there was an immature individual. No other species of gull was observed.
The Herring Gulls were very numerous and acted as harbour scavengers, in
the manner usual to gulls of the present day.

Except for the introduced European House Sparrows (Passer domesticus)
and the semi-wild domestic pigeons, which were feeding on the quays and
decks, the only birds seen in the harbour area were the Double-crested
Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus auritus), and a single Black Crow (Corvus
brachyrhynchus) which flew overhead, making towards the Northwest.

~The Double-crested Cormorants were very numerous, In the morning
and evening, fishing singly, they were to be seen on the harbour waters;
later, flying in small flocks close above the water and again high over our
mast tops. At low-water they congregated in groups, on the rocks and
reefs exposed by the tide, generally sharing their retreats with many Herring
Gulls.

June 5, Tuesday, N, Atlantic Lat. 43°06 N. Long. 66°12 W.

Sea moderate; breeze light, from N.E.; weather clear.
A few Herring Gulls followed the ship most of the day or were seen flying,
lazily, some distance away. No other birds were observed.

June 6, Wednesday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 42°01 N. Long 61°42 W,

Wind from N.k., strong to variable; sea rough with a heavy swell.

At 10.00 hours entered the waters of the Gulf Stream,

Many petrels appeared, mostly flying close above the sea, in no set direc-
tion; others followed our ship, flying more or less in the lee of our stern or
to and fro across our wake; sometimes there were 20 or 30 wheeling around.
All those that could be seen distinctly, appeared to be Wilson’s Petrels
(Oceaniles oceanicus) and Leach’s Petrels (Oceanodroma leucorhoa leucor-
hea), Wilson’s being much the more numerous. It is not easy to. distinguish
the various species of petrels in flight; Wilson’s appears slightly smaller
and darker than Leach’s and the feet project well beyond the tip of the
tail; they fly close over the water wheeling, twenty feet or more into the
air. Several shearwaters, a little distance away from the ship, were whceel-
ing close over the waves, in a similar manner to the petrels, but sometimes
one would rise fifty feet or more into the air, and then sweep back to wave
level. One, nearer than usual and seen clearly, had a black cap to the
head with a light neck. Could it have been the rare Black-capped - Petrel
(Pterodroma hasitata)?

Several of the large shearwaters appeared to be the Greater Shearwater
(Puffinus gravis) and one or two smaller and darker birds the Sooty Shear-
water (Puffinus griseus), but visibility was not good and it was diflicult to
identify them. Our Captain calls petrels ‘icebirds’ and = states that they
are generally more numerous near icebergs and ice-fields. Many petrels
were finding food in our wake, in the water churned up by the screw.

June 7, Thursday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 42°02 N. Long. 56°00 W.

In Gulf Stream, Wind moderate from $S,W.; sea calmer but swell still
heavy.

A few petrels and shearwaters seen during the day, but not nearly so
plentiful as yesterday. Most petrels were dark sooty black with square tails
and projecting feet—presumably Wilson’s. Shearwaters were mostly too far

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

away for certain identification but they were all large and were, I think, the
Greater Shearwater (Puffinus gravis).

June 8, Friday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 41°41 N. Long. 50°33 W.

In Gulf Stream. S. W. wind dropped; sea calmer but still a heavy
swell.

Morning. Passed several petrels and shearwaters; the petrels all appear-
ed to be Wilson’s and the shearwaters to be Greater Shearwaters (Puffinus
gravis).

15.00 Hours.—Four Greater Shearwaters (Puffinus gravis), together and
one, decidedly greyer, near the bows of the ship. The latter undoubtedly
a North Atlantic Greater Shearwater (Puffinus kuhlii borealis). It was lighter
and greyer than Puffinus gravis and possibly rather larger.

15.10 Hours.—I saw a bird, about a hundred yards from the starboard
bow, which I was unable to identify; head, neck and underparts were
white and the back was mottled blackish and white; the tail appeared te
be short; the flight was rather quick; it looked somewhat like a ‘Tropic
Bird, many of which I have seen in the Indian Ocean. Many __petrels
passed at some distance.

June 9, Saturday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 41°34 N. Long. 41°5 W.
In Gulf Stream. Wind W. to N.W.; sea almost calm but slight swell

continues ; sunny in morning, with light cloud later.

All day, we saw only three shearwaters, all too far away for accurate
determination; they were large and dark and were, most probably, the
Greater Shearwater (Puffinus gravis).

June 10, Sunday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 41°59 N. Long. 39°30 W.

In Gulf Stream. Wind W. to N.W.; sea almost calm but slight Swell
continues.

9.15 Hours. Five, later increased to eight or nine, shearwaters were
flying round our bows, in open order; they were dark brown above, rather
dingy white beneath; they were all, I think, the Greater Shearwater (Puffinus
gravis). Later, two others appeared on the port side; they appeared similar
in size but were definitely greyer on the upper parts. These, I take to be,
the North Atlantic Great Shearwater (Puffinus kuhlii borealis).

11.00 Hours. Another eight or nine shearwaters have appeared flying
in pairs, in a loose flock, crossing and recrossing close to our bows; they
are large and brown and are undoubtedly Puffinus gravis; possibly the same
birds we saw about 9.15 hours today.

Three petrels have followed our wake this morning; at 15.00 hours one
is still with us. These petrels fly close over the water, back and _ forth
across our wake; they evidently find food in the churned-up water. ‘They
all appear to be Wilson’s Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) with unforked,
square tails and projecting feet.

16.00 Hours. Only one petrel was following the ship but at 18.00 hours
there were eleven or twelve; they all appeared to be Wilson’s Petrels. No
shearwaters seen after mid-day.

June 11, Monday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 40°29 N. Long. 34°00 W.

Wind E.; light; slight swell.

8.30 Hours. Two petrels flying in our wake; Several others passed dur-
ing the morning; they were all Wilson’s. A flock of ‘nine or ten shear-
waters were flying round our bows at 09.45 hours; they all appeared to
be Puffinus kuhlii borealis. Several shoals of dolphins were passed during
the morning.

10.15 Hours. A ‘small shearwater appeared on the port side. It was
blackish above and white below, like ‘the Manx Shearwater (Puffinus
puffinus), great numbers of which I saw in the Irish Sea in March last.
This shearwater, I take to be the Madeiran Little Shearwater (Puffinus
assimlis baroli) as the Manx would not be so far south at this time of the

VE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 597

year. No petrels seen after mid-day. Probably most of them have re-
mained in the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream; we have now almost
passed out of the southern edge of this current.

Afternoon.—A few shearwaters flew in large circles around the — ship.
They seem to enjoy flying back and forth close over our bow, down one
side of the ship, across our wake and up the other side, generally keeping
at some distance from the ship and wheeling around, first one way and then
the other, as they circle. They are, I think, all North Atlantic Great Shear:
waters (Puffinus kRuhlit borealis), with rather mottled, whitish underparts.
They did not appear to pick up any food. Note.—I have seen hundreds of
shearwaters, of many species, at sea but I have yet to see one feeding by

day.

June 12, Tuesday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 39°56 N. Long. 28°44 W.

Approx: 25 miles N. of Corvo Island, Azores.

Wind moderate from N.E.; swell continues; fine but cloudy.

7.15 Hours. Heard shrill cries of terns and, on going out, found two
Arctic Terns (Sterna paradisaea) flying close above and hovering over our
ship, screaming loudly; one settled, for a few seconds, on the top of the
Hag-pole in our bows. After half an hour they flew off in a_ northerly
direction, flying rapidly close above the waves; presumably they were on
migration.

four or five petrels (Wilson’s as far as could be seen) were following in
our wake. Four, possibly two pairs, flew off towards the N.E. at about
og.15 hours. Many shearwaters are circling the ship; several passed close
under our stern, making identification almost certain; all were Puffinus kuhli
borealis.

10.00 Hours. A_ single petrel following our wake; soon after, another,
then another, arrived, until four were sailing back and forth across our wash,
occasionally settling to pick up minute particles of food. One, slightly larger
and browner than the others, was Leach’s (Oceanodroma leucorhoa leucor-
hoa), I think; the other three were Wilson’s. All petrels seen so far (a very
great number) appear to belong to these two species (Oceanodroma leucorhoa
leucorhoa and Oceanites oceanicus, the great majority being Wilson’s recog-
nisable by their squarish tails and long legs. It is, however, exceedingly
difficult to distinguish these very similarly marked petrels when they are flying
to and fro at a little distance from the ship. Some of those seen in our wake,
during the last few days, may, very possibly, have been the Madeiran Fork-
tailed Petrel (Oceanodroma castro).

Afternoon.—About 50 miles from the Azores; N.E. wind freshening; sun
shining.

Very few birds; no petrels, but several shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlit
borealis) sweeping over the waves, the sun glistening on their whitish under-
parts as they wheel and turn.

18.00 Hours. While watching Great Shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlit borealis),
I saw a smallish dark-coloured bird, which I am unable to identify with
certainty ; size and flight were very similar to the Manx Shearwater (Puffinus
puffinus) but, in the evening light, the bird looked unicoloured, dark blackish
»xrown both on the underparts as well as on the upper. No white could be
seen; wings were pointed and shaped like a shearwater; build was rather
light; obviously it was a shearwater or closely allied species; possibly it was
the rare Bulwer’s Petrel (Bulweria bulwerii) the description of which seems
to fit it. Wind now freshening to gale-force; waves are white-capped and
are coming inboard over our bows. No petrels in sight but a number of
Larger Shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlii borealis) are sweeping low over the waves.

June.13, Wednesday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 39°27 N. Long. 24°09 W.

Strong wind from N.; sea rough; swell moderate; fine and sunny.

No petrels; all appear to have remained in the warmer waters of Gulf
Stream, where food is probably more plentiful. With the exception of an
occasional Great Shearwater (Puffinus kuhlii borealis) uo birds were seen all
day.

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

june 4," Uhursday. INE Atlantic: | Late 3753 (N. WeOngsascousi WE

Strong wind trom E.N.E.; sea rough with heavy swell; cloudy but fine.

No birds until og.10 hours when a Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur) flew
round the ship and attempted to settle but the strong wind prevented it trom
doing so. The nearest land, the Azores, is about 215 miles to the S. W., in
Which direciion the dove eventually disappeared, flying low over the waves
and much butletted by the wind. ‘ihe Portuguese coast is now about 530 miles
N..; the wind is strong trom E.N.E. so the dove may have been blown
from there.

Later, a single Large Shearwater (Puffinus kuhlii borealis) crossed our bows
and the grd Otlicer reported seeing three petreis, in the trough of a wave,
about mid-day.

18.15 fZours. Another solitary shearwater (Puffinus kuhlii borealis) passed,
flying in a S.W. direction.

june 15, Dnday. N. Atlantic. “at. 23506 UN. seonge yer om;

N.N.E. wind, which reached gale force during the night, is now moderat-
ing; heavy swell; cloudy but fine and clear. Speed reduced to about 7 knots.

No birds seen all day. Chief Officer reported having seen a single shear-
water about 17.00 hours.

June 16, Saturday. N. Atlantic. Lat. 37°28 N. Long, 13°17. W.

N.N.E. wind moderating; sea and swell considerably less.

No birds seen during the early morning.

09.55 Hours. A single shearwater, in the distance, wheeling over the
Waves, its whitish underparts glistening in the sun. No more birds until
18.15 Hours when a solitary shearwater (Puffinus kuhli borealis) flew round
our bows for several minutes and then disappeared south.

18.30 Llours. Passed two shearwaters (@uffinus kuhli borealis) and later,
several more appeared; one had a flight feather missing; possibly it was in
moult,

One small, dark brown and white shearwater, too indistinct for certain
determination, was probably a Western Mediterranean Shearwater (Puffinus
puffinus mauritanicus) as it did not appear dark enough for the typical form.
The decrease in oceanic bird-life since leaving the Gulf Stream is very notable.

June 17, Sunday, N. Atlantic. Lat. 36°40 N. Long. 8°10 W,

Calm sea; no swell; light breeze E.N.E. to E.5.E.

bout 07.00 Hours, approximately 12 miles .N.W, of Cape St. Vincent,
sighted an immature Gannet (Sula bassana) in brown plumage gliding and
flapping towards us. A few minutes later a Turtle Dove (Streplopelia lurtur)
strongly.

About 07.15 Hours. A flock of nine small terns passed, flying close over
the sea; they were too far away tor determination of the species,

Four Wilson’s Petrels (Oceanites oceanicus) are now accompanying us, flying
to and fro across our wake; they left us as we approached close to land.

Between 07.50 and 08.30 Hours. Drawing close to Cape St. Vincent,
Gannets (Sula bassana) appeared in small numbers, flying in different directions
or swimming on the calm sea; in some of them the fore parts (including neck,
head and chest) were white, but in the majority the plumage was chiefly chocolate
brown. Many Herring Gulls are also flying round, sitting on the ledges of the
cliff or swimming in the water; one or two have followed our wake for some
distance; they are the Mediterranean Yellow-Legged Herring Gull (Larus
argentalus cachinnans). All are fully adult and are, most probably, nesting
on the ledges of the Cape; no nests can be distinguished, with certainty, but
several Herring Gulls are settled on the ledges and appear to be on their nests.
At a little distance, we saw several small flocks (six or seven) and a number
of pairs of a small shearwater; they were all flying, close over water, in the
opposite direction to the ship’s course—i.e. towards the Cape; they did not
Wheel about looking for food but flew as with a definite purpose; possibly

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 599

they were returning to their nesting burrows; they are considerably smaller
than Puffinus kuhlii borealis and are dark brown above with whitish under-
parts; most probably they are the Western Mediterranean Shearwater (Puffinus
puffinus mauretanicus).

An hour after passing the Cape (09.00 Hours) we commenced to flush.a
few large flying-fish, from under our bows; all birds have disappeared.

10.00 Hours, Five large shearwaters appeared 500 yards off and accom-
panied the ship for a few minutes; they then settled on the calm sea-surface in
a close flock; they appeared to be Mediterranean race of the Great Shearwater
(Puffinus kuhlii kuhlit). One petrel (Wilson’s) flew round the ship.

10.15 Hours. Another Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur) flew close over the
ship and continued northward towards a schooner in the near distance. A few
minutes later two more Turtle Doves appeared, flew close over the ship and
made off northwards, in the same direction as the first. Land is now approx-
imately 20 miles away to the North. The African (Moroccan) Coast is about
40 miles to the south; apparently the Turtle Doves are passing from Africa
to Spain; but why should they do so at this time of year?

10.20 Hours. <A flock of eight or nine petrels are flying and feeding close
gver the water in the wake of a ship that passed about half an hour ago. All
are Wilson’s (Oceanites oceanicus); eight Herring Gulls (Larus orgentatus
cachinnans) following the wake of a Portuguese motor ship, half a mile to the
north; later all flew away N. Two gannets (immature brown plumage) cross-
ed our bows, flying low over the water and disappeared southwards, at 10.30
hours. Another, in almost adult plumage, passed soon afterwards.

11.00 fours. Six petrels in our wake, closer than usual; ail have the
squarish tail and long legs—characteristics of Wilson’s Petrel. I did not
know that Oceanites oceanicus is so plentiful in these waters and in the N.
Atlantic; I have seen hundreds this voyage.

11.20 Hours. Two large brown shearwaters crossed close to our bows—
undoubtedly the Mediterranean race (Puffinus kuhlit kwhlii); several petrels are
also with us.

13.15 Hours. A gannet (immature brown plumage) flew in towards us
and sheared off when quite close. All afternoon, thirty or forty petrels have
been in our wake—some flying fairly close—all are Wilson’s (Oceanites oceani-
cus) which species has been very much the most common since leaving St. John.
In flight, tips of the toes project a quarter to half an inch beyond the squarish
tail. In many individuals, the feathers—especially the flight feathers—are
much worn. The moult is now on, I think. These petrels feed largely on
the refuse thrown over from the ship. Their behaviour is very similar to that
of gulls, following in the wake of a ship. As soon as edible refuse is thrown
overboard a dozen or more congregate at the spot, some paddling and picking
up food, others alighting on the water, still others wheeling round; there is
much flapping of wings and scrambling for the food. Some of these petrels
follow the ship for many miles, occasionally dropping back a few hundred yards,
then flying quickly to catch up again until close to the stern; they always fly
to and fro across the wake, searching for food.

16.00 Hours. Still thirty or forty petrels in our wake and others flying
around—all Wilson’s. Passed one gannet (immature, brown) and a_ small
number of Mediterranean Shearwaters (Puffinus kuhli kuhlii), generally in
pairs. A large shoal of blackfish passed at 16.10 hours and several dolphins
and porpoises have also been seen.

16.15 Hours. A Common Swift (Apus apus) has appeared, flying from S, to
N.; it is finding considerable difficulty in making headway against the stiff
breeze that has sprung up during the last hour. It flew high above the masts,
then down close to the waves in the lee of the ship. I had this swift and
two Wilson’s Petrels in the field of view of my field glasses, at the same
time. The African coast is now about sixty miles to the south; the Spanish
coast forty miles to north; the swift is apparently crossing from Africa to
Europe. During the evening a number of shearwaters and petrels were round
the ship but not so many petrels were in our wake as earlier in the day. The
number of petrels with us is now declining gradually as the evening closes in;
at 19.30 hours only one was left; at 19.45 hours there were none and no birds
of any description were to be seen from the ship.

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCLETY, Vol. 46

June 18, Monday. Western Mediterranean. Lat. 35-42 N. Long. 2°55 W.

Sea calm; no wind; sky overcast and rain falling; cleared 10.00 hours,

07.30 Hours. Fifteen to twenty petrels, all Wilson’s, are now in our wake;
by o9.00 hours the numbers had increased to approximately twenty to twenty-
five; all are of one species. No other birds seen.

10.00 Hours. A single shearwater (Puffinus kuhlii kuhlii) passed. Many
petrels are still in our wake.

11.15 Hours. A small lark-like bird was glimpsed flying along our star-
board side; it was seen only for a few minutes before it disappeared. It appeared
to be a Common Skylark but this identification is uncertain. We are now about
fifteen miles north of the Moroccan Coast. Many Wilson’s Petrels are still
with us.

14.30 Hours. When we were forty to fifty miles from the Moroccan Coast,
a large gull came from the south, circled several times and flew off towards
the S.E., it appeared to be Herring Gull; later, it reappeared accompanied by
two others; one settled on the water and the others dropped astern—they
did not come close enough to us for certain identification but they appeared
to be Herring Gulls,

15.00 to 15.30 Hours. Passed several schools of dolphins and one pair and
a single Green Turtle; the pair were mating on the surface.

15.30 Hours. There are still about twelve Wilson’s Petrels in our wake.

15-45 Hours. A small brownish bird flew on to the forward hatch and
remained there; on-examination with field-glasses, it proved to be bunting—
very like, if not identical with the Corn Bunting (Emberiza calandra), On
closer approach it disappeared over the side and was not seen again.

16.15 fours. Another large gull appeared and between 17.30 and 20.00
Hours there was always at least one and sometimes up to five following in
our wake, with the petrels. All are typical Yellow-legged Herring Gulls (Larus
argentatus cachinnans) in full plumage; yellow feet and yellow bills, with
red spot, are very distinctive. At dusk (about 20.00 Hours) there are still
a few Wilson’s Petrels and one or two Herring Gulls in our wake; our
position is approximately seven miles from land and thirty miles W. of Oran.

June 19, Tuesday. Western Mediterranean. Lat. 36°47 N. Long. 2°27 E.

Seven to ten miles from Algerian Coast. Sea calm; wind very light and
variable ; sunny.

05.30 Hours. Many Herring Gulls are still accompanying the ship, circling
round, following in our wake and settling on the sea alongside.

05.45 Hours. Three Mediterranean Shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlii kuhli)
passed flying close above the water; no petrels are with us.

About 07.30 Hours. One or two petrels have appeared in our wake; by
09.15 Hours the number had increased to twelve. Herring Gulls are very
numerous, circling the ship. }

09.30 Hours. A Mediterranean Greater Shearwater ¢rossed our wake flying
north; fifteen Herring Gulls and twelve Wilson’s Petrels are in our wake;
all the Herring Gulls are in mature plumage.

14.00 Hours. Passing within two miles of Cape Caxine, immediately north
of Algiers, a small number of Mediterranean Shearwaters were in sight, several
of them between the ship and the shore. All Herring Gulls and petrels have
now left us. We started to pick up the petrels again as soon as we were nine
or ten miles from land.

15.45 Hours. Three petrels are now in our wake, occasionally settling
on the smooth water to feed. Considerable numbers of Mediterranean Shear-
waters were in sight while we were passing Algiers, flying close to the ship
or settling on the water, but fewer are to be seen now we have left the in-
shore waters.

16.00 Hours. No shearwaters or Herring Gulls are in sight; only three
petrels flying in our wake.

16.10 Hours. Eight shearwaters, in a small flock, settled on the water
fairly close to the ship.

17.45 Hours. Petrels have disappeared but five Herring Gulls are in our
wake; four are in mature plumage but one is a juvenite.

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE. 601

‘ 18.15 Hours. A single petrel, following in our wake, had left us by 18.30
ours,

18.45 Hours. Passed an unusual dolphin; it seemed to be about twelve to
fifteen feet in length with a blunt head (like a Black Fish) and small dorsal
fin; colour irregularly skewbald, black-brown and whitish all over; owing to
its light colour, it could be seen swimming, solitarily, just below the surface,
for some considerable distance.

19.00 Hours. Several Herring Gulls circling the ship.

No other birds to be seen,

June 20, Wednesday, Western Mediterranean. Lat. 37°10 N. Long. 7°55 E.

Sea calm with slight swell; light, variable breeze.

06.00 Hours. Many Herring Gulls circling the ship, searching our wake
and settling alongside. No other birds.

08.45 Hours. Passing near Cape de Fer, several Mediterranean Shearwaters
(Puffinus kuhlii kuhlii) are flying close over the water. Forty to fifty Herring
Gulls (Larus argentatus cachinnans) came out and circled the ship; all in adult
plumage. Does this gull nest on Cape de Fer? Still no petrels.

09.45 Hours. A small shearwater crossed our wake; it was considerably
smaller than Puffinus kuhlit kuhlii; brown above, whitish below; it flew
straight, a few feet above water, with rapid wing beats; it is the first of this
species that we have seen in the Mediterranean proper; I believe that it is
a Small Mediterranean Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus yelkouan) but it was too
indistinct for accurate identification. Several Large Shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlii
kuhli) are flying about. I notice that, while gulls and petrels feed in the wake
of the ship, shearwaters never do.

10.00 Hours. Just before A. A. gun practice, a small number of shear-
waters (Puffinus kuhlii kuhlii) and fifty to sixty Herring Gulls were near the
ship. All disappeared as soon as the guns opened up.

10.20 Hours. Herring Gulls have begun to reappear and with them several
Slender-billed Gulls (Larus genei); the first we have seen this voyage. This
gull is smaller than the Herring Gull; pure white with a light-grey mantle and
the primaries tipped black and white; bill is dark red, more red in some than
in others; feet and legs are dark red; several are wheeling round the ship
with the Herring Gulls.

10.45 Hours. A solitary petrel crossed our wake; the ship is now about
ten miles from African coast. Herring Gulls and Slender-billed Gulls are cir-
cling us in about equal numbers. No shearwaters are to be seen.

14.15 Hours. Gulls are now all Herring Gulls; we appear to have left
behind us the territory of the Slender-billed Gull. Did they come from a
nesting colony, on the coast near here? We are still only twenty miles off
shore. Several Large Shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlu kuhlu) are always in sight ;
seven crossed our bows in a small flock, wheeling and flapping lazily.

14.30 Hours. Another Small Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus yelkouan) crossed
our bows flying S.W.; it is darker brown above than in Puffinus kuhlit kuhlii,
with a greyish shade to the neck and mantle but without the whitish rump
and blackish tips to the tail feathers; white or whitish beneath; it flies much
straighter and more rapidly than Puffinus kuhlit kuhlit, without any wheeling
and slow flaps.

14.50 Hours. A Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica) flew the length of
the ship, at mast height, and then on towards the African coast, about twenty
miles away; a male in full plumage. It is curious that a swallow should be
going south in the middle of June! Presumably it is a non-breeding wanderer.

15.45 Hours. A Slender-billed Gull appeared, with several Herring Gulls,
and accompanied the ship; the gulls fly about half a mile ahead, settle on the
water, wait for the ship to pass them, drop a mile or two astern and then fly
up and overtake the ship again, repeating this procedure for several hours. If
refuse is thrown over, all congregate to feed in the wake. Many shearwaters
(Puffinus kuhlit kuhlii) but no petrels are in sight.

16.10 Hours. A Herring Gull, in immature plumage, joined the others, all
in full plumage, accompanying the ship.

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIELY, Vol. 46

16.30 Hours. The coast is now approximately 7 miles due south; we passed
another small shearwater (Puffinus puffinus yelkouan) wheeling rapidly . over
the water; it looked very black and white in, the afternoon light.

18.00 Hours. Two petrels in our wake, together with many Herring Gulls ;
a few shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlii kuhlii) are also in sight.

18.30 Hours. Passing the Fratelli Rocks, three miles to southward, a
single petrel was flying in our wake; it appeared to be Wilson’s (Oceanites
oceanicus); many Herring Gulls and a few shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlu
kuhlii) are still to be seen.

June 21, Thursday. Western Mediterranean, Lat. 36°52 N. Long. 13°04 E.

Sea calmer; swell slight; wind light from E.S.E. to S.E.; bright and sunny.

06.30 to 07.30 Hours. Passing close to Pantellaria Island, two Herring
Gulls came out and accompanied the ship, for about half an hour.

08.30 Hours. A solitary petrel in our wake; too far away for determina-
tion; no gulls or shearwaters in sight. ;

09.05 Hours. A Turtle Dove settled on our fore-hatch; it appeared, after
close examination through glasses, to be a Common Turtle Dove (Streptopelia
turtur turtur); it remained on board for several hours before disappearing.
Later several petrels appeared in our wake.

12.45 Hours. Six petrels, all darker and more definitely sooty-black and
with shorter legs than the familiar Wilson’s Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) have
appeared in our wake; their flight and behaviour is very similar to Wilson’s ;
tail squarish but slightly forked. | think that they must be the Storm Petrel
(Hydrobates pelagicus)—a resident in this part of the Mediterranean.

Sicily is now looming up about thirty miles to northward.

14.15 Hours. All the petrels have disappeared; only one Herring Gull is
with us. Petrels reappeared in our wake at about 14.30 hours; at about 16.40
hours there were six of them following us. Passed another Small Shearwater
(Puffinus puffinus yelkouan) flying towards Gozo Island.

18.00 Houys. Passing through the Malta Channel, six Storm Petrels
(Hydrobates pelagicus) still in our wake and one Large Shearwater (Puffinus
kuhlit kuhlit): No gulls.

19.00 Hours. Near Malta, several Large Shearwaters (Puffinus kuhlit
kuhlii) and two petrels were in our wake. ‘wo large swordfish leaped
several feet out of water.

19.30 Hours. Another small shearwater (Puffinus puffinus yelkouan) crossed
our path flying towards Malta; also several Puffinus kuhlii kuhlii and Storm
Petrels (Hydrobates pelagicus) were flying round us and in our wake until dusk.

June 22, Friday. Eastern Mediterranean. Lat. 33°47 N. Long. 18°11 E.

Sea very calm with slight ripples but no swell; light breeze from N. E.;
sunny.

No signs of any bird-life until 10.10 hours when a _ single -Storm Petrel
(Hydrobates pelagicus) was seen.

10.30 Hours. Two petrels in our wake but they soon disappeared. No
further bird-life observed until the evening.

17.30 Hours. A medium-sized warbler came aboard to rest; could not
obtain a satisfactory view of it owing to the difficult light and to its constant
movement. It appeared to be a dark olive-brown above and a light yellowish-
grey on the underparts. It was, I think, a member of the genus Hypolais—
possibly H. pallida, the Olivaceous Warbler. It was very restless and difficult
to approach; eventually it retired to roost under the cross-trees of the main mast.
The nearest land, Tripolitania, is now about two hundred miles to the S.E.

June 23, Saturday, Eastern Mediterranean, Lat. 32°50 N. Long. 22°47 E.

Sea calm; light breeze from N. W.; bright and sunny.

05-30 Hours. Another Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur) settled on our port
bulwark, aft, and remained, preening itself; it continued with us until 07.00
hours. No petrels or any other birds were seen until 10.30 hours when a

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 603

solitary Great Shearwater (Puffinus kuhlix kuhlii) crossed our bows flying to-
wards the land now about ten miles distant to southward.

11.10 Hours. A large gull flying in the distance; it appears to be a
Herring Gull moving in the direction of Derna, about seven miles to the
south. There seem to be very few birds in this part of the Mediterranean ;
not nearly so many as in Western part.

16.30 Hours. When about sixteen miles from land, we put up a Small
Shearwater from the water, ahead of our bows. It was sleeping, when first
seen, and allowed the ship to approach closely; on awakening it flew off with
rapid wing-beats, followed by wheeling glides; in colour it was dark brown,
white or nearly white on the chest and underparts; undoubtedly it was a
Small Mediterranean Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus yelkouan). No other birds
were seen during the whole day. This part of Eastern Mediterranean is very
deficient in bird life, at this time of year. Apparently there is less marine

life too, as we have seen no dolphins or porpoises either; small flying fishes
are, however, quite plentiful.

June 24, Sunday. Eastern Mediterranean. Lat. 35°57 N. Long. 27°53 E.

Sea calm; slight breeze from N. to N.W.; bright and sunny all day,

No bird-life at all, with the exception that the Third Officer reported seeing
a Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica) flying over the ship during breakfast
time, at about 08.30 hours.

18.30 Hours. When we were about sixty miles from land (the Nile Delta)
another Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica) appeared circling the ship and
attempting to settle; it was a female, in rather worn plumage and appeared
tired out; eventually it settled to roost on the gun platform in our stern. This
is the third swallow that has come aboard while we have been passing through
the Mediterranean. The absence of bird-life, all day, has been most marked.

June 25, Monday. Port Said. Arrived at Port Said about 11.45 hours.

Sea calm; slight breeze from N.; bright, sunny and clear.

At 10.00 Hours a Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica) was brought to me
in an exhausted condition; it is probably the one that came aboard last night.
It died before it could be released near land. The first gull to meet us, as we
neared port, was a Herring Gul! in immature plumage, just changing to
adult; it flew rcund us when we were about three miles from Port Said.

11.45 Hours. Entering the harbour, a small number of Little Terns (Sterna
albifrons) could be seen fishing along the southern breakwater. Presumably,
they would be of the typical race albifrons. One or two Black-headed Gulls
(Larus ridibundus) flew round us but they were very scarce. A large tern,
with a black cap, very like if not certainly, the Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon
n, nilotica) was flying with an immature tern of probably the same species.
There were also several immature gulls which were probably all Herring Gulls.
A small number of Common Swallows (Hirundo rustica) were flying over the
inner harbour.

While lying at our fueling berth, in the entrance to the Suez Canal, two
Slender-billed Gulls (Larus genei) passed over us. There are remarkably few
gulls or terns in the harbour—the large numbers (chiefly of Black-headed
Gulls (Larus ridibundus) seen by me in March last are entirely absent.
About 16.30 Hours, when it became cooler, a few more gulls appeared, nearly
all immature. One scen closely was an Immature Herring Gull; others seen
in the distance may have been of a smaller species. Other species of birds
observed in the harbour area, were :—

(1) Egyptian Kites (Milvus migvans aegyptius)

(2) Crows (Corvus sp)

(3) Sparrows (Passer domesticus niloticus)

(4) A number of Little Terns (Sterna a. albifrons) and

(s) A few Common Swallows (Hirundo rustica).

At 17.45 Hours, a fine Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus), in fully adult
plumage, circled over the ship, closely. One or two of the immature gulls in
the distance may also have been of this or of the smaller species. In the
lagoon, several miles to the north-eastwards, a small party of nine to twelve
Flamingoes (Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum) can be distinguished; in March

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

last there were hundreds (if not thousands) of flamingoes in this lagoon. We
left Port Said and entered the Canal at dusk.

June 26, Tuesday. ' Gulf of Suez. Lat. 29°27 N.- Long. 32°35 E.

Slight breeze from W. and N.W. Bright and sunny.

At 05.45 Hours, near El Chulaf, a Canal Station about 20 miles from Suez,
we saw the first Egyptian Brown or White-eyed Gull (Larus leucophthalmus)
a solitary bird. Soon afterwards, however, a flock of about 30 passed us flying
low, westwards, up the Canal. Other flocks and solitary birds were seen,
commonly, as we approached Suez. White Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis ibis)
were feeding in some of the Canal-side, irrigated fields. A pair of Pied King-
fishers (Ceryle rudis rudis) hovered over the water close by and Crested Larks
(Galerida cristata nigrieans)were singing on the mounds of soil, beside the
Canal. In a lagoon near Suez Town, a giant wader—either a large stork
or a giant heron was standing; it was blackish all over, with reddish
or pinkish legs as far as could be distinguished but it was too far away
to be seen plainly; it appeared twice the size of a Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea
cinerea) which was standing near it. Leaving the Canal and steaming to
our anchorage in Suez Bay, a large sooty-brown skua flew fairly close to us
and settled on the water, amongst a party of Brown Gulls (Larus leucophthal-
mus). In colour, it was sooty-brown all over, with the cap very little darker
than the remainder of the head and underparts very little lighter than the upper
parts. The two central tail feathers projected some four or five inches beyond
the remainder and were twisted from the horizontal to the vertical. This would
appear to be the dark form of the Pomatorhine Skua or Jaeger (Stercorarius
pomarinus). Hundreds of Brown Gulls, in Suez roadstead, were in small and
large parties, sitting on the water or seeking their food amongst the refuse
from the ships. No other species of gulls could be seen.

At 09.30 Hours, as we were leaving Suez anchorage, however, a_ lesser
Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus), in adult plumage, was seen flying towards
the cliffs and two immature gulls, probably of the same species, or young
Herring Gulls, were circling a large warship. As we cleared the other shipping,
in the outer anchorage, a party of five large dark birds were on the water;
they flew off at our approach and seemed to be skuas; the middle feathers of
the tail, appeared to project considerably but we were not close enough for
a satisfactory view. In colour they were dark, sooty brown above and whitish
below—wings long and pointed. Would any species of skua be in these waters,
in small flocks, at this time of the year?

Ai 10.45 Hours, when we were 12 to 13 miles from Suez we passed a
flock of about a dozen Brown Gulls (Larus leucophthalmus) accompanied by
two skuas; the Brown Gulls rose and followed the ship but the skuas disappeared.
All the Brown Gulls were in adult plumage. Do they breed in this vicinity?

11.15 Hours. Amongst the small party of Brown Gulls, accompanying the
ship, was an immature bird, with black-tipped tail and smoky brown plumage.
Between 17.30 and 18.15 hours, many large terns passed us, flying from the
direction of Ras Gahrib, towards the Sinai coast; they were mostly in pairs
and flew close over the water, occasionally rising 20 feet or more into the air
and plunging down into the sea; they seemed to be largish sea terns, pure
white, with the exception of a light-grey mantle; tail long and forked; beak
red; head may have had a black cap, but it could not be distinguished accurately.
I think that they were Lesser Crested Terns. (Thalasseus bengalensis). A few Brown
Gulls continued tu accompany the ship all day, flying close above our stern
or in our wake.

June 27, Wednesday. Red Sea. Lat. 25°47 N. Long. 35°12 E.

Slight sea; fresh breeze from N.W.W. to E. and S.S.E. Bright, sunny
but cool.

05.00 Hours. No birds seen during the early morning, but as the sun rose
four Brown Gulls appeared and, soon afterwards, a dozen were with us. They
were very tame. They appear to follow ships down the Red Sea, sleep on the
water and then to join other ships going up and return to Suez; they feed on
the refuse in the wakes of the ships.

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 605

08.00 Hours. Passing the Brothers Islands, at about 2 miles, distance, 30
to 40 Brown Gulls, all in adult plumage, joined the ship. Do these gulls nest
on these Islands? They are very plentiful in the vicinity. A large, sooty-
brown bird, with whitish underparts and a longish pointed tail, passed near
us—a slkua of some species, I think; probably the Arctic Skua (S. parasiticus).
By 09.30 Hours when the Brothers Islands had just disappeared out of
sight, astern, the Brown Gulls had thinned out considerably ; they are evidently
loath to leave the vicinity of the Islands. By 13.00 hours all had disappeared.

At 14.15 Hours two Brown Gulls appeared, one adult and one immature,
with completely brown mantle with no white hind margin; white tail black-
tipped; beak greenish.

14.00 Hours. Some seabirds, some distance away, appeared to be brown
above, whitish below with tails longish and sharp pointed. Several more of
the same species were in the far distance; later a small flock of seven of
these birds passed a few hundred yards from the ship; the tail is forked; the
head is black-capped and the upper plumage, including the tail, is dark earthy
brown ; primaries blackish; the neck is lighter and the underparts are whitish;
the beak dark ;—this is evidentally the Red Sea Brown-winged Tern (Sterna
anaetheta fuligula). |

15.30 Hours, Three more Brown-winged Terns passed; all flying N. W. close
over the water.

15.50 Hours. Another 5 Brown-winged Terns were flying in the same
direction. No Brown Gulls were seen after 15.20 hours but several parties
and pairs of Brown-winged Terns passed just before dusk.

June 28, Thursday. Red Sea. Lat. 21°59. Long. 37°41 E.

Sea calm; slight breeze from S$; bright, sunny and clear. No birds at all
were seen between sunrise (about 05.00 hours) and 11.00 hours,

At 11.05 Hours, 5 petrels were in our wake; they were largish, dark sooty-
black with a distinctly lighter pattern across the wings; the rump was white;
the feet were longer than the squarish tails, the toes projecting half inch
or so; these petrels appear to be of the same species that we saw, so com-
monly, in the Atlantic and in the Western Mediterranean, i.e. Wilson’s Petrel
(Oceanites oceanicus).

Ai 11.20 Hours, 4 Aden Sooty Gulls (Larus hemprichi) passed us flying close
over the water towards Gebel Asetariba on the African shore. They were all
immature; the tails were pure white and the margins of the sooty-brown wings
were also white.

At 11.30 Hours, a fine young Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) came
aboard, flying in from the Arabian Coast. After circling the ship for some
minutes it took up a commanding position on the top of the aftermast, where
it remained for a considerable time. It was, I feel certain, a Q in immature
plumage—p:obably a this year’s bird; back, wings and tail were dark rufescent
brown, darker and more brown than (but marked rather like) a European
Kestrel; breast light fawn, lighter on the chest, darker on the abdomen and
lighter again towards the vent, striped with interrupted wavy, longitudinal
dark brown or blackish streaks; throat and foreneck light, yellowish white
or whitish fawn; crown of head dark brown, deepening to blackish on the
sides and black moustachial stripe well marked; hind neck spotted or streaked
with dark brown on light fawn; beak dark brown with light yellow cere;
eyes dark, with bright bluish lids; tarsus and feet light greenish yellow; lower
abdomen light fawn; size about that of a smallish Carrion-Crow (Crovus
covone).

After remaining on the aftermast until about 14.50 hours, it tried a number
of alternate perches and eventually settled down again, in the shade, on the
top of a big ventilator, forwards, where an excellent view of it was obtained.
The wings were dark, dull lead or slate-brown with the feathers edged with
light-reddish brown; the tail was the same colour as the body, but closely
barred with reddish brown, with the tips of the feathers light. Head was
dark brown at the sides, with the back of the crown bright golden purplish-
brown and the fore-head light brown; the thighs were bright fawn, slightly
spotted near the body, when flying this falcon gives the impression of being

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

dark brown above, with the tail barred and the underparts also closely barred.
It left us about 15.00 hours.

Between 15.00 and 15.15 Hours, we passed through areas of the reddish
plankton from which the Red Sea tales its name—also we passed vast numbers
of small purple jelly fish.

All afternoon, several petrels’ were in our wake; they were generally in
pairs.

10.55 Hours. A Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica) circled over the ship,
several times, and then made off southwards, mounting high into the sky.

18.00 Hours. Several petrels were in our wake—the number varying from
2 to 6; they keep more or less in pairs but a little distance away from the
ship one pair was slightly smaller and darker than the others, with more
pointed wings and feet not projecting beyond the tail (which appears squarish
or very slightly forked). They may be Storm Petrels (Hydrobates pelagicus)
which, I believe, occur in these waters; remainder appear to be the common
Wilson’s Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus). }

June 29, Friday cRed@Sea. Glat.17457. N; Long. 407039:

Sea moderate; fresh breeze from N.W.; sunny but hazy owing to dust.

At sunrise, about 05:45 Hours, 30 to 40 petrels in our wake.

06.15 Hours, 3 Brown-winged Terns (Sterna anaetheta fuligula) passed
by, flying N.W.

At o9.00 Hours I spent a long time, very carefully observing the 30 to 40
petrels flying in our wake. They all. appeared to be Wilson’s. Coloured
above, dark sooty brownish black, with lighter markings across wings; markx-
ings can be seen only in a good light; large white rump; tail appears very
slightly forked, but may be square (not easy to determine with birds in
flight) ; feet appear black; they project nearly $ inch beyond tip of tail; under-
parts dark sooty brown.

At 11.15 Hours there were still about 10 to 20 of these petrels in our wake;
from 09.00 to about 11.00 hours the maximum number was about 50. Do
any petrels nest on Red Sea islands—or are they all migratory?

During morning several small flocks of Brown-winged Terns were passed
flying N.W. No other birds were seen.

At Midday it was very hot and muggy, with a following wind and much
dust haze; visibility was reduced to about 14 miles; temperature was over 95°.

16.05 Hours. A Tropic Bird appeared some distance away; it was probably
either Phaethon rubricauda or P. lepturus.

Beiween 16.00 and 17.00 Hours we passed 8 Brown-winged Terns, 1, 2, 3
and 4; 4 were standing on two small bits of planking, floating past the ship.
Many petrels are still in our wake.

18.15. Hours. Another Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica) flew close over
the ship and disappeared astern; it was flying N. or N.W. Now 40 to 50
petrels are in our wake, feeding on the refuse thrown over from the ship.

19.30 Hours. A small party of Brown-winged Terns settled in our wake;
the head is partially black but the forehead is white; the beak black and the
wing lining is whitish. The petrels remained in our wake until it became
too dark to see them any longer.

June 30, Saturday. “Red ‘Sea. ) "Vat: 14°24" NY? Long." 42°347E.

Sea calm; light breeze, variable; bright and sunny; dust storm has abated
and visibility has improved to 3 to 4 miles.

05.20 Hours. Between dawn and sunrise, one gull and six petrels were
in our wake; the gull is plain, sooty brown, with greenish beak; an im-
mature Aden Sooty Gull (Larus hemprichi), I think—not an Egyptian Brown
Gull (L. leucophthalmus) but the tail completely white. The petrels are al!
Wilson’s (O. oceanicus). ;

06.00 to 06.15 Hours. Three Brown-winged Terns (S. a. fuligula) and two
smallish white terns, with grey mantles—very ljke the Roseate Tern (Sterna
dougalli korustes) passed nearby. Also saw one shearwater and an immature
gull—probably a young Lesser Black-backed Gull; in colour it was mottled
brown and white above, dirty white on underparts, head and neck greyish
white, tail white with black tip. The shearwater was brown above, whitish

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 607

below; it flew close above the water, flapping and gliding, (not flying like
a Mediterranean Shearwater (P. k. Ruhlii)—possibly a Wedge-tailed Shearwater
(P, pacificus).

06.15 to 06.30 Hours. Passed a string of 9 and several single Masked Boobies,
ali heading S.W.; all were dark chocolate brown above with belly white;
head and neck dark chocolate brown; primaries and tail blackish; all in im-
mature plumage except one which was in the mature, white plumage, with
black flight feathers and tail; this is evidently the Red Sea Masked Booby
or Gannet (Sula dactylatra melanops). Many medium sized terns passing,
at some distance, generally in pairs, white except for light grey mantle and
head with small black cap: beak orange yellow—the Lesser Crested Tern
(Thalasseus b. bengalensis) by the look of them, but I cannot be certain, nor
do I know whether this tern breeds in the Red Sea. An Aden Sooty Gull
(Larus hemprichit) has just appeared, following our wake. It is somewhat
like the Brown Gull (Larus leucophthalmus) of Egypt, being predominantely
sooty brown, but this bird has the head brown, not black, divided from the
body by a narrow white collar; bill is bright greenish with a red spot towards
the tip, divided from the green by black.

07.50 Hours. An adult Masked Booby (S. d. melanops) crossed our bows ;
bill is light-greenish; many terns (S. b. bengalensis ?) all round us but not
very close. Boobies now very common, chiefly immature but a fair sprinkling
of adults—ratio about 10: 1. Four Brown Gulls close in our wake—immature
with black-barred tails; mantle and body rather dirty, sooty brown with
white underparts. We are now passing Zubair Islands. All Boobies flying
away from them to fishing ground (presumably). Presumably this species
nests on these Islands; 2 or 3 petrels still following our wake.

Soon after 08.00 Hours, after passing the last of the Zubair Group a party
of 12 or more Aden Sooty Gulls (L. hemprichi) flew out to us and followed our
wake; very tame, flying close over stern; all but one immature, but some in
more advanced plumage than others.

08.45 to 09.00 Hours. Nine Sooty Gulls and 7 or 8 petrels feeding together,
in our wake, on refuse thrown overboard. Both species alighting on water
to scramble for food. One Brown-winged Tern (S. a. fuligula) and 3 Indian
Lesser Crested Sea Terns (Thalasseus b. bengalensis ?) flying past. Boobies
have all disappeared.

10.45 Hours. Passed large shoal of large mackerel (sp.) leaping out of
water after small fish. Above the shoal were 20 to 30 medium sized terns
(T. b. bengalensis?) and an immature Sooty Gull. Later terns settled down,
on the water, in a small compact flock. Now 6 Sooty Gulls (L. hemprichi)
are in our wake, 4 adults and 2 immature and also several petrels.

11.00 Hours. All gulls gone. They settled on water and were left behind;
does this gull nest on the Zubair Group? Six petrels still in our wake.

11.25 Hours. Tropic Bird, flew away from ship; appeared pure white with
long white tail feathers—so was probably the White Tropic Bird (Phaethon 1.
lepturus).

11.45 Hours. Three petrels and one Sooty Gull in our wake.

11.50 Hours. Another shoal of large mackerel (sp.) leaping after small
fish. Above were 4 Brown-winged Terns and 2 terns that looked like the
Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon n. nilotica) but they may have been the White-
cheeked Tern (Sterna repressa); white except for mantle (rather slate-grey)
and head with black cap, beak blackish.

12.30 Hours. About 12 Sooty Gulls circling ship in our wake with 6
petrels. A few Brown-winged and Lesser Crested Terns passing occasionally.

Between 13.30 and 14.00 Hours. While passing Gebel Zuqab at less than
one mile, large numbers of Sooty Gulls joined us, many settling on boats,
masts and upper structure; 8 petrels in our wake; many hoobies, all in
immature brown plumage, flying about and settling on water. Several Brown-
winged Terns near the Island. Later, large flocks of Brown-winged Terns
passed, with one adult booby and a number of Lesser Crested Terns (?).

In one large flock of Brown-wingéd Terns were 4 sooty-brown birds of
considerably heavier build and larger size; they appeared brown or grey-brown
both on underparts as well as upper; they seemed to be shearwaters of some
species—possibly the Wedge-tailed or Green-billed Shearwater (Puffinus pacificus

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

hamultonii) which is, as far as I am aware, the only shearwater likely to be
seen in these waters, in any numbers.

15.45 Hours. Tropic bird, with red-bill and long white tail feathers fiew
close across our bows, giving an excellent view—definitely the White Tropic
Bird (P. 1. lepturus); a beautiful bird.

Shortly afterwards passed several large concourses of sea-birds, following
shoals of small fish; several boobies, many Sooty Gulls, great numbers of
Brown-winged Terns and the orange-billed terns which, I think, are the Lesser
Crested Sea Terns (T. b. bengalensis). Amongst the terns were a number
of the sooty-brown birds that appear to be shearwater; they are dusky or
sooty-brown all over; tail is rather long and pointed, wedge-shaped, I think;
beaks long and fairly stout; i presume that they must be the Wedge-tailed
or Green-billed Shearwater (P. pacificus hamiltonii), Do these shearwaters
breed in the islands in the vicinity or do they migrate, breeding in winter in
the Southern Hemisphere? ‘There were 30 to 4o of them in this flock. Many
Sooty Gulls continue te accompany us, settling all over our upper structure;
very tame. Many petrels in our wake.

July 1, Sunday. Gulf of Aden—Aden at midday.

Moderate sea; slight breeze from N.W.; bright; clear and sunny,

05.45 Hours. Before sunrise, while still about 28 miles from Aden, many
petrels in wake and flying over surrounding sea, all seemed to me Wilson’s
(O. oceanicus); no Sooty Gulls; tropic bird, flying high and very rapidly; also
single shearwater, moderate in size, dusky brown above and below, wheeling over
water—presumably P. pacificus hamiltonii.

06.30 Hours. Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica) flew close round ehip;
last seen mounting high skywards, towards land about 20 miles away port-
side. What is a swallow doing here at this time of the year?

06.50 Hours. Five Sooty Gulls joined us, 4 immature, one adult; settled on
water. Entering Aden roadstead, several Large-crested Sea Terns (Thalasseus
bergit velox) passed. Petrels accompanied us in amongst other ships anchored
in outer harbour and remained feeding, like gulls, on refuse thrown overboard.
Comparatively few gulls, in harbour—very different to last March. No Black-
headed Gulls (L. ridibundus) now, but small numbers of Sooty Gulls (L. hemp-
vichi) flying in all directions; majority in immature plumage; also several large
gulls in immature plumage (probably L. fuscus) and a single Black-backed Gull
(Larus fuscus) in full adult but noticeably worn plumage.

In distance many terns, chiefly Large Crested Sea Terns (T. bergii velox)
and (I think) Lesser Crested Terns (T. b. bengalensis); also a single Masked
Booby (S. d. mlelanops), in adult plumage, near one of the mooring buoys.

12.00 Hours. Leaving Aden a medium sized dusky brown shearwater (P.
pacificus hamiltonii) I think, crossed our stern.

Between 15.30 and 16.00 Hours many pairs of Large Crested Sea Terns
(T. bergit velox) and Lesser Crested Terns (T. b. bengalensis?) flying past,
also many petrels (O. oceanicus) flying in our wake.

16.50 Hours. Large flock of Brown-winged Terns (S. a. fuligula) fishing at
a little distance from the ship, together with a few Large Crested Sea Terns
and one Tropic-bird (sp. uncertain). Tropic bird was observed to dive into
water. Also many petrels (Wilson’s) in our wake, wheeling over surrounding
seas,

17.10 Hours. Common Swallow~(¢@) (Hirundo rustica) settled on foremast
stay, then circled up and disappeared astern. We are now roughly 300 miles
from Arabian Coast. Wind S.S.E. a moderate breeze; later swallow re-
appeared and remained with us until after 18.45 hours, when it finally left.
Surely it is unusual to find swallows (H. rustica) in these waters at this time
of the year?

18.15 Hours. Many petrels still in our wake; some Brown-winged Terns
passing; petrels remained with us until after dark when it became too dark
to see them longer.

July.2, Monday. Gulf of Aden. Lat. 12°37 N. Long. 49°22 E.

Slight swell; very light breeze from N.E. to S.E.; bright, clear and hot.
05.30 to 07.30 Hours. Many petrels in our wake and skimming over swell;

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 609

all Wilson’s (O. oceanicus); several flocks and many pairs of Brown-winged
Yerns, fishing and flying in various directions, |

07.30 Hours. Several medium sized shearwaters, wheeling low over water
in various directions; uniform dusky-brown above and below—evidently
Wedge-tailed or Green-billed Shearwaters (P. pacificus hamiltonit); one Tropic-
bird (sp. uncertain) flying high and plunging down, fishing, near flock of Brown-
winged Terns.

During morning, many petrels, a number of Brown-winged Terns and
several shearwaters flew past mostly at some distance.

All petrels still continue to be Wilson’s Petrel (O. oceanicus) as far as
can be seen. There must be many thousands of this species in these waters
and in the North Atlantic. I had not before realised what a common bird
this petrel is.

Afternoon. Very many petrels still in our wake and scattered over sur-
rounding sea; 30 to 40 always following us. One shearwater (P. pacificus
hamiltonit); one Tropic bird flew away at our approach and settled again;
tail shorter than in White Tropic bird (P. |. lepturus) seen in Red Sea and
back barred black, evidently the Short-tailed Tropic-bird (Phaethon indicus).
Several more shearwaters (P. pacificus hamiltonii); two Brown-winged Terns
and one rather large tern, with light grey mantle and yellow beak (sp.
uncertain). Many petrels still in our wake.

17.30 Hours. Two more Short-tailed Tropic birds (Phaethon indicus)
crossed our bows, giving us a good view of them.

18.15 Hours. Passed large and noisy concourse of sea birds, following
large shoal of small fish. Large mackerel (sp.) also chasing the same shoal
and a school of porpoises and/or dolphins appeared to be chasing the mackerel ;
sea birds, chiefly Brown-winged Terns (S. anaetheta fuligula) a single Masked

Booby and several shearwaters—all P. pacificus hamiltonit, uniformly dusky
above and below.

Ulysse eesday sArabian seas Lat. 13°37" N. ‘Longs? 53°37 Ey.

About 40 miles N. of Socotra. Stiff breeze from S; sea rough, heavy
monsoon swell; bright and sunny; visibility moderate.

06.00 Hours. Two (pair ?) Short-tailed Tropic-birds circled close to ship;
excellent view; disappeared south.

08.30 to 09.15 Hours. One Tropic-bird, in distance. One (possibly two)
Wilson’s Petrels crossing bows; no petrels in wake. Three or four Green-
billed Shearwaters (P. pacificus hamiltonii) wheeling over swell, occasionally
close to ship.

This morning a new species of shearwater has appeared; very similar in
size and colour to the Small Shearwater (P. puffinus) which we saw in the
Western Mediterranean; this bird is rather small in size, lightish brown above
and whitish below; it flew more rapidly and with less sailing and wheeling
than the much larger Green-billed species. We are now about 4c to 50 miles
N.W. of Socotra, so I imagine that this smal] shearwater must be connected
with this Island. Five or six of them were passed this morning, none close.
I think they must be the local race of the Dusky Shearwater (Puffinus assimilis
bailloni). No other birds were seen until 11.55 hours when a single Green-
billed Shearwater passed.

Between 17.30 and 19.00 Hours, when dusk set in, there were a few Green-
billed Shearwaters, flying low over the waves, but no other birds; petrels were
conspicuous by their absence.

July 4, Wednesday. Arabian Sea. Lat. 15°45 N. Long. 57°17 E.

Roughly 200 miles S. E. of Arabian coast; swell heavy but moderating ;
strong monsoon wind from S.W.; morning dull; visibility fair; later, bright
and sunny.

06.00 to 08.00 Hours. Passed several dark-coloured shearwaters; all pre-
sumably Green-billed (P. pacificus hamiltonii); one settled on the water; these
shearwaters have rather long, squarish tails.

08.30 to 11.00 Hours. Passed one Tropic-bird (P. indicus) and_ several
petrels (O.. oceanicus) flying low over the swell; none in wake. Many shear-

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

waters, generally solitary or in pairs, but one gathering of upwards of 12,
passed at 10.45 hours. In this group, majority were settled on water although
it is still rather rough, others were flying on overhead, settling and getting up
again.

14.30 to 15.00 Hours. In addition to numerous shearwaters passed a
Short-tailed Tropic-bird and 5 (2, 1, 1, 1) Masked Boobies, all in adult plu-
mage, fishing by diving vertically from a height and disappearing completely
under water. Some shearwaters appeared rather larger than others; one large
one, passing close, could be seen to have flesh-coloured feet. Does the Pink-
footed Shearwater (P. carnetpes) ever come as far as west as this?

15.30 Hours. Passed another iarge concourse of sea birds close to star-
board, chasing a shoal of smali fish which was also being chased by large
mackerel (sp.); 40 to 50 Green-billed Shearwaters, with which were a few of
the slightly larger species which appeared also slightly lighter brown; there
were also a pair of Brown-winged Terns and a pair of small shearwaters not
seen before. These two shearwaters were strikingly black and white, very
like the Manx Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus) in size and colour, the dark
blackish upper parts contrasting very vividly with the white of the underparts;
they were flying with the other shearwaters but kept together. We are now
running roughly 225 to 250 miles from the Arabian coast. I think these must
be the Persian Shearwater (Puffinus persicus), which answers to this description.

16.05 Hours. Two petrels (O. oceanicus) following our walxe; passed three
other birds—petrels or very small shearwaters—that are new to me, flying
more or less together, close above the waves, at a little distance from the
ship; somewhat like shearwaters of the Puffinus puffinus group but, while
underparts are white or whitish, mantle and upperparts generally are grey,
with blackish primaries. They appeared to be either very small shearwaters
or more probably petrels of some species.

Shortly afterwards, we passed another of the same species and also numer-
ous Green-billed Shearwaters.

Between 16.45 and 17.00 Hours passed three Short-tailed Tropic-birds (P.
indicus) one of which sat on the water until we were quite close to it; as it
rose and flew off, it gave us a splendid view; numerous Green-billed Shear-
waters still present together with one or two petrels. ,

17.30 Hours. Another Tropic-bird (P. indicus) passed, but shearwaters are
now becoming very scarce as evening closes in; sea has moderated and it is
now bright and sunny with good visibility; breeze is strong from S.W.

July 5, Thursday. Arabian Sea. Lat. 18°29 N. Long. 60°25 E.

Roughly 200 miles from Arabian coast; swell moderate; breeze moderate
from S. W.; bright and sunny; visibility good.

This morning we have passed into the territory of another species of petrel.

Between 06.00 and 07.00 Hours, saw 15 of them, either singly or in pairs,
flying close over the waves like Wilson’s Petrels, mostly at a little distance
from ship. They are very similar in size to, but possibly a trifle smaller than,
Wilson’s Petrel (O. oceanicus) and, like that bird, are sooty blackish-browa
above with a white rump; but the indistinct pattern in the wings is less dis-
tinct in this species; the belly and abdomen are white and there is also a white
lining to the wings; feet appear to be black and about the same length or
possibly a trifle longer than the tail; tail is square or possibly very slightly
forked. I have not met this petrel before but it seems to be common in these
waters. The only petrel mentioned by Stuart Baker in the Fauna of British
India, Birds, Vol. VI, which it might be is the Dusky-vented Petrel (Fregatta
tropica melanogastra).

Many Green-billed Shearwaters are still present—but no other shearwaters.

At 06.40 Hours, passed a large concourse of these shearwaters (P. .
hamilionii); more than I have ever seen together previously; there were well
over 100 of them, either settled on the water or wheeling overhead, all in a
large loose flock.

08.00 Hours, passed a lone gull; apparently a Sooty or Aden Gull (L.
hemprichii) in immature plumage.

08.45 Hours. Three Short-tailed Tropic-birds (P. indicus) flew over and
circled the ship for upwards of 5 minutes before dropping astern; they showed

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL DIARY OF A VOYAGE 611

themselves off very well; short tails were very noticeable. Shortly afterwards
another pair passed, so this species of Tropic-bird seems fairly plentiful in
this area. A number of Dusky-vented Petrels (?) and Green-billed Shearwaters
were in evidence throughout the morning but not a great many of either
species,

Between 15.00 and 16.15 Hours, passed 5 Dusky-vented Petrels (7), one
of which flew to and fro across our wake for upwards of 5 minutes. Several
Green-billed Shearwaters, one Short-tailed Tropic-bird and five Masked Boobies
(Sula dactylatra melanops), all in adult plumage, two together and the re-
maining three solitary birds. Dusky-vented Petrels (Ff. tropica melanogastra?)
still fairly numerous, often in pairs but generally singly. We are now
roughly 150 miles from Arabian coast; swell continues; with bright and
moderately sunny sky.

10.20 Hours, passed 4 Dusky-vented Petrels (?) fiying more or less together ;
Green-billed Shearwaters are becoming scarcer as we travel further north—
possibly we are running out of their usual habitat.

From 17.30 to 20.00 Hours (dusk) passed one Short-tailed Tropic-bird, one
Green-billed Shearwater and several (5 or 6) Dusky-vented Petrels (?).

July 6, Friday. Arabian Sea. Lat. 21°23 N. Long. 63°42 e

_ Roughly 24 hours from Karachi; sea calm; swell moderate; light breeze
from S.W.; fine, fairly clear but sky inclined to be overcast,

06.00 to 07.00 Hours. Bird-life very scarce, this early morning; no shear-
waters; only one Dusky-vented Petrel (?) seen.

07.45 Hours. Two Short-tailed Tropic-birds appeared and circled the ship,
near or far, for nearly 15 minutes, before dropping astern.

09.00 Hours. Masked Booby, flying N.E., overtook ship. This bird appear-
ed to have more white on it, than usual, especially about the tail; tail coverts
were white and only the ends of the tail feathers were black, like the primaries;
bill was bluish.

09.40 Hours. Solitary Green-billed Shearwater crossed our bows; shortly
afterwards a single Dusky-vented Petrel (7) appeared. Later two more Dusky-
vented Petrels (?) were passed, but there are not so many of these petrels
about today as there were yesterday.

10.55 Hours. Pair of Short-tailed Tropic-birds flew over ship, calling loudly
to one another, and then circled ship for 10 minutes or more. Call is
monosyllabic and rather finch-like—not the type of cry one would expect from
a bird like the Tropic-bird.

13.45 Hours. Two Green-billed Shearwaters and several petrels round bows ;
two of petrels were definitely the species that I have called Dusky-vented
(F. t. melanogastra) and one was definitely a Wilson’s (O. oceanicus) while
another was also, I think, of this species. The fifth was a slightly larger,
grey petrel, of the same species recorded as having been seen at 16.05 hours
on 4th July. This one was closer and could be seen much better; the under-
parts were white, like the Dusky-vented Petrels close to which it was flying,
but the upper parts were mottled bluish grey, with dark primaries; head and
hind neck were lighter grey; rump was pale grey or whitish and tail was
blackish; feet were slightly longer than the tail. I think that this bird (and
those seen on the 4th July) must be the White-faced Storm or Frigate
Petrel (Pelagodroma marina) which is known to occur further south in the
Indian Ocean.

13.30 to 15.00 Hours. Exceptionally few birds passed; only three Dusky- °
vented (F. t. melanogastra ?) and one Wilson’s (O. oceanicus) noted.

After 15.00 Hours more birds appeared. Two Green-billed Shearwaters,
crossed our bows, followed by several petrels of which one was a Wilson’s
and 3 or 4 were Dusky-vented (?). Then three more White-faced Petrels
(Pelagodroma marina) appeared flying together to starboard. They are attrac-
tive little petrels with, as far as one could see, flight and habits at sea similar
to those of Wilson’s, with the exception that they flew straighter and more
purposefully.

15.40 Hours. A Masked Booby and a _ solitary Short-tailed Tropic-bird
circled the ship, widely, flying more or less in company. For some days we
have had a small number of butterflies, moths and locusts with us. They

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

came aboard when we were in the Gulf of Aden and are still with us, though
the number of locusts (some pink and others yellow) has diminished: The
locusts came aboard chiefly (if not entirely) at night.

16.00 Hours. Two Masked Boobies and one Tropic-bird flying in our wake.

16.10 Hours. A single Masked Booby came floating past, standing on a
plank; it took to flight as it came amidships and circled round. All the
boobies seen, during the last few days, have been in fully adult plumage.
several petrels both Wilson’s and Dusky-vented (?) crossed our bows between
16.00 and 17.00 hours.

17.45 to 19.00 Hours. Three Green-billed Shearwaters and one Short-tailed
Tropic-bird passed, all flying singly. The Mekran coast is now about 200
miles away.

July 7, Saturday. Arabian Sea. Lat. 24°47 N. Long. 66°32 W.

Approaching Mekran coast and Karachi. Sea much calmer; slight swell;
slight ripple from light breeze, from S.E.; sky overcast and cloudy, early
morning, brighter later; warm and muggy.

05.30 to o6.00 Hours. Roughly 70 miles from coast; Green-billed Shear-
waters, very numerous; passed several hundreds, mostly flying but one flock
of 12 and another 7 were resting, on the water, in compact groups.

As soon as the birds in these flocks took wing, they scattered and flew.
away singly or in pairs; they did not fly in flocks, but seemed to like to rest
in these formations. Petrels still numerous, but now all appear to be
Wilson’s; we passed upwards of 50 in half an hour, mostly flying singly or
in pairs, but at one time there were seven skimming the water, close together.

Soon after o6.00 Hours, two Masked Boobies sailed up from astern,
overtook and inspected the ship and then dropped back again.

06.15 Hours. A large skua (?) crossed our bows, at a little distance and
proceeded on its course; it was a little larger and more heavily built than the
Green-billed Shearwaters; dusky-brown above (like that shearwater but of a
rather lighter ashy brown) below whitish;—-not pure white but the brown of
the sides fading into dirty white. I take this bird to be Richardson’s Skua
(Stercorarius parasiticus) but it is surprising that one should be in those waters
early in July; presumably it was a non-breeding bird that had remained be-
hind in its winter habitat.

Between 06.00 and 06.45 Hours. Green-billed Shearwaters and Wilson’s
Petrels continued to be numerous—but not as plentiful as they were earlier
in the morning. After 06.45 Hours only an occasional shearwater and petrel
was seen.

At o7.00 Hours, a small shearwater crossed our bows, flying rapidly
close above the water with quick wing beats and short glides. It was blackish
brown above and white beneath and was, I believe, another Persian Shearwater
(Puffinus persicus).

7.45 Hours. Another Masked Booby flew up, inspected the ship and
dropped astern; a few Wilson’s Petrels are still flying around.

Between 08.30 and 09.05 Hours only one or two Wilson’s Petrels were
observed; other birds had disappeared.

At o9.30 Hours an empty oil-drum was thrown over and floated away
astern. This intrigued a Masked Booby, which flew up and inspected it for
some minutes; then settled beside it and eventually flew up and settled on it
and drifted away, out of sight, astern. The Masked Booby seems to be full
of curiosity.

Until 11.50 Hours, saw no further birds, with the exception of 4 or 5
Wilson’s Petrels, which flew to and fro across our wake for over an hour.
Land appeared, in a dust haze, about 11.45 hours but could not be seen
properly until we were passing within 15 miles of Monze Point. Bird-life
was noticeably absent while we were coasting towards Karachi. Only one
Wilson’s Petrel was observed until 13.10 hours when we passed two Sooty
Gulls (L. hemprichii) on the water; they flew away astern.

At 13.15 Hours, when Karachi, had just become easily distinguishable
through the dust haze, a pair of Large Crested Sea Terns flew by, close to
the ship, and three smaller, greyish terns passed ahead of us. The Large
Crested Sea Terns, in these waters, would be the local resident race, the

REPTILES OF COCANADA 613

Mekran Large Crested Tern (Thalasseus bergii bakeri) but I could not identify
the smaller grey terns. Immediately after seeing the terns, a single Wilson’s
Petrel, passed—the last to be seen on this voyage.

In Karachi Harbour Sooty Gulls (Larus hemprichi) were very numerous,
so also were the Large Crested Sea Terns (71. bergiit bakeri) and the Little Tern
(Sterna albifrons) which, at this time of the year, would be the local breeding
race praetermissa.

I was very interested to see, also, in this Harbour many Indian Reef-
Herons (Demiegretta asha) mostly in the slate-grey phase; they were com-
paratively tame and settled on the upper-works and rigging of the ships as
well as beside the water; in the evening, they retired to a large clump of
peepal trees in the dock area, where they appeared to be nesting. This is
presumably the same colony as mentioned by Stuart Baker (page 353, Vol. VI,
Birds) Fauna of British India Series.

In the evening, as we lay at anchor, flock after flock of hundreds (if
not thousands) of Indian Shags (Phalacrocorax fuscicollis) with possibly some
Indian Cormorants (P. carbo sinensis), passed close over our mast-tops on
their way to their feeding grounds in the shallow lagoons on the opposite
side of the harbour—a fitting finale to a most interesting voyage.

During the voyage, and while preparing this Diary for publication, frequent
reference was made to the following books :—

Birds of Canada 8: ont By wb Ava dbaverner.
Birds of the Ocean a J... Monet) Bey Alexander,
Fauna of Birtish India. Birds el wa Oa otuact sbaker:
Handbook of British Birds .- 4, Witherby and others.

REPTILES OF COCANADA.

BY
GARTH UNDERWOOD.

(With two graphs.)

The terrain consisted of a coastal strip of sand two to three
miles in width. The water level was never more than about ten
feet below the surface. Palms and cacti composed the principal
vegetation, with patches of sparse grass. Inland was a zone of
paddy fields; the mud was copious and vegetation plentiful.

The reptiles examined were collected with the aid of the local
villagers and came, as far as is known, wholly from the two types
of country described. The accounts of the species encountered are
given in so far as they supplement or contradict the accounts given
by Smith in The Fauna of British India, (Reptilia), 2nd Ed. Dimen-
sions are all in millimetres.

The following abbreviations are used to reduce the bulk of the
account :—

Temporals 2+2 and 2+3, 8 spp., means that 8 specimens were
examined having 2+2 temporals on one side of the head, and 2+ 3
on the other side. Owing to the docked tails, the total lengths of
snakes are not always comparable; the body and tail lengths are
indicated separately thus :—

1,000 total length (b.750, t.250).
The ventral and subcaudal counts are indicated by V and C.

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

LORICATA.

Crocodilus palustris

In Pittapur Raja’s College is the skelton of a Crocodilus palu-
stris which wandered into the district. The writer was told that
a few are sometimes washed down to the lower reaches by the
Godavari river when it is in flood. It is not a normal inhabitant
of the neighbourhood.

‘TESTUDINES.
Trionychidae :

Lisissemys punctata

This was the only Chelonian met with. Unfortunately the
Godavari river was too far distant for any specimens to be obtained
from it.

96 specimens were examined. 65 of these specimens possessed
developed marginal bones. They were very variable. In 11
individuals the relation of rst to 2nd marginals was different on
the two sides. Taking the sides separately, in about three-quarters
the rst marginal was larger than the 2nd. This includes about
one-tenth of the total number in which the ist was much larger
than the 2nd. In about one-eighth the rst and 2nd marginals were
equal. In the remaining eighth the 1st was smaller than the 2nd.
The number of separate ossifications visible varied from 6 on each
side (2 spp. 150x120 and 230x185) to 12 on each side (1 sp.
190x150). One specimen had 3 on the left and 4 on the right
(200 x 160). In 6 specimens no anal marginals were apparent. 1
specimen had no marginals at all with consequent curtailment of
the posterior border of the carapace (115 x 105).

The entoplastral callosity was always small, never absent.
Assuming that plastron and entoplastral callosity are approximately
elliptical then :—

length x breadth of plastron
length x breadth of entoplastral callosity

gives the approximate ratio of area of plastron: area of
entoplastral callosity. For specimens of over 160 mm. in length
this ratio varied from 63.5 (Plastron 163.x 139, callosity 21 x 17)
to 480 (Plastron 200 x 168, callosity 10x 7). The F.B.I. illustration
of a ‘moderate’ callosity gives a ratio of 20.5.

In the young the skin on the costal plates was wrinkled,
extracostally it was ropy; in a few cases the ropiness extended onto
the costal plates. The smallest specimen in which the ropiness had
been lost was 100 x 80; the largest in which it was retained was

130 X I00.

The largest specimen encountered was 235x190 (Plastron
253) xi102)..

All the specimens had small crescentic folds of horny skin, 4
or 5 on the underside of the wrist, 1 on the underside of the tibial
region.

One specimen had clubbed feet with no claws.

The colouration, although variable, showed certain consistencies.

REPTILES OF COCANADA 615

The ground colour on the costal plates was dark olive, some
times lighter and greyish, sometimes darker and greenish. The
following black markings were usually present, sometimes fine,
sometimes thick and heavy. On the neural plates starlike mark-
ings consisting of short streaks and, when the whole was heavily
marked, of triangles also. Running across the intercostal sutures
short parallel streaks. On the costal plates between these streaks,
spots or irregular reticulate markings or both.

Extracostally the carapace was always lighter and yellower,
often a brown colour, and bore spots or reticulations.

The black markings varied in thickness, the heavy ones were
usually associated with reticulate markings on the costal plates,
the light ones with small spots. There were all gradations of
distinctness of the markings. In about one-fifth of the specimens,
these of all sizes, they vary from faint to absent.

One large specimen showed a light pile-shaped band down each
intercostal suture, there were no dark marks. Another of equal
size and another smaller one showed the usual dark markings
fading round the edges and these light bands appearing. The
largest specimen (235 x 190) did not show this.

In about equal numbers the young showed spots or reticulations.
These reticulations bore no relation to the underlying costal plates ;
in about one-tenth of the adults these irregular reticulations
persisted.

In two specimens the ground colour was yellow-green, the
smaller (105 x95) with faint spots, the larger (145 x 125) devoid of
markings, except on the head.

The head normally possessed 3 parallel stripes on each side, the
middle one of each set running back from behind the eye, the two
upper ones converged on the occiput and then diverged forwards
between the eyes, the lower stripe was usually more or less wavy
and varied greatly in length. Dorsally a median stripe ran back
from behind the occiput. There were usually a few small marks
around the snout, sometimes also the head was sprinkled generally
with small irregular marks.

There was considerable variation in these stripes.

In about half the specimens the lower of the three parallel
stripes was absent. In about one-third the upper stripes did not
extend forwards between the eyes. In 4 specimens the upper
stripes were double making 4 parallel stripes on each side.

In about one-sixth of the specimens the median stripe was
double, in about one-twelfth absent or broken up.

Detailed measurements were made of the plastral callosities of
31 specimens and their course of development noted. Only 3
specimens of length less than 95 were examined.

The smallest (65 x 50) had no callosities. In one of 80x70 the
hypohyal callosities only were apparent. In another of the same
size the xiphiplastrals were also visible. All the larger specimens
had the epiplastral callosities apparent. The smallest in which the

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.: 46

entoplastral callosity had begun to appear was 95 x 80, the largest
in which it had not appeared was 120 x 100.

The epiplastral callosities appear as more or less circular, on
either side of the mid-line about 10 mm. apart (100 mm. specimen).
Later at about 130 mm. extensions begin to appear on either side
and at about 150 mm. the callosities have expanded to meet the
anterior edge of the plastron. The ratio of maximum breadth to
length is then about 1:2. The distance separating them may
increase in large specimens.

In the young the hypohyal callosities were relatively far from
the border of the plastron and the inguinal pores lay 1-2 mm. out-
side the border of the callosities. With increase in size the bone
extends towards the edges of the plastron, passing round and
enclosing the inguinal pore. The change takes place in specimens
from about “110-130 in length. Eventually the callosity extends
to within several mm.‘of the edge, or reaches it, by which
time the inguinal pore may be 10-20 mm. inside the border.
The smallest specimen in which the hypohyal callosities reached the
edge was 185x150, the largest in which they were a few mm.
from the edge was 200x170. The hypohyal callosities also develop
forwards and the relative distance between them and the epiplastral
callosities diminishes with increase in size.

The xiphiplastral callosities are more or less oval in the young
and the inner edges diverge anteriorly and posteriorly, they are
then about 5 mm. apart. With growth in size they approach one
another to a distance of, usually 2 mm. sometimes much less, they
tend also to diverge less and to develop square ends.

Those specimens which, from the development of the callosities,
appeared to be the oldest had them well sunk below the general
level; they also had a noticeable waist where the hypohyal callosities
met the edges instead of the convex outline of the young. In 2
well grown specimens the maximum width was at mid-body instead
of on a line across the body passing just before the posterior
plastral flaps.

The smallest specimen in which marginal bones had begun to
appear was 100x85, the largest in which they were not apparent
was 120x100. They start appearing from the outside inwards
towards the mid-line.

This turtle was common in the paddy fields, canals and ponds
of the district.

Only 1 was received with any water weed growing on it, this
a filamentous alga on the soft skin around the base of the neck and
forelimbs.

It was observed that in water, water was constantly being
pumped in and out through the nostrils, presumably so that it might
be smelt or tasted.

Some half dozen eggs were laid between the fourth week in
October and the fourth week in December. Unfortunately all
became addled and failed to develop.

REPTILES OF COCANADA 617

SQUAMATA.

SAURIA,
Gekkonidae.

Hemidactylus brooki.,

Ig specimens were examined.

The variation in the number of labials was as in the F.B.I.
The subdigital lamellae numbered 5 under the first digit, and 7
(2 specimens 8) under the fourth.

The colour ranged from very pale with no spots at all to brown
with dark brown spots.

Hemidactylus frenatus.

This gecko was uncommon here. Only 2 specimens were seen,
one had a longitudinal band down the back with wavy edges.

Hemidactylus leschenaulti.

This was much less common than H. brooki. 5 specimens were
examined. The labials were as in the F.B.I. The subdigital
lamellae were 6 under the first and g under the fourth digit. The
femoral pores varied from 12-15.

There were undulating cross bars on the back and the tails of
some had alternate dark and pink bands.

Two eggs were laid by one in the last week of March.

A gamidae.
Sitana ponticeriana.

This lizard was not common, probably due to the dampness.
Only 2 specimens were seen.
Calotes versicolor.

This lizard was very common. 95 specimens were examined,
86 d and g &.

The labials showed a wider range of variation, than given in
the F.B.I. Taking each lip separately the counts were as follows :—

2] 1/19 | 6 ng) A)

No. of labials

No, of
counts

:
coe

|
|
|
79 | 65 7 1| 172

Lower

Taking sides of the head separately the upper labials exceeded
the lower in number as follows :—
|
(No. of upper) +4 | 43
(No. of lower) |

OY} Tl | 0 - Total counts

del Ser 171

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

In 35 out of 85 specimens the labials on the two sides agreed
with one another, in another 15 specimens there was a difference
between the left and right but it was the same for upper and lower
labials.

The mid-body scale rows showed the following variation in
numbers :—

| | |
Mid-body | | | |
scale rows | 38 | 39 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | Totals

Laat |
rr eo oa

4 _ 1] 4/16! 9/13 | 13 80

—j}— | | | | { |
2 oa nf af 2 2] 9
i |

There is in this case no clearly defined modal value but 85%
of the do specimens fall within 41-46.

The dorsal crest in the ¢ was well developed. Counts were
made from the first enlarged scale of the nuchal crest to the last
of the dorsal crest. This last scale, although scarcely enlarged,
was recognisable because it was at the end of a vertebral series
and beyond it on the tail were two rows on either side of the mid-
dorsal line.

The counts were as follows :—

| | |
ss 49/50. 51 52/83 55 | 56 | 57 Tota!
|
= 5} vj). 27} s| a] a) a] 1} 1 2279

l { } i |

No. of scales} 46 | 47
|

Although the range of variation is large the modal value is
‘Clearly defined and this count may have some value.

In the 9 there was no distinct vertebral series of scales.

In the adult 3 the cheeks were always well swollen.

The 85 d examined ranged from 98 mm.-132 mm. The modal
value was 121 mm. This was not very clearly defined however.

In 41 ¢S specimens with tail intact it varied in length from
240 mm.-393 mm. The statistical correlation between body length
and tail length was ‘40 which is not close.

The relation between them is:—

Tail length=1.3x body length+ 141 mm.

The colour of Q specimens was brown with darker bands, there
were two light dorso-lateral stripes and whitish spots where the
transverse bands crossed the longitudinal. stripes. The young were
lighter in general colouring and the dorso-lateral stripes very
clearly marked. In the adult ¢G specimens these markings had
vanished. There was generally a black band on the throat and
also black on the legs. When excited the head and neck flushed

red.

REPTILES OF COCANADA 619

With regard to the egg laying season 4 @ were examined on
August 19th and observations recorded as follows :—

Body length.

102 Oviducts empty, 15 eggs in ovaries, 4 mm. diam.

98 ls 7, do 3 mm. diam.
85 Oviducts containing 14 eggs, 14x9 mm.
ele) do 13) CLS.) L2GOr mii

On August 11th egg laying was observed and has been described
hey WS Uo INolgloSoy Wills vise None He

Scincidae.
Mabuya carinata,

This skink was common, 16 specimens were examined.

The shields of the head all agreed in having the supra-nasals
separated from one another and also, in contradistinction to what
the F.B.I. states to be the usual condition, the prefrontals separated.
The anterior loreal ranged from considerably higher than the
posterior loreal to just higher and from about 1/2 to 2/3 of its
length. Mid-body scale rows number 30-32, dorsal scales 38-42
and the lamellae under the 4th digit 14-16, nearly all 16.

The largest specimen was body 103 mm., tail 165 mm. The
tail length ranged from 1.6 x body length in the largest specimen
to 2.1 in a smaller one (Body 58, tail 120).

Riopa albopunctata.

37 specimens of this common skink were collected and are now
in the Society’s collection. They were not thoroughly examined
as regards squamation but colouration was noted.

The back was bronze brown to a width of 8 scale rows, dimi-
nishing to a width of 4 on the tail. At the base of each scale was
a small darker spot. From the side of the neck on to the side of
the body was spotted black and white, becoming indistinct past
mid-body. The sides and underside of the tail bore small brown
spots, one per scale. Some individuals had bright lemon yellow
from the sides of the neck halfway to the groin.

Juveniles differed slightly from this description. They were
dark bluish bronze above with seven lighter lines from neck to base
of tail; the outer pair started from the corners of the eyes. The
tail was dark crimson lake.

These lizards were found principally in damp situations under
dead leaves.

Riopa punctata,

21 specimens were collected and are also in the Society’s
collection.

They had 4 rows of dark spots down the back, the dorso-latera!
stripes from the canthus were well marked; on the sides, legs and
base of tail were small brown spots which thinned out on the under-
side. On the sides of the anterior half of the body were small

(

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

white spots. In the young the tail was bright vermilion, with age
the colour faded and the brown spots extended over the tail. The
vermilion colouration persisted in individuals of as much as 70 mm.
body length.

This common skink was found principally in somewhat dryer
situations than R. albopunctata.

SERPENTES.
Lyphlopidae.

Typhlops braminus.

48 specimens were collected and are now in the Society’s
collection.

They were all light in colour. The scales were pale brown.
The general colour appeared to be largely due to underlying organs
which could be seen through the skin to move backwards and
forwards with each inspiration and expiration.

Smith mentions that Annandale’s var. arenicola ‘‘are pale buff
in colour’? and ‘‘were found in sandy desert country’’. These
specimens also lived in sand, so perhaps the light colour is adaptive.

Boidae.

Eryx conicus.

II specimens were examined 6 ¢ and 5 Q.

The largest ¢ was 480 total length (b.445 t.35); these are the
same measurements as given in the F.B.J. No full grown @ was
obtained, the largest was 487 total length (b.455 t.32). The o
showed a range of tail length from 64% to 8% of total length,
the Q from 53% to 62%. In both sexes the smallest specimen
had the proportionately shortest tail.

As regards head shields there were no aberrations. Scales across
forehead 8-10, mostly 9, 1 sp. 10. Scales round eye 10-13; 1 sp.,
single eye 10; 1 sp., single eye 13; the two sides different 5 spp.
Supralabials 11-15; single side 11; single side 15. Maximum
number of scale rows 42-52.

V 158-175. 2 spp. Q 158, ¢ 160 outside F.B.I. range. C 16-20.
Anal always small between two smaller shields, the last ventral
nearly always divided likewise into 3. 1 sp. 3rd subcaudal small,
enclosed by 2nd and 4th.

Colour varied from brown to light sandy; band down back
broken into islands, always a darker brown, and sometimes reddish,
sometimes edged with even deeper brown, wholly or partially edged
with whitish or light sandy yellow.

This snake appeared to be fairly common, all the specimens
obtained were found by men digging in the course of road con-
struction work.

Eryx johni.

7 specimens were examined 2 ¢ and 5 Q. The largest
specimens of both sexes exceeded the F.B.J. maxima by a small
amount, ¢ 895 total length (b.788 t.107), Q 1075 total length

REPTILES OF COCANADA 621

{b.9g80 t.95). In the 2 ¢ the tails were 12% and 14% of total
length, in the 5 Q@ from 9% to 12% of total length.

As regards head shields there was little departure from the
normal condition described in the F.B.I. Scales across forehead
6 or 7. Scales round eye 9-12 (F.B.I.. 10 or 11) 1 Sp. 9; I sp.
single eye 12. Supralabials 11 or 12.

V 200-211, C 30-38. Last 1 or 2 ventrals and anal always small
between pair of small scales, the sets of 3 having same width as
normal ventrals.

Colour of young quite distinctive. Salmon pink on back with
indistinct dark cross bands which become distinct and black on tail.
The cross bars first fade on anterior half of body. Belly spotted
salmon pink and brown.

With increase in size the salmon pink scales become edged with
brown and eventually the whole back and belly is earthy brown
with no trace of cross bars. Subcaudally it remains white and may
also so remain ventrolaterally, although some spp. were brown all
round. Scars sometimes showed a little pink.

The tails of all the large specimens were scarred as though they
had been bitten. The idea suggested itself that the tail serves to
receive attacks intended for the head, which it resembles at first
sight.

It appeared to be fairly common. All the specimens were found
in the same circumstances as E. conicus.

It was very docile, no specimen ever attempted to bite. The
only occasion on which one was observed to move rapidly was
when taking a rat.

The discovery of this species was a surprise for the nearest
locality mentioned by Smith is Lucknow (about 675 miles from
Cocanada). Smith quotes Russell’s statement that ‘‘It is not
uncommon in Bengal’’ and adds that “‘the regions to which he
refers are well outside the area which it now inhabits’’.

Colubridae.

Ptyas mucosus.

18 specimens were examined, 8 ¢ and go ‘9. The largest ¢
was 1955 total length (b.1420 t.535). The largest 9 was 1845
total length (b.1322 t.523). In the do the tail length varied from
26% to 28% of the total length, in the 9Q from 253% to 30%.

‘Head shields; 1 sp. single loreal; 1 sp. 2 loreals, remainder 3
loreals; 1 sp. left prefrontal divided giving appearance of 4 loreals;
2 spp. lower left hand loreal met eye, in one also upper left temporal
vertically divided. All other spp. temporals 2+ 2.

V is 194-202 Q 196-203, C ¢ 117-124, Q 106-124.

The individual ventral counts were :—

195 .. | 197] 198] 199 | 200
197

|
|

| 196 | 197} 198] 199! 200! 201 | 203
| 198 |

|
ie 3 os

dé w| 194

—o-

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

This gives the 9 a little higher average.

The vertebrals were all slightly enlarged.

As regards scale rows there was generally a ring of 23, a few
rings of 21, about a dozen of 19, 17 to about mid-body, a short
length of 16, a ring or two of 15 and the remainder 14. The 17
to 16 reduction was effected by the fusion of the vertebral row with
one adjacent. In one specimen there was a drop from 17 to 15
to 14. The 15 to 14 reduction being by fusion of the vertebral
row with the row adjacent. Another specimen dropped 17, 16, 15
a long stretch of 13, 2 rings of 12, 2 rings of 13 and 3 rings of 14.
The point of fusion of the vertebral row with the row adjacent may
evidently move.

The colour varied from light sandy yellow to such a dark colour
that the bands could scarcely be distinguished. The belly was
generally yellow.

From a @ 1695 total length (b.1260 t.435+) 8 eggs were taken
on January 25th. They measured 53x 15—56x18. No embryos
were visible. This snake was common.

Ahaetulla tristis.
8 specimens were examined, 4 ¢ and 4 9. The largest ¢

was gio total length (b.605 t.305) the largest Q 1180 (b.855 t.325)-

The head shields were normal with a few minor exceptions.
1 sp. small scale between anterior temporals, lower postocular and
supralabials 6 and 7. 1 sp. small scale between 4 temporals on left
hand side. 1 sp. supralabials 5 and 6 united.

Contrary to the list of common characters for the genus given in
the F.B.I. the enlarged vertebral scales did not originate by the fusion
of two rows on the neck. There was a single vertebral row straight
back from the parietals.

V_ 183-188 (6 spp.) C 134-140 (4 spp.)

Scale rows generally a few rings of 17, about half the body
length of 15, a few rings of 13, and the remainder 11. One 9,
V188, had the last 45 rings 9. In another 9 V188, the last 7
rings mMumbered 11, 10, (OQ) Ta, 11, 01, 11.

The colour was purplish brown above, a pale yellowish below.
The black temporal stripe was not conspicuous, vertebral scales on
the neck pale yellow, a median spot of the same colour on the
parietals.

This snake appeared to be fairly common.

Natrix piscator.

20 grown specimens were examined and two batches of hatch-
lings, one of 13 and one of 17. The largest ¢ measured 880 total
length (b.600, t.280) and the largest Q 1030 (b.770, t.260). The
tail length of 9 9 varied from 23% to 37% of the total length and
from 294% to 42% in the ¢ ¢. In the matter of scale characters
the second batch of hatchlings, 17, showed so many irregularities
that they will be described separately.

Head shields. Temporals 2+2, 16 spp.; 2+3, 5 spp.; 2+2
and 3+3, I sp.3; 2+2 and 3+ 2, 1 sp., the last two both owing to

REPTILES OF COCANADA 623,

division of a Ist upper temporal. 4 infralabials in contact with the
anterior genial on one side, 3 spp.; left infralabials 8 and 9 united,
right g and 10 united, 1 sp.; 2 postoculars, 1 sp.; 2 postoculars one
side only, 1 sp.; 4 postoculars one side only, 1 sp.

I specimen had very abnormal head shields. On the right
supralabials 3-8 were fused with one another, and the Jower post-
ocular was fused with the lower temporal and supralabials 6 and 7.
The left infralabials had a small cuneiform scale between the 3rd
and 4th.

There was a distinct difference in the ventral counts of the sexes.

3 V 134-141 Q@ V 146-156

In the case of the first batch of hatchlings there was a difference
in the subcaudal counts also.

3d V 136-139 C 89-93 (5 spp.)
Q V 146-152 C 76-83 (8 spp.)

There were a few irregularities of the ventral scales. sist V
divided, 2 spp.; 2nd V divided, 1 sp.; 2nd and last V divided, 1 sp.
V 132, 133 and 135 divided 1 sp.; last V broken up and some parts
fused with adjacent shields, 1 sp.

As regards scale rows there was generally a ring of 25, a few
rings of 21, a long stretch of 19 to past mid-body, 17 to anus.

The colouration was rather variable. The subocular and
postocular streaks were always present, sometimes the postocular
one continued past the corner of the mouth. The two parietal spots
were always present except in one specimen with the left-hand one
missing. The majority of specimens had 7 rows of spots, some 6
and a smaller number 6 on the neck and 7 on the body. The
general ground colour was olive with a different colour between the
spots which ranged from whitish, grey, sepia, brown, greenish
yellow to red or pink, and which sometimes displaced the olive
colour from the body.

As regards colouration of the ‘hatchlings all had 6 rows of black
spots.

The first batch fell into 2 groups in the matter of a number of
colour characters. Group A, 1 36,7 9;groupB4¢641 9. Head,
A dark olive, B light olive; back, A olive, B yellow green; 2 parietal
spots and a spot on the occiput, A white, B yellow; on each side
behind each set of 3 black spots, A 2 red spots, B 2 pale red spots.
This appears to be a case of partial sex-linkage of genes having
a general effect on development of pigments.

The distribution of other colour characters in the two batches
suggested that the following are genetically determined: presence
or absence of: a black ring round parietal and occipital spots—dark
stripes on sides of neck—dark band across occiput—yellow patches
on sides of neck—yellow belly—small light spot above upper black
spot on each side.

On February rith, one snake laid 19 eggs during the night,
they hatched out in from 51-524 days. On February 16th, another
snake laid 31 eggs during the night, they hatched out in from 37
to 38 days.

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

The eggs measured 27x 17—25x15 mm. When laid they
contained fairly well advanced embryos.

The hatchlings measured 154-195 total length.

The second batch of hatchlings showed many irregularities.

The internasals were divided obliquely, 2 spp., incompletely
divided obliquely 2 spp. Temporals 2+2, 15 spp.; 2+3, I Sp.;
2+1, 1 sp. 4 infralabials meet anterior genials, 14 spp. 2 post-
oculars 1 sp.; on one side only 1 sp. Supralabials 8, 1 sp.; 8 or
one side 2 spp. in one of these 5th divided giving appearance of
subocular.

VS 132-142 (13 spp.) Q 145-147 (4 spp.) C 71-84.

There were a great many irregularities of the ventrals. The
irregularities consisted of, divided ventrals, intercalated shields half
normal width, enlargement of one shield at the expense of its
neighbours and intercalation of small scales between others. Only
3 spp. were quite normal.

The ventrals of which irregularities occur are tabulated opposite.
X indicates an irregularity. Some of the tails also showed irregular-
ities, consisting in that the shields were in opposite pairs instead
of alternately, or a series of cuneiform scales between the normal
ones. In 4 spp. the following stretches were irregular 1-5, 16-25,
64-70, 75-80 respectively.

The umbilical scar covered 3 ventral shields and varied in
position from 99-101 in a sp. V 132 to 128-130 in a sp. V 146.

Unfortunately it was not known which 9 laid the eggs, con-
sequently not so much genetical information can be deduced from
the batches as might have been the case.

The differences in the subcaudal counts of the sexes in the first
batch may be due to sex-limited differences in tail length or, perhaps,
to the fact that a well marked sexual difference in ventral counts
would give an incidental difference in subcaudal counts if there were
no great variation in total vertebral number. Asymmetry of shields
may be due to coiling of embryos exerting a mechanical effect on
development.

Natrix stolata,

gpecimens were examined. The largest ¢ was 495 total
length (b.361, t.134) the largest Q 502 total length (b.379, t.213).
There were many irregularities of the head shields. 3rd and
4th supralabials fused on one side, 1 sp.; 7 supralabials, 2 spp.,
on one side only 1 sp., in which 3rd and 4th meet eye; 4th and 5th
supralabials only met eye 1 sp.; 4 infralabials met anterior genial,
1 sp.; 6 infralabials on one side met anterior genial, 1 sp.;
temporals 1+2, 3 spp.; I+1+3, 2 spp.; 1+2 upper shield divided
I sp.; 1+ 3 upper shield divided, 1 sp.
V 143-151 C 67-90.
1st V divided and half shield between V’s 145 & 146, 1 sp.
The colouration was fairly constant. Olive greenish above
with black cross bands intersected by longitudinal buff stripes, at
the intersections white spots, these are more pronounced and black

625

ADA

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Irregularities in ventrals of Natrix piscator.

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

bands less pronounced on the neck. Sides of ventral shields
normally have scattered small black spots. Top of head olive,
shields sometimes edged with black. Lips pre- and post-oculars and
sides of neck usually yellow, sometimes all yellow is absent.

Five specimens were caught within a few yards of one another
outside the cook house. When they were brought to the writer
4 were dead and 1 alive. When they were examined it was found
that the live ¢ was copulating with adead Q. It resented attempts
to separate them.

8 eggs were laid on February 1st, they hatched in 41 days.
They measured 24x 12—21x II.

Atretium schistosum.

15 specimens were examined, 14 Q and 1 .¢. The largest 9
measured 845 total length (b.677, t.163+ broken). This is larger
than the F.B.I. record of 800 total length (b.615, t.185).

The head shields were variable. 3 postoculars 6 spp.; 3 and 2,
3 spp.; 2, 4 spp. Supraoculars divided giving appearance of 2
preoculars 2 spp. Temporals 2+ 2, 8 spp.; 2+3 and 2+2, 3 spp.;
2+3, I sp.; 2+2 and 2+1, I sp.; 2+2 and 2+1 (upper temporal
fused with parietal) 1 sp.; 2+2 and 3+1, 1 sp. Supralabials 9,
12 spp.; 8 on left 3rd and 4th meet eye, to on right 5th and 6th
meet eye, 1. sp. Infralabials 5 meet anterior genials, 8 spp.; 4
meet them) 32, Spp-

V cs 144 (1 sp.) Q 150-159 (14 spp.) C 66-71 (5 spp.)

1o out of 15 tails were docked.

The scale rows generally ranyersrinouot123;. 1aOnn2s01 21,7 19) to
mid-body, 17 to anus.

The colouration was generally olive. 2 spp. were slaty grey
with grey eyes. There was generally a dark line on the back on
rows 7 and 8. A dark streak runs back from the eye on to rows
3 and 4 on the neck, sometimes followed by another streak on
rows 2 and 3. A dark lateral streak between rows 1 and 2 from
the middle of the body back was sometimes present. Most showed
a light lateral line on row 3. A red line down the side on rows 4
and 5 present in 2 spp. {The lips and under surfaces yellow.

One specimen, body 498, contained 5 eggs in one oviduct 7 in
the other on December 26th.

Two specimens (bodies 633 and 677) laid 76 eggs between them
in one night on January 15th. One specimen (body 677) laid 24
eggs January 30th.

The eggs measured 23 x 18—21x15. No embryo was visible.
Unfortunately all the eggs became addled before hatching but one
contained a nearly finished embryo after 78 days.

In the stomachs of 2 specimens crabs were found. Not one was
observed to eat frogs in captivity. This snake was very common
in the paddy fields.

Lycodon travancoricus,

This snake did not appear to be common. Only four specimens
were obtained, all were aberrant, 3 ¢ and 1: 9. Owing to the

REPTILES OF COCANADA 627

aberrations the specimens will be described separately, lettered
A, B, C, (3d) and D (Q).

In all 4 the anterior nasal is larger than the posterior (F.B.I.
‘subequal’). A, B and C have anal divided (F.B.J. ‘anal single’) D
anal single. A loreals just fail to meet, C and D loreals are in good
contact with the internasals. Temporals A 2+3 and 3+23, B
24+3, C 2+4, D 243.

A,V 188 C 70; B,V 164 C 67; C,V 180 C 67; D,V 183 € 49

The colouration agreed fairly well in the specimens. Ground
colour purplish brown; 20-23 yellow bands on back two rings wide,
shrink and become spots towards anus. Each yellow scale spotted
with dark brown. 8-10 dorsal spots on tail, the last few were just
distinguishable yellow marks. Head purplish brown above. Upper
lips yellowish, first 7 or 8 supralabials have brown centres diminish-
ing to a spot on the 8th. From the 6th and 7th backwards a dark
brown band crosses the upper half of each labial. The yellow on
the lips runs back as a speckled yellow band to join the first trans-
verse band. Scale row 1 edged with yellow some scales in other
rows edged yellow forming triangular expansions of cross bands.

Lycodon striatus.

Only 3 specimens were obtained.

Vo152, 165 and 172. The count, of '172.,exceeds that: given in
the F.B.I. for south of 20° North. C 42, 46 and 41 respectively.

The head shields were all normal, all the specimens had
temporals 2+3.

The 3 spp. agreed closely in colour. They were pure black with
white spots on the back. The centres of the white spots were
yellow on vertebral and adjacent rows on anterior half of body, the
white spots expand laterally as white flecked triangles. There
was no bar on the nape.

Dryophis nasutus.

3 specimens were examined.

Temporals variable, 2+ 2, 1 sp.; 1+3 and 1+2, 1 sp.; 3+2 first
upper divided, 1 sp. Presuboculars 2, 1 sp.; 1, 2 spp.

In the F.B.J. 15:15:13 rows are given as a common character
for the genus. 2 spp. had 13 rows followed by 28 rings of 11,
followed in 1 sp. by 11 rings of 10, in the other by 44 rings of to.

Vet S05 197.199), Ci 146,570. 154.

The colour was consistent for these and other specimens.

Verdant green above, oblique black and white stripes on inter-
stitial skin of anterior half of neck, pale green below, yellow line
along keeled edge of ventrals. Lips. yellow or yellowish.

Boiga trigonata.

Several specimens were seen but none were examined. It
appeared to be moderately common.

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEU¥, Vol. 46

Cerberus rhyncheps.

3 specimens were examined. The larger. 9 was g13 total
length (b.778, t.145-+broken) the ¢ was 768 (b.612, t.156).

There were 3 suboculars and g supralabials, the last 3 hori-
zontally divided.

V 9 145; 146.6 150 CQ (broken), 55d 63.

fhe ‘scale rows ran) 25, 323, 921,910, 17-

The colour was dirty olive above with black bands on belly.
Dark bands on back were only just perceptible.

On August 14 a specimen gave birth to young, which escaped
from a cage not constructed to hold them. Three were recovered,
they were coloured as follows: olive above, black cross-bars,
anterior few not full width, others irregular and mixed with some
black spots; black streak through eye onto side of neck; lips and
belly white, black transverse bands on belly merging to form a
more or less distinct median line down belly.

This snake was fairly common in the Godavari estuary.

Elapidae,
Naja naja,

The local people said that the cobra is found in the district but
that it is not killed because it is held as sacred. This is probably
why no specimens were obtained.

Bungarus caeruleus.

There is a specimen obtained locally in Pittapur Raja’s College.
However all the ‘‘katla pambu’’ (Telugu name for krait) brought
by the villagers were Lycodons.

Viperidae.
Vipera russelli.

3 specimens were examined. The largest was 1178 total
length (b.975, t. 203).

Round eye 12 or 13 scales, across tip of snout 2 or 3 scales,
between supraoculars 7 scales, supralabials 10 or 11, 3 rows between
them and eye.

In the middle part of the body were small scattered spots
between the large dorsal and lateral markings, below the lateral
markings were irregular brown marks on rows 1 to 3. There were
numerous semilunar spots on the ventral shields of the anterior
half of the body.

FIELD NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF SOUTH
TINNEVELLY, SOUTH, INDIA.

BY
C. G. WEBB-PEPLOE.

(With one plate.)

Tinnevelly is the most southerly district in the Madras Presi-
dency. It is bounded on the east and south-east by the sea, on the
west and south-west by the Western Ghats and Travancore State,
and on the north by the plain of the Ramnad District. Through
the centre of the district from west to east runs the Tampraparni
River. There are a few lowish hills here and there in the plain
but for the most part it is entirely level.

The following notes have been written from observations
recorded during the past twenty years, chiefly in an area in the
south of the district near the small village of Dohnavur (thirty
miles from the sea to east and south, and two miles from the foot
of the Western Ghats), and in the forest round an estate in the
adjacent mountains, nine miles away, called Naraikkadu.

The country round Dohnavur is composed of comparatively
unfertile sandy land covered with palmyra palms, interspersed with
large channel-fed irrigation tanks and their attendant paddy-lands.
The average rainfall is about 35 inches, and this decreases as you
move eastwards.

The estate of Naraikkadu is set in evergreen forest at a height
of 2500-3000 feet. On both sides of the valley mountains rise to
well over 5000 feet. On the tablelands above are large areas of
grass with the clearly-defined strobilanthes-bordered sholas, typical
of the South Indian mountains. The slope of the hills is very steep,
rising more or less straight up from the plains. The rainfall in
this estate averages 115 inches a year, and it is probably considerably
more on the mountain tops. Between these two biotopes is a fairly
narrow strip of foothills where the cultivated lands give way to low
grass-covered hills with single deciduous trees standing here and
there, except in the water courses which are more thickly clad.

In the community centred in Dohnavur there are many keen
students of natural history, and boys and girls in our schools grow
up to love all wild life and to protect it. Some of them have become
reliable observers, and to them I owe much in the compiling of the
details of these notes.

PRIMATES,

1. Lion-tailed Monkey. Macaca silenus. Tam. Avakkan.

Found in evergreen forest, local, but not uncommon. Seen in
troops of about twenty. They make a kind of subdued grunt, and
also a sound like a loud pigeon’s ‘Coo’. Small babies (seen
regularly in September) have a high-pitched squeal. These monkeys

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

move about the forest in a much more leisurely way than the Brown
Monkey or the Nilgiri Langur. Though quite capable of leaping
from tree to tree we have noticed that they prefer to climb slowly
along the branches, often standing motionless rather than sitting
down when they stop. They are more nervous and shy of man
than the other two species, though both these will keep out of the
way when the Lion-tailed Monkey is about. Once several were
seen climbing slowly down one tree and walking along the ground
to the next tree. This they climbed, investigated and came down
to earth to repeat the process alli in their usual deliberate way.

2. Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata. Tam. Kurangu.

Common in evergreen forest and also found, semi-domesticated,
by some Hindu temples and in certain well-wooded villages on the
plains. They are seen at times on rocky upper mountain slopes
and do not seem to object to the ground as much as Nos 1 and 3.
They prefer trees, however, travelling in large parties, and are very
active. They are inquisitive, and if there is something in the forest
which they do not understand they will come closer and closer to
find out about it. One mother was observed with two very small
babies clinging to her. How they managed when older it is difficult
to imagine. We once kept one of these monkeys as a pet, but
their temper is unreliable, and they are not very satisfactory where
children are about.

3. Nilgiri Langur. Nasi johnii. Tam. NKaru-manthi.

The commonest of the three monkeys in our evergreen forests,
ranging from about 2000 feet to the tops of the mountains wherever
there is shola. They travel in family parties of twenty to thirty.
Their ‘whooping’ cry carries a long way and is often heard. They
are bold, and quite often will run along the roof of a house and
leap off onto a tree at the far end if it is the shortest route to their
destination. Their acrobatic jumps are marvellous and they seldom
seem to look before they leap. In spite of this only twice have we
seen them fall to the ground, and they soon recovered and were up
and away again. They have a strange way of rushing headlong
through the trees and then suddenly they stop, sit down, pick a
few leaves and begin to eat as if they had never been moving at all,
reminding one of the children’s game of ‘steps’. A troop spends
the night in trees near one of our houses and sometimes the
angry ‘barking’ alarm note is heard which presumably means one
of the larger cats is passing below. Once we went to investigate
and by the light of a torch saw three monkeys on the topmost
climbable branches of the tree, far above where they usually sleep.
They made no noise however because of our torch, for I suppose
they knew that the greater danger had passed. Quite small young
have been seen both in June and September. On one occasion in
June I found a very sick mother monkey on a large rock in the
river bed. Its tiny baby lost its hold of the mother and slid half
way. down the roc k toa ledge. The mother was too ill to reach it
(she died next day), so I went very slowly towards it, so as not

MAMMALS OF SOUTH TINNEVELLY 636

unduly to disturb the large monkey, picked the baby up and took
it home. It drank milk from a teaspoon and slept on its side, with
its head bent back at a rightangle, in a small basket. Next day
a large Nilgiri Langur was in a tree nearby, so we put the baby
low down on a branch and very soon the big one came down and
carried it away to safety.

About a hundred yards in front of one of our forest houses is a
‘monkey bridge,’ part of a regular road through the trees used by
monkeys and the forest squirrels. It is in full view of our front
verandah, and frequently they will pause for a rest on it. Occa-
sionally two kinds will meet on the bridge. The Bonnet Monkey
and Nilgiri Langur pass peacefully and go their ways, but both
disappear when the Lion-tailed Monkey is in the vicinity.

4. Grey Langur. Semnopithecus entellus. Tam. Vellai manthi.

Fairly common along the foothills on rocky spurs that jut out
into the plains and among the great rock faces that lie amidst
scrub-jungle below the evergreen belt. A troop of forty to fifty
was seen recently. When jumping they hold the tail straight out
behind with a slight curve up at the end. Though they prefer
rocks, unscalable to anything but themselves, they can take to trees
if need be. Their cry is quite distinct from the other three monkeys,
nearest to that of the Nilgiri Langur in tone.

5. Slender Loris. Loris tardigradus. Tam. Thévangu.

Not uncommon, but seldom seen as it is nocturnal. Its cry is
almost human, like a baby crying. It has been found in evergreen
forest at 2500 feet, and one was found near sea-level in scrub-jungle
on top of an Acacia planifrons. We have kept several as pets.
They were fed chiefly on grasshoppers and other insects.

CaTs.

6. Tiger. Panthera tigris. Tam. Puli (in books), Kaduvay
(colloquially).

Occasionally seen, and its pug-marks are often met with, from
the foothills upwards. On June 13 last one was met on the main
path below our forest house in broad daylight. It was neither
angry nor afraid, and quietly faded into the jungle. But it no
doubt prefers to move by night. It does very little damage to the
local cattle, probably due to the abundance of sambar in the forests.
After writing this last sentence, however, I hear that a tiger a few
days ago killed one of the scrub cattle which are driven out daily
to graze at the foothills. It was seen by one of our men just beside
the forest boundary which adjoins a piece of land belonging to us
at the foot of the mountains. Twice in the past thirty years a
tiger has wandered out onto the plains, in one case it walked through
our compound at night. On December 15, 1942, some men were
sheltering from heavy rain in a small hut at the foot of the hills.
A sambar doe came past pursued by two tiger cubs about 3 feet
long. When the cubs saw the men, they stopped, which enabled
the deer to escape. In front of the hut was a long sloping rock

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

on which the two cubs then lay down and washed themselves just
like a domestic cat. They next began to play about, and one took
a running jump to climb up a palmyra tree but fell off from a
considerable height. It didn’t, however, hurt itself. None of the
men had a gun so the two cubs finally went off unharmed. <A small
child once met a tiger cub face to face in our forest estate; and on
another occasion some of our children saw a mother and cubs
playing. We have proved that if we do not harm them they do
not harm us.

7, Leopard, Panthera pardus. Tam. Sirutthai, Puli (colloquially).

Though not often seen, its sawing cry has many times been
heard from our houses in the forest. Coolies carrying supplies up
from the plains have met it on the paths. On 8-3-43 in daylight
a pair of half-grown cubs came within a few yards of the house, but
soon melted into the forest when someone saw them and called
others to come and look.

8, Jungle Cat, Irelis chaus. Tam. Kattu poonai.

Common around and in our compound and in the foothills but
not in evergreen jungle. It is very long in the leg and larger than
a domestic cat. It brings forth its young on top of the Celotex
‘ceiling’ that we have in our houses. These have been found in
the months of May and November. Four are the most that have
been found at one time. It usually leaves the house just after dusk
and returns before sunrise. A mother cat once tried to retrieve
her young one that was sleeping on the floor beside a boy who was
keeping it. She gave everyone a good fright but failed to get it
back. Though it gréw up a most attractive pet and was compa-
ratively tame, it was always roused to fury by a sandalled-foot ;
for what reason I do not know. It would spit and strike sideways
at it with its right front paw. This jungle kitten when nearly
full-grown was taken to the forest and turned loose, as, in those
days, we thought mistakenly that they lived there, but within a few
weeks it found its way back to our compound to the one whose pet
it was.

Another wild kitten that was very thin and sickly (perhaps it
had lost its mother) gradually became friendly but never wholly lost
its wild ways. One day it had a fight with a toy dog, and another
time, objecting to a toy Koala Bear it removed it someway down
the road. It finally became a nuisance and had to be transported
to some foothills nearby, from which it did not return.

9, Leopard Cat, Prionailurus bengalensis.

l have never seen‘this and am not certain whether it is found
in our forests or not.
10, Rusty Spotted Cat, Prionailurus vubiginosa,

This is considerably smaller than the Jungle Cat, and has clearer
markings on the head. One frequented a house, set in low foot-
hills and surrounded by scrub jungle, in which some of our children

MAMMALS OF SOUTH TINNEVELLY 633.

live. It was often seen going in and out of the roof. It is a
lonely place with no other houses near.

CIVETS.

11, Large Malabar Civet. Moschothera civettina.

This also is doubtful, though it is very likely to be found on the
mountains as most of our fauna conform to that on the Travancore
side.

12. Small Indian Civet. Viverricula indica. Tam. Punuhu.

It is common in the evergreen forest at 2500 feet and is found
also in the foothills deciduous area. As it is nocturnal it is not
often seen, but its droppings are found everywhere on rocks and
forest paths. It is very partial to the fruit of Caryota urens (Kitul

palm).

13. Indian Palm Civet. Paradoxurus hermaphroditus. Tam.
Mara Nay.

It lives in the roofs of houses on the plains and goes out at
night. I saw one in the middle of the night recently, by the
entrance to one of our pigeon cotes. The small door into the cote
was shut but it was standing on the landing step used by the pigeons.
Its long bushy tail hung straight down. I was able to get a very
close view of it by the light of a torch. Only when we tried to:
touch it did it jump down and run away. Another, which had
entered a pigeon-cote and killed some pigeons, was shot on the
night of 24-11-46. It eats fruit and is very fond of banyan fruit.
Men who hunt them find them by watching banyan trees in full fruit.
It also takes small birds, though its main diet is vegetarian.

14, Brown Palm Civet, Paradoxurus jerdoni. Tam. Mara Nay.

The forest equivalent of the last. It is more grizzled in colour
than the plains’ Palm Civet. On 24-9-41 one was seen on the
branch of a tall forest tree. It allowed many of us to come and
see it most clearly, as it lay resting its head on its two front paws.
stretched out along a horizontal branch. It looked down at us
quite unafraid, remaining in this position for the best part of
half an hour. Only when a man had climbed half way up the tree
did it rise and move on. It swarmed up the perpendicular trunk
like a cat, walked to the utmost extremity of a branch and slowly
reached out to a branch in the next tree while holding on with its
back legs to the first tree. It was later seen several times eating
the fruit of Fragraea obovata in a ravine near one of our houses. This
Palm Civet brings forth its young, usually two, in hollow trees.
A young one of about two months old was found dead on a forest
path on 1-10-46.

MUNGOOSES.
15. Common Indian Mongoose, Herpestes edwardsii. Vam. Keeri
pillai.

Common everywhere in and around our compound and at the

foothills. They live in holes in the ground under our firewood

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

store, and their young, usually two though sometimes as many as
four, have been found in the roofs of houses and in empty boxes
in our wood store. They come out about half an hour before dusk
and are mostly nocturnal, though they are not infrequently seen
in the daytime when the compound is quiet. On moonlight nights
family parties have been seen out foraging, moving along in single
file head to tail. They have a way of suddenly stopping, and sit-
ting up on their hind legs to survey the scene, which is most
engaging. We have often kept them as pets. They are very clean.
They have a strange habit of trying to run in and out between your
feet as you walk along, which makes progress rather slow! They
eat rats and mice, as well as snakes and lizards, and sometimes
will even catch a hare.

16. Long-tailed Mongoose, Herpestes smithit.

This has the tip of the tail jet black whereas the Common
Mongoose has it ochre-coloured. I have only once seen it, in rocky
foothills type of country, and its range extends up the hills into the
evergreen belt.

17, Nilgiri Brown Mongoose, FHHerpestes fuscus.

Common in our evergreen forest at 2500’. Seen moving about
in the daytime. It comes regularly to the kitchen after dark for
bones from the rubbish pit. I had a splendid view of it one night
in September 1945. It was lying in a tangle of low bushes beside
a bare slope below the kitchen. A round hole showed its way in
and out. As I was waiting in the moonlight it came out. I turned
on the torch, at which it looked and sniffed for a moment, then,
quite unperturbed, it went on foraging round on the open slope
only a few feet from where I was standing. I watched it in this
way for several minutes. It was of a very dark brown colour and
as it moved in the light there appeared a dark chestnut tinge about it.

18. Stripe-necked Mongoose, Herpestes vitticollis.

One was killed by a dog on an estate about twenty miles north
of us. The chestnut coat and black streaks on the neck make the
identification easy. It is the largest of the four mongooses and its
habitat is evergreen forest up to the tops of the mountains.

19, Indian Marten. Charronia gwatkinsi.

An animal which almost certainly must be this has several times
been seen clearly in trees in the sholas at the top of the mountains
at about 5000 feet.

Doc TRIBE.

20, Asiatic Jackal, Canis aureus Tam. Nam.

Common throughout the plains and foothills. Lies up in cover
during the day and roams about at night. In February 1946 a
litter of five cubs was found on the top of the mud-wall bordering
a betel-vine grove two miles north of our compound. One of our
young men who went to see them heard the mother bark as she

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT: HIST. SOC.

1, Blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra) 4 months old.
upper parts and the lighter colour of the

The colour line where later the black of the
lower parts divide is clearly seen,

2. Indian Fox ( Vulpes bengalensis, )

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MAMMALS OF SOUTH TINNEVELLY 635

ran off, but did not see her. The cubs were lying in a small de-
pression on the mud bund up against the fence of plantain leaves.
which surrounds such groves in paddy land. The cubs were only
eight days old. The mother carries them from place to place in her
mouth if there is danger of their being disturbed, for the place in
which they were then found was not where they had originally
been born. One cub was brought back and fed on milk for about
five weeks. Its eyes had opened and it was becoming very
interesting, but a too early change in its diet disagreed with it and
it died.

21, Indian Wild Dog, Cuon alpinus. Tam. Sen Nay.

Fairly common both in deciduous and evergreen forest. On
many occasions they have been seen by day. On 10-9-40 a large
party of our boys went for a picnic to a river pool in the foothills.
Just after mid-day one of them heard the sound of dogs quarrelling
and barking. When he went to investigate he found a pack of
Red Dog with a freshly killed sambar. Not having seen Red Dog
before he at first mistook them for pariah dogs, but their uniform
red colour and high-pitched barking made him realize what they
were. When he clapped his hands they ran away, but, while he
went to call others to come and see, they returned and when the
other boys arrived there were twelve dogs busy eating. The sambar
had fallen in a small pool in the riverbed. They had by this time
eaten its stomach and one shoulder, but as many people were com-
ing to look at them the dogs disappeared. At intervals during their
feed they plunged into the water, apparently as much to cool them-
selves as to drink. Another of our keen naturalists has seen a
mother dog teaching her young ones to strike at a sambar fawn.
which was standing at bay in a river pool.

22, Indiam Fox. Vulpes bengalensis. Tam. Kulla Nari.

This is fairly common on low rocky hills that jut out into the
plain as spurs of the main mountain chain, also on isolated hills of
the same kind right out in the plains. It lives in holes in the rocks,
is nocturnal and very difficult to catch. We sometimes see them.
in the headlights of the car on roads that run near these hills, for
they come down by night into the cultivated fields and paddy land.
They feed on lizards, frogs, crabs and such small fry. On March 8,
1943 a full-grown vixen was brought to us. Some gypsies had
caught it, sewn up its eyelids and lips with horsehair and tied its.
feet, toe by toe, tightly with wire. They were hawking it for sale
for medicine. We bought the poor suffering beast, untied it and.
kept it in peace till it died of its injuries. Two days later we
obtained a two months old cub. It was most ferocious and for
months would bite right through the skin if mishandled or frightened.
Very gradually it responded to loving, careful treatment. It is now
still with us, a most delightful pet. It shows a real affection for
the one or two who specially look after it. If it hears their voice
or sees them coming it will lie flat with its ears along its back
uttering little cries of joy. It goes for a daily run, free, every
morning. In the rainy weather when the grass in our compound

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

is long, to see it gracefully bounding over obstructions or running
flat out for a short distance as if pursuing something, is a beautiful
sight. When called to come back to its large cage it sometimes
behaves like a spoilt child lying down and whining, refusing to
obey. We removed six tiles from the floor of the cage (a small
room about 8’ x 8’), and it soon dug a burrow, but the trouble was
that it burrowed right under the stone foundations and came out
the other side and escaped. This was soon discovered and it was
found again without difficulty, but we had to block up the burrow.
It is fed on milk, plantains, rice, and occasionally meat in the form
of chickens’ entrails. Once or twice we gave it an egg which it
picked up in its mouth without cracking the shell and carried under-
ground. Later it made a hole at one end and licked all the contents
out holding the shell with one paw. It loves to bask in the after-
noon sun. It has remained in the best of condition as_ the
accompanying photograph shows and now allows itself to be handled
freely, though its first reaction to anything new is a nervousness
which makes it run away to hide. It plays with our dogs and is
quite unafraid of them. The story of certain foxes having a small
‘horn’ on the crown of the head under the skin is a complete myth.
The gypsies know how widespread is this belief and trade on it,
charging Rs. 2 for a tiny piece of bone said to be this ‘horn’.

OTTERS.

23, Clawless Otter, Amblyonyx cinerea. Tam. Neer Nay or
Meen Nay.

This lives in the stream which runs through our small estate.
It is seen from time to time and a baby was once found at the end
of April. It brings forth its young, usually two, in inaccessible holes
in the rocks near the stream. Probably there is a pair in each of
the perennial mountain streams. I saw a pair beside a pool quite
near our house on the early morning of 9-10-46.

BEARS.

24, Sloth Bear, Melursus ursinus. Tam. Karadi.

Fairly common through both evergreen and deciduous forest,
even coming down on to the plains where scrub jungle exists. It
is occasionally met by those travelling on forest paths in the early
morning or evening. Several men have been brought to our
hospital after painful encounters with bears. One of us came across
a half-grown one at about 4ooo feet in October 1946.

HYAENAS.

25. Striped Hyaena. /Hyaena striata. Tam. Karuthai Puli.

One was shot some years ago at the base of a 1600 foothill
standing out in the plains a few miles south of us. It had been living
in a cave among the rocks and making a nuisance of itself by killing
the local sheep. Others have been seen in the forest twenty miles
north of us, but it is not at all common in the neighbourhood. |

MAMMALS OF SOUTH .TINNEVELLY 637

INSECTIVORES.

26, South Indian Hedgehog, Paraechinus micropus. Tam. Mulleli.

This lives in the same low rocky hills as the Indian Fox. We
have kept several as pets. They are nocturnal and sleep rolled up
in a ball most of the day. They eat milk and rice (in captivity),
and termites and insects. A mother, with two babies only two or
three days old, was brought to us on 18-4-44. The babies had iong
white quills with many shorter dark brown ones in between. Their
eves had not opened. Unfortunately they died. The full grown
one was let out in one of our market gardens, but not seen again.

27. Common Musk-Shrew. Suncus sp. Tam. Moonjuru.

Very common in and about our houses on the plains. Its
unpleasant habit of dying inside closed drawers is well-known. I
found one once at night chewing the toe of a live frog. The frog’s
screams attracted my attention. Its chief diet, however, seems to
be insects.

BatTs.

I cannot speak with certainty about the commonness or scarcity
of the different Bats, but will list those I have identified. There
are certainly more species in our countryside. The common name
in Tamil for all bats is Vavval.

28, Flying-Fox. Pteropus giganteus.

There used to be a colony of these very large bats living in a
cocoanut grove beside a river near the foothills, but owing to perse-
cution by man, they disappeared. No doubt they are found in
suitable places in our area.

29. Short-nosed Fruit Bat, Cynopterus sphinx.

This is probably the common small fruit-bat which comes in
large numbers to feed on the Margosa (Azadirachta indica) fruit
trom June to August. Some have been seen spending the day in
dead Palmyra leaves still hanging on the tree, others in the roofs
of houses.

30, Ceylon Fruit-Bat, Roussettus leschenaulti.

One was found dead, answering in every detail to the description
in Ceylon Mammals p. 68. Quite possibly this is fairly common
too.

31. dndian Vampire. Lyrvoderma lyra.

Several have been found dead. This bat undoubtedly is
responsible for the remains of small birds fotind in the morning on
our verandahs—a wing and some feathers. How they catch these
small birds, usually warblers, I do not know. <A baby was found
on 16-3-45—a hideous naked miniature with a huge head and ears.
One kept for a few days ate a pipistrelle that was put in the same
cage at night—only the wings were left uneaten. This is fairly
common.

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

32. Sykes’s Leaf-nosed Bat. Hipposideros speoris.

Spends the day in dark roofs of houses. A mother was found
on 13-1-44 with a new-born naked baby which she kept licking as.
the baby clung to her. This also appears to be fairly common.

33. Ceylon Bi-coloured Leaf-nosed Bat. Hipposideros atratus.

Probably pretty common. One caught on 8-6-44 was feeding
on a small grasshopper.

34. Common Yellow Bat. Scotophilus kuhli.

One was found in daylight on 8-7-44 being attacked by crows.
It was rescued and kept all day. In the evening it flew away safely.

35. Indian Pipistrelle. Pipistrellus abramus. Tam. Turinjil.

Probably common, often found sheltering behind door and.
window shutters or in Venetian blinds in our houses during the day.

RODENTIA.

36. Palm Squirrel. Funambulus palmarum Tam. Anil.

Common all over the plains and foothills. It eats anything and
does considerable damage. When young it makes a very interesting
pet, but when fully grown they are usually a pest. Its nests—
balls of grass—are found in trees and on beams and in the roofs of
houses.

37. Dusky Squirrel. Funambulus sublineatus.

This is like a very dark plains squirrel. It is found up to the
summit of the mountains all over the evergreen forest area. It
has a much more high-pitched note than its plains cousin, and I
have often mistaken it for a bird’s note. In sunlight there is a ruddy
glow to its back. I have usually seen it not far from the ground
on trees. It has a strange habit of foraging with a slowly travelling
party of babblers such as Quaker Babblers; wherever they go it
goes, low down in the undergrowth.

38. Large Indian Squirrel. Ratufa maxima. Tam. Kattanil or
Mara Anil.

Common in evergreen forest, a most beautiful animal. A
typical nest at the top of a tall tree was made of small sticks inside,
then twigs cut off with its teeth from the tree, with the leaves
‘nicely fitted together. The entrance hole at the side was 4 inches.
in diameter leading to a g inches round chamber inside. The
complete nest was 14 feet in diameter and looked like a ball of dead
leaves. On 4-9-46 a mother and four babies (about a quarter her
size but with the same colouring) were seen playing on a rock in
forest. They remained there about a quarter of an hour.

MAMMALS OF SOUTH TINNEVELLY 639

39. Common Grey Flying Squirrel. Petaurista philippensis. Tam.
Paravaikkeeri.

Very seldom seen, but it lives in the forest round the estate,

spending the day in hollow trees and coming out at dusk. It has

been found when large trees were felled to build a house, and seen

on one or two other occasions. A dead one was found at about
2500/ on 12-2-47.

40. South Indian Gerbil. Tatera indica cuvieri. Tam. Velleli.

They are about 7 inches long with a tail of the same length.
The hind foot measures nearly 2 inches from hock to claw, and so
these ‘Kangaroo-rats’ can jump great distances. They are a
beautiful fawn colour above and pure white below. They have
their burrows under cactus hedges or in any untrodden waste ground
that has a little cover. There are many runways and two or three
ways out. The nest chamber is lined with grass. Upto six babies
have been found. They eat grass-seed and grain of all kinds and
store some underground. When eating this they leave the refuse
inside the hole. They make charming pets and are scrupulously
clean. One we kept as a pet ate grasshoppers and cockroaches,
the latter with especial relish. Many of the local people eat them.

41. Bandicoot, Bandicota malabarica. Tam. Peruchali.

By far the largest of the rats, being a foot long with a tail of
10 inches. It lives underground among buildings, and its runways.
come up through the floor of storehouses. It is very destructive
to stored paddy and other grains. They used to live under an old
granary in our compound and are sometimes seen.

42, Southern Mole-rat. Bandicota kok Tam. Uvrumumeli (collo-
quially Virumelt).

This is a heavily-built rat about 9 inches long with a tail of 61-
7 inches. It is coarse-haired, the hairs being brown, rufous and
grey mixed, below it is a paler grey. It has its hole in the bunds
of rice fields or at the edge of gardens. Though the runways are
more than in the last species, there is only one entrance. When
the rat is at home the door is blocked with earth, and often there
are several other earth blocks at intervals along the main path.
The nest chamber is lined with grass. Only two young have been
found at a time. There are sometimes two separate store-rooms,
one for present use and one for the future. Large quantities of
paddy, whole brinjals and ‘lady’s fingers’ have been found in these
store rooms. The chaff and uneaten refuse is carried away and
left in a heap some yards from the entrance to the hole, and this
guides people who hunt for them, for they too are eaten. The
burrows may go as deep as 14-2 feet underground: Sometimes a
side burrow will lead to a tapioca plant nearby and the root is eaten
little by little in situ. Many of the side burrows lead nowhere and
seem to be ‘blinds’. This rat makes a peculiar grunting noise when

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

disturbed or caught, crom which comes the Tamil name meaning
“grunting rat’.

43. Common Indian Rat. Rattus rattus wroughtoni. Tam. Mara
Yell.

This measures about 8 inches with a tail the same length or a
littie longer. It is brown above with some coarse hairs, and almost
pure white below. It nests and lives in the crown of cocoanut palms
and is probably common wherever there are groves of these trees.
It has two young at a time. It descends at night and feeds on
grains and vegetables. Some people eat this rat.

44. Common House-Rat. Ratius rattus rufescens. Yam. Veetteli.

This is well-known and too common. It is about the same size
as the last but grey below. It nests in the roofs of houses both
tiled and thatched, and comes down to wander about at night. It
eats anything and everything. It does great damage to clothes
and is altogether a nuisance. Because of its unclean habits this
species is not usually eaten.

45. Common House Mouse. Mus musculus. Tam. Veetiu Sundeli.

Length 3 inches with tail as long or longer. Colour above
brown, below grey. Nests of this mouse are commonly found in
rice-sacks or sacks containing some other grain or cotton seed. It
has up to eight young at atime. I kept one for a night in a glass
jar. It much enjoyed four flying termites. It sat on its hind
quarters and held the termite in its front paws, nibbling away till
one was finished, then it caught another and carried on with evident
relish. Its usual diet no doubt. is small seeds and crumbs of any-
thing edible. When I put some cotton wool into the jar it pulled

it to bits and made a kind of roof for itself under which it lay.

46. Indian Field Mouse. Mus booduga. Tam. Katiu Sundell.

This is slightly larger than the last but its tail is shorter than
the head and body. In colour it is sandy-brown above and white
below. It lives in holes in cultivated land or in stack manure pits
after the heat has gone out of the decaying matter. Its holes have
many passages and several ways in and out. It never burrows
deep like the Mole-rat. It has a nest chamber lined with grass,
and a separate store-room. It has many young at a time. It eats
small grains, grass-seed, and nibbles such things as brinjals growing
in our market gardens.

47. Brown Spiny Mouse. Mus plaiythrix.

It is larger than the Field Mouse and has a more ‘ratty’ face
and coarser fur. A female was caught and the next day gave birth
to several young, but unfortunately the mother and young soon died.

43. Long-tailed Tree Mouse. Vaindeluria oleracea. Tam. Mara
Sundeli.

It is a beautiful chestnut colour above and pure white below.

It measures 3h inches and the tail is up to 44 inches, noticeably -

MAMMALS OF SOUTH TINNEVELLY 641

long. This mouse is an opportunist in the matter of nesting sites.
In the roofs of houses or the crown of cocoanut palms, in a bunch
of unripe plantain fruit, or a fold in a hanging sack, and even in an
empty beehive nests have been found made of grass. Four
young seem the usual number. It feeds on grass seeds and the
smaller food grains.

All these mice make most engaging pets. A small cage with
a section of bamboo and a little cotton wool in it for a dormitory,
a revolving tread-wheel, which they seem to love, for exercise, and
grass seed for food will keep them quite happy. We have often
kept them for our children’s interest, and they become very friendly.

9, Indian Bush-Rat. Golunda ellioti. Tam. Kunnan.

This is probably the short-tailed rat which lives in the grass
trom the foothills upwards. [ts runways are found everywhere on
ground level among the grass tufts. It has been seen on several
occasions but never caught, so I have not been able to examine it.
Its nest with young was found once in the foothills, a ball of grass
low down in a bush in scrub jungle, but I was only told of it some-
time afterwards.

Besides these rats and mice there are two other species found
in the mountains :

A rat whose Tamil name is Kalleli or Rock Rat. This measures
about 8 inches with a longer tail; it is sandy-brown «above with
occasional black spiny hairs, and pure white below. It is very
common all up the mountain side, living among the rocks in forested
jungle. Its nests have been found in our forest houses— in an empty
water pot or in the corner of a room behind a cupboard after the
house had been unoccupied for some months. It also nests in trees
in the forest, building a ball of dead leaves or grass. It is found
far away from human habitation. I suppose it may possibly be
the same as No. 43 above, having adapted itself to forest life.

A mouse is found in the cleared parts of the estate, which covers
the entrance to its hole with small pebbles when at home. I have
found these holes in the ground beside a path, and one mouse made
its home on the verandah of a house where the lime cement at the base
of the house wall had worn away. It came out after dark and used
sometimes to go through the house, but more often straight off
the front verandah into the forest, which is but a few feet from the
house. The Tamil name for this is Kattarikkan. This may be a
variety of the Indian Field Mouse, but it does not seem to be the
same in its habits, for No. 46 does not in my experience ever cover
its hole with. stones, but that may be only through lack of suitable
material.

50, Black-naped Hare, Lepus nigricollis. Tam. Musal or Muyal.

Very common at the foothills and in our compound, especially
in the outlying market gardens where it does some damage to new
shoots of certain grain crops. It is hunted in the country round
with dogs, and many take refuge on our land where they seem to
know they are safe and become comparatively tame. They are

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

sometimes seen by day but usually because they have been disturbed.
We have often reared them as pets. Baby hares have been found
in all the first four months of the year. When born they have a small
patch of white hairs towards the back of the crown, which slowly
disappears until at the end of six months it is entirely replaced by
ordinary hair. Two is the usual number at a birth.

51. Porcupine. Hystrix leucura. Tam. Mullampandri.

Common in the forest round our gardens where it has its burrow
among rocks. It makes great havoc among the growing pine-
apples and also digs up sweet potato. Its quills are found all over
the forest, but, being nocturnal, it is not often seen.

ELEPHANTS.

52. Indian Elephant. Elephas maximus. Tam. Ydnai.

Quite often heard or seen on the tablelands at the head of the
valley in which our estate lies. It moves across from the west to
the southern sholas to feed on Ochlandra sp. in September just
before the N.E. monsoon begins. Most of our records are between
September and January. There are well-worn paths made by the
elephants both on the grassy mountain sides and in the sholas.
They seem to object to innovations, for the stones of a cairn built
to mark the junction of several paths were scattered into the
surrounding jungle by them, and their visit of inspection after rain to
a newly mended anicut did not at all improve the earth bund. A
mother elephant with a baby was reported to be a few miles north
near a larger forest anicut in September 1944.

RUMINANTS.

53. Indian Bison. Bos gaurus. Tam. Kattu Madu.

This also inhabits the same country as the elephant, but is very
rarely seen, though its tracks are not uncommon. A horn was
found some years ago near the source of our valley river.

54. Nilgiri Tahr. Hemitragus hylocrius. Tam.Varai Adu.

A very common animal on all the high grass-slopes to the south
of our valley. Precipitous rock faces daunt it not at all. We
have often seen it wandering across very steep precipices. It is
visible on the upper open slopes from our houses in the valley.
Quite small young ones have been observed in September. <A herd
of about forty was seen on 2-4-46. It definitely seems to be on the
increase.

55. Sambar, Rusa unicolor. Tam. Mild.

Also very common and constantly met from the foothills to the
highest summits. They are not very shy, and certainly on the
tops of the mountains, graze by day as well as by night. Twice
recently we have met one grazing about midday well out in the
grass from the shola edge. In one case the stag saw us and watched

MAMMALS OF SOUTH TINNEVELLY 643

us for about ten minutes. Its tail was held straight up, and it
kept slowly lifting its right fore-foot and stamping on the ground.
It was very inquisitive; after a few minutes a young stag with
single unbranched horns came up and stood watching us too.
Then they both walked slowly away, not at all alarmed. It was
2.0 o’clock in the afternoon in cloudless sunlight, so they clearly
use the day as well as dusk for feeding. Their fearlessness and
great numbers are due probably to their being little hunted in these
parts. Long may it remain so. We have twice had sambar as
pets, but they grow rather large and strong. The best memory
is of a young one, trotting up and down the grass paddock where
it lived.

56. Spotted Deer. Axis axis. Tam. Pulli Man.

Reported to be in the large comparatively level areas of forest
above Pavanasam, thirty miles north west of us. I have never seen
one in its wild state.

57. Indian Mouse Deer or Chevrotain. Tragulus meminna. Tam.
Koordn or Saruhu Man.

Common in evergreen forest, coming quite close to our houses.
In May 1928 one ran into the house by mistake and was kept, but
it soon died, as no one knew what to feed it on. In September 1943
several times we found one in its day dormitory under a low bush
in the forest, in one case it was only six yards from the house-wall.
When disturbed it would rise and, after a few beautiful little jumps
stand perfectly still. The colours of its coat blended perfectly with
the sunlight-dappled forest floor. No doubt this helps to make it
invisible by day to its enemies for I have passed several times within
a foot or two of it, as it lay only sheltered by a few sticks without
seeing it.

58. Barking Deer or Muntjac, Muntiacus muntjak aureus. Tam.
Kélai Adu.

It is also called Jungle Sheep. The second half of its Tamil
name means sheep, but I cannot find what the first word means.
It is found in jungles not far north of us, but I have not seen it in
our immediate area, though it may possibly be in the mountain-top
sholas.

59. Black Buck or Indian Antelope. Antilope cervicapra. Tam.
male—Kalai, female—Pulvdy.

Found in some long, low hills out in the open plains east of
Tinnevelly Town, and in several such places in the north of the
district. In August 1946 someone gave us a fawn two weeks old,
one of a pair caught together, which is quickly becoming a most
delightful and obedient pet. This is a male. Even at this age,
though the coat is almost a uniform fawn colour, the line of colour
demarcation on the sides is clearly visible (see accompanying
photograph). We feed it on milk and grass. At 24 months old

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46
it can easily outpace any of our boys. It runs ‘flat out’ for some
distance and then makes a series of three or four bounding leaps.
which are most extraordinary to watch. It also trots beautifully.
They are kept as pets by Muslims in some parts of the district ; and
the female especially is reported to be easily domesticated.

60. Indian Wild Pig. Sus cristatus Yam. Wattu Pandri.

Common in the foothills in scrub-jungle. It does a great deal
of damage to paddy fields near the foot of the hills. We have seen
it a number of times on the paths leading to the forest. As many
as nine quite small piglets have been seen at one time, but Iam not
sure whether this was one litter or two living together.

PANGOLINS.

61. Indian Pangolin, Manis pentadactyla. Tam. Arungu.

It frequents grassy open hillsides from the foothills at least two-
thirds of the way up to the summit of the mountains. It lives in
long burrows which in ordinary forest earth may extend for twenty
feet. In rocky ground five or six feet is enough. In November
1939 a female was washed down by floods and found stranded on
the margin of a ‘tank’ near us. We kept it for four days (not an
easy task for it could escape from almost any confinement) and
then it disappeared one night. But we learned a lot in those four
days! It performed before several hundred children and adults.
It climbed trees, hanging head downwards from a branch. If it
fell off, it merely rolled up in mid air and reached the ground unhurt.
It walked down the steps into a large well we have, drank, bathed
and finally swam across to the other side, its front paws doing
a ‘dog-stroke’ and its tail waving from side to side in the

water. When climbing up the steps out of the well, some
were rather high, but it used its tail-scales very cunningly
as a kind of: lever with an anti-slip device. Walking, it is

surprisingly fast, and it holds its heavy armoured tail out straight
behind it, just off the ground. It ate termites and black ants. Its
long tongue shot in and out at great speed to catch the ants as they
ran away. And after drinking it licked its lips in the most amusing
way. Its front feet are rather like those of a tortoise. It walks
on the side of the foot and the powerful claws can dig at a tremendous
rate, all four legs working together, the front two to dig and the
back two to shovel the earth out backwards. When frightened
or ‘fed up’ with too much attention, it folds its head inwards, puts
its two front paws over its head, and finally curls up its tail over all
to make a round ball. It used to make a kind of gentle hissing
noise as it rolled up or just after. We were very sad when it
disappeared.

CAECA OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS.

J. L. Buapuri and B. Biswas,
(Zoology Department, University College of Science, Calcutta).
(With a text-figure.)

It is well known that colic caeca show great variability in form
and size in birds, and they have been utilized in the systematic
consideration of birds (Beddard'). It has been noted by Newton?
that mere presence or absence is no good criterion in taxonomy,
but their state of development is of much importance; and that
there exists certain correlation between the caeca and the length
and width of the large intestine. Stuart Baker® mentions the forms
of caeca as characters for several major divisions. Besides, it is
believed that there exists some relation between the state of
development of caeca and the food habits of birds, at least in several
groups of birds.

In course of our* studies on the arterial arches of birds we
examined the conditions of caeca and have kept records of their
shape and size as also their site of origin in relation to the cloacal
opening. In view of diverse shape and size of the caeca which
could hardly be expressed in suitable descriptive terms, we have
taken resort to faithful sketches of all the forms studied by us.
The table below provides the measurements of length and width
of caeca as also their sites of origin measured from the cloacal
opening. Stuart Baker’s (op. cit.) classification is adopted in the
systematic arrangement of the species in the table, and we take
this opportunity of recording our sincere thanks to Dr. S. C. Law,
M.A., Ph.p., for the identification of birds.

We did only 52 different species belonging to 23 families in
- orders, of which 35 species are provided with caeca and the rest
(17 species) are without them. Great diversity is observed in
Coraciiformes not only from the point of view of their presence or
absence but also from their shapes and sizes. Viewed from the
ventral side of the dissection of the bird, the caeca are in most

1 Beddard, F. E. (1898), The Structure and Classification of Birds.

* Newton, A. (1896), A Dictionary of Birds.

® Stuart Baker (1922-29), Fauna of British India—Birds—I-V1.

4 Bhaduri, J. L. & Biswas, B. (1945), ‘The Cervical and Thoracic arteries
of Birds’, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, Vol. xi, No. 3, pp. 236-45.

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

cases lateral in origin as usually stated but ventro-lateral origins
are not also wanting in practically all the groups. In some
instances a pronounced asymmetry in the origins (Figs. 2, 26, 32)
is observed, but we cannot vouch for its truth as we examined
only one specimen each. An asymmetry in length of the two caeca
is likewise observed in a few cases (Figs. 3, 21, 24, 25, 35). The
free ends of the caeca are pointed in some cases, while the shorter
caeca are generally blunt at tips. In long caeca the free ends are
swollen and gradually tapering at ends excepting those of Cuculus
(Fig. 17) where they are blunt at tips and distinctly club-shaped.

MHOTOGHIN OY
DOOIITIG HOY

The origins of caeca measured from the cloacal opening’s are
very varied in different families. Some families, like Dicruridae,
Cuculidae, etc., show close approximation of measurements. These
ought to indicate some close relationship in the members of the
families, but more species need to be worked out before we can
arrive at any conclusion.

Attempts have been made to correlate this structure with food
habits of birds, but they proved abortive in a general way, although
in some groups there are elements of truth of this fact. Our
studies are too meagre at present to warrant any conclusion, but
sufficient to suggest that further records in different species, comp-
rehensive of genera and families, will be helpful not only in throwing
light on the systematics of the group but also in evaluating the
affinities running between them.

CAECA OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS 643

TABLE

Showing the measurements ( 7” siillimetres) of the caeca and their
position in relation to the cloacal openings. (R=right; L=Left).

a ee
} 7

No. of |___ sie | alpine
Name Speci- IFio. No.
mens »| Length | Width | cloacal | :
| | opening —
PASSERIFORMES | |
Corvidae | | | |
Corvus s. splendens Vieliot | 4) G08h4 2°0 8°0—16°5 | 1
Dendrocitta v. vagabunda 1 45° | 4-9 ‘| Be 105 9
(Lath. ) Soo asi | IT. 20°0 |
Timaliidae | | |
Turdoides somervillei terri in | | |
color othe se 1 4:0 2:0 | 14:0 3
Aegithina t. tiphia (L. Sig’ | J TS Os75 10:0 4
‘Pycnonotidae | |
Mol pastes cafer bengalensis | |
(Blyth) De 35 1:0 | 5:0—9-0 5
Otocompsa jocosa emeria (L. i I | 4:0 O57 alee icO. ee 6
Turdidae | |
Copsychus s. saularis (L.). Nn One One ie iz2 eae 227 7
‘Pericrocotidae |
Pericrocotus p, els aed
(L.) oa ipmaler a tie2s0 0:75.) 46:0) 8
Artamidae | | |
Artamus fuscus Vieillot ... | eee 32257| 2:0 | 23:0 | fe)
Dicruridae | |
Dicrurus m. macrocercus | |
Vieillot ee | eer 4°75 | PAY Uo ented Wi iQ
Chibtia h. hottentotta Gu) ree os Com aan 25 eet: 0)
“Sturnidae |
Sturnia m. arabica | | |
(Gmel.) a5 4 4-0 ibs) 11:3 | 12
Acridotheres t. ‘tristis (L.) | 1 | 70 ZA EA™ Alios) | i
Acridotheres ginginianus | | |
(Lath.) is wae, Eee cay AO BO) bettas ICCC) el aaa EI
Sturnopastor c. contra (L. y. 4 i; 4:0 1°25: 7-0 abs)
Ploceidae | | |
Ploceus p. philippinus (L.). | OU 295 AGORMpeneS- OH ta! 16
CORACIIFORMES | | |
Picidae | | | |
Yungipicus nanus brunnei- | |
ceps Baker ... Lo
Brachypternus 6. bengha- | |
LENSTSE(TES) nace 3
Capitonidae || ‘
Thereiceryx zeylanicus cani- | | Absent
ceps (Frankl.) Sea
Cyanops a. asiatica (Lath. )| 5 ||
Xantholaema haemacephala | |
lutea ( Less.) one 3 |
Cuculidae | | |
Cuculus m. micropterus | | |
Gould ao 15°5 ds5, Siena 7
Hter0coccyx varius Van)... 2 18°25 4:0 | 33:0—35:0 18
Clamator 7 jacob inus: | |
Bodd.) : Wig c2a Sie air 7oMle Sol Men Ro
|

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

TABLE I—( Continued)
a

No.of Maximum Disease |
Name | speci- TOM nl RG MNG
| mens Lent Width Rene |
| |
CORACIITFORMES—coné. | |
Cuculidae—cont. | |
Fiudynamys s. scolopaceus
IB. ee. oss 2 27°0 3°0 | 33°0—32'0) 20
Centropus s. sinensis (Ste- |
phen) oH seal 1 40°0 | 6'5 38°0 21
Psittacidae |
Psittacula eupatria nipa-
lensts (aces: a) 1 |
Psittacula kramevi manil- t
Lensis (Bechst.) a 3 SEE
Psittacula c. evanocephala
(L.) .. Sale ee
Coracidae | |
Coracias 6. benghalensis |
(L.) ae ons || 1 20°25 40 16°0 2?
Meropidae |
Merops o. orientalis (Lath.) 2 11°25 2°25 90 23
Alcedinidae |
Ramphalcyon capensis roel
vial (Pearson) 1
flalcyon s. smyrnensis (L. ) 3
Flalcyon pileata (Bodd.) . 1
FHlalcyon smyrnensis fusca
(Bodd.) =P 3 Absent
Sauropatis ¢. chloris (Bodd. )| | 2
Upupidae | |
Upupa epops orientalis |
Baker ie astyl = Yas
Asionidae | i
Otus bakkamoena may ‘athae | |
Ticehurst ... 1 28°S 4-0 140 | 24
Athene bvama ae | |
( Frankl.) hea are | 3 36'5 325 | 14-0—17°0) 2a
ACCIPITRES | |
Falconidae | | |
Milvus migrans govinda |
Sykes 500 es 1 4°75 { 2:0 R. 48:0 | %
Astur badius dussumieri OR Vn ee
(Temm. and Laug.) ... | 1 1:25, 0°60 16°5 27
COLUMBIFORMES | |
Columbidae | | |
Crocopus p. phoenicopterus | |
(Lath. ) 1 ]
Dendrophasa 6, bicincta \ Absent
(Jerd.) 1 {
Chalcophaps 1. indica (yee 1
Columba livia intes “media | |
Strick. een
(Domestic) ba 5 5°0 1°5 |19°0—20°0|} 28
Streptopelia chinensis sura- f |
tensis (Gmel.) Ae 3°35 0°75 | 150—17°0/ 28

CAECA OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS 649

TABLE I—(Continued)

ee SSS...
|

* Only one caecum is present.

FISHING CONTRIVANCES USED IN H.E.H. THE NIZAM’S
DOMINIONS.

BY
S. MAHMoopD, M.Sc., AND M. RAHIMULLAH, D.Sc., F.Z.S

CF)

Department of Fisheries, Hyderabad (Deccan).

Hyderabad State contains 30,219 large tanks numerous smaller
ones and 468.05 miles of canals besides many large and small rivers
and irrigation reservoirs chief of which are Nizamsagar, Alisagar,
Singtom reservoir (Nizamabad district), Osmansagar, Himayatsagar,
Mir Alum tank and MHussainsagar (Hyderabad and_ suburbs),
Pocharam lake (Medak district) Dindi and Pindlipakla reservoirs
(Nalgonda district), Pakhal, Laknawaram, Ramappa lakes, Wyra
and Palair reservoirs (Warangal districts), Rooti reservoir (Bhir
district) Moyal Marchaid reservoir (Raichur district).

Most of the tanks are directly or indirectly fed by the rivers and
canals and are thus stocked with fish during the rains. Fishes breed
in the reservoirs, up the anicuts and in the rivers, and fish-fry are

050 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

carried along with the current to the tanks or when the rivers and
tanks are flooded breeders go up the current and breed in the tanks..

All these natural resources are at our disposal, if properly and
scientifically exploited, it is possible to supply fish throughout the
Dominions at a cheap rate within the reach of everybody. Fish
as a diet can also easily be included in the daily food of the villagers
and farmers if a little attention is devoted towards its breeding,
conservation of the fry and improved methods of fishing.

Here we will first describe the fishing methods which are at
present in vogue.

Nets.

Cast net, which is locally called ‘Santola’ is the most common
net and is in universal use owing to its simplicity and low cost.
The meshes vary according to the size of the fish to be caught,
being from +i” to 2”. The smallest meshed nets are used for
collecting fish-fry from tanks or other waters for stocking smaller
tanks and pools. This net has its limitations and can be used only
in shallow and clear waters, free from weeds and vegetation, which
does not allow the weights of the net to sink to the bottom and so
permit fishes to escape. It is sometimes used from the boat also
but to very little advantage. For catching small fish or fish-fry the
bait in the form of a mixture of rice, husks and ‘Konda’ is placed
beforehand in the tank to attract fish, and after an hour or so the
net 1s cast. Sometimes fishermen throw stones to attract fish and
then cast the net.

Another way of catching fish up an anicut where the water
is not deeper than 4 ft., or in other shallower parts of the tank,
usually in 3-4 ft. depth of water, is where ten to fifteen nets are
taken together and the fishermen move towards the shallower part,
or towards the anicut, as the case may be, then each net is released
and hauled independently. There are yet many other means to which
this net is put to. Drag nets, with floats above and weights below
are usually used in the tanks which are practically devoid of vege-
tation and stones. These are very common in the River Godavari
near Nander and adjacent parts of this district but are not commonly
met with in other parts of the dominions except where there are
rivers with sandy bottom. The size of the meshes varies according
to the size of the fish to be caught being 2” to 23” from knot to
knot. The length of each net ranges upto 300 yards or even more
with a depth varying from 15 to 20 feet. This consists of small
pieces tied together which can be attached or detached according
io requirements. Sometimes a large-size purse is kept at the
middle of the net where fishes collect and are trapped. It is really
very interesting to see thirty to forty fishermen plying this net; the
quantity of fish caught is usually quite large. At Nander in one
net we got more than 30 seers of fish including large-sized ‘Maha-
seer’ and ‘Rohu’. This net is locally known as ‘Mahayal’.

Another type of drag-net is used for catching prawns in the
Godavari river at Nander and other places. This net is known
locally as ‘Ghan-ka-Jala’. It is made of three or more flaps which

FISHING CONTRIVANCES 65%

taper towards their distal parts and form a sort of pocket and their
margins are inverted inwards; weights are tied so that they may
sink to the bottom and floats keep the mouths of the flaps open.
Long ropes are tied to each corner of the net and on these clumps
of leaves are tied to frighten the prawns so that they may be driven
towards the net. The net is dragged for about three furlongs and
then drawn towards the shore taking with it prawns and other small
fishes which keep near the bottom of the river.

Bag net or ‘Edai’ is commonly used in ‘nalas’ and streams for
catching fish which come down the stream with the current. At
first the main course is blocked by means of big boulders and stones
and a small passage is left between them. The net is tied to the
two sides of the opening and left in position. It is hauled up from
time to time and fish collected at the cod end taken out. The meshes
of the net become gradually smaller towards the cod end. This
type of net is commonly used in the two ‘nalas’ feeding Hussain-
sagar during the rainy season for catching small fish, but its use is
now prohibited. The practice destroys the fish-fry in the very
early stages.

Sometimes this net is used in combination with a trap which is
still more harmful for the fish-fry and its use should also be
discouraged.

In the Tungabhadra river at Alumpur, the purse-net is used as
a drag-net and is found to be quite successful in catching big-sized
fishes. It is in the form of an open purse with two wings to which
ropes are tied; palm leaves are fastened to the ropes for frightening
and driving the fish towards the mouth of the net. The lower jaw of
the mouth is weighted and floats are attached to the upper one to
keep it open. When dragged, the fishes collect towards the mouth
and enter the cod end of the net where they are imprisoned. They
are taken out of the net after unfastening the cod end string.

Stake nets are of two kinds one of which is for catching fishes
coming up or going down the current in streams connected with the
rivers. Four sticks are fixed to the ground and nets spread across
them which go down to the very bottom of the small stream and a
swing arrangement is made for catching the fish. Fishes coming in
contact with the obstacle so formed, try to jump and clear it and
land into the swing net. This type of net was seen in use during
rainy season near Godavari river where small ‘nalas’ join it.

The other type of stake net is a smaller one used in shallow
water. It is a rectangular piece of net with sticks fixed at intervals
of about two yards and small pockets are formed between these
sticks. These nets are fixed to the ground in shallow water and
the fishes driven towards them by the fishermen splashing the water
and making noise. The sticks are then removed and the pockets
searched for fish. These nets are used for ‘murrels’ and Notopterus.
It is known locally as ‘Tursanum boola’, Cast nets are also used
in a similar manner for catching ‘murrel’ on the margins of the
tanks and in the weedy parts where they cannot be thrown. Locally
it is called ‘Urtoo’.

Gill nets, or ‘Kuchoola’ of varying meshes are not very common
here, because the fishermen do not possess boats. Only at some

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

places they use logs of wood and ply the nets in deeper parts of the
tank. These are left during night at some place. One end is tied
to the shore to prevent drifting too far. They are taken out in the
morning. Carps, Siluroids and other flat fishes are commonly
caught, but tubular fishes like ‘murrel’ escape the meshes. If boats
are provided and nets of varying meshes are employed we are
sure the catch will increase to a great extent. The limited use of
these nets is due to the poverty of the fishermen; with a little help
and encouragement their use can be made common. Triangular
hand-net, or ‘Turstopda’, is employed almost everywhere in the State
and its catch is usually confined to shrimps and small fishes.

Fish-traps.

The Cover-basket (Oola), open at both ends, the diameter of the
upper end being smaller than that of the lower one, is used for
catching fish in very shallow water, specially in the muddy bed of a
drying tank or pond. The fisherman puts it where he suspects there
is a fish and then searches for it inside with his hand. We have
seen this sort of basket being used in Haldi river at Medak and in
other parts of the Dominions.

Basket-traps (Pinjara) prepared on the principle of mouse trap
are in common use, they are used with or without baits. ‘Murrel’ and
other smaller fishes are caught but this practice should be discouraged
as it results in the destruction of fish-fry.

The Field trap (Guda) is in common use where fields are irrigated
by canals. Its form is conical with open mouth and tapering towards
the other end where a trap is provided. Small fishes and fish-fry
coming down the current are caught. Its use is very harmful as it
tends towards the wholesale destruction of fish-fry and therefore
should be discouraged.

Murrel noose (Chikkam). It is a tubular apparatus made of fibres
or grass with one end closed and it is generally used in the breeding
season of this fish. It is fixed in the evening just near the spawning
ground, the fishes come towards the shallower parts to breed, try
to pass the obstacle and are entangled in it, sometimes two to
three are caught in one noose. In the morning the fishermen take
out the nooses with the entrapped fish; this practice is also injurious
to the breeding of the fish because ripe female breeders are usually
caught and destroyed.

In the Manjra river at places the fishermen collect stones and
boulders so that the current passes through the space left between
them. Here in the inter-spaces platforms of sticks are constructed.
The current passes through these sticks and fishes coming with the
current are hurled on to these platforms. These are locally called
‘“Mudgi’.

Other Methods.

Line and hooks are usually employed. They are cast in the tank
near the shore at about 5 p.m. with baits consisting of live frogs,
small fish, crabs, etc., and are taken out next morning. The catch
consists of ‘Murrel’, cat-fishes and Notopterus as they are carnivorous

FISHING CONTRIVANCES 653

and take live bait readily. Sometimes Anguilla (Tamboo) is also
caught. Locally this line with hooks is called ‘Daouni’ and each
bears about one hundred hooks.

Sometimes individual lines are used with single or treble hooks
and are thrown from the shore to a distance of 15-20 yards.

In some places, viz., Moyal Merchaid in the Raichur district
people use a kind of oily stick; it is burnt and used as a torch for
attracting fish. They stand on the anicut and watch for the fish
coming towards the fire, big fishes are attracted towards the light,
they are then beaten with sticks and caught.

In the hilly tracts cruives and different kinds of fish-traps are
common. In shallow pools, the water is baled out and the fishes
caught. Poisoning by means of leaves, bark, fruits and roots of
many shrubs is a very common practice in Adilabad, Nirmal, and
hills of Mahboobnager district, but is not so common in other parts
of the dominions. This is a harmful practice as it tends towards
the wholesale destruction of fish and should be controlled.

Suggestions.

Small-meshed nets and fish traps are very destructive as they
take small fishes and fish-fry, which if left to grow would fetch a
better price, and if let into a tank would breed and add to the fish-
wealth.

Legislation should be enforced to restrict meshes of the nets, and
small-sized meshes should only be allowed for the collection of
fish-fry for stocking purpose under the supervision of responsible
persons. Better than legislation would be to educate the fishermen,
and it should be made clear to them that the destruction of fish-fry
and small fish is detrimental to their own interests. They should
‘be taught to culture and breed fish near their own lands adjacent to
the fields so as to get fish for their own daily consumption; extra
fish they can send to the market.

The deep-water netting is not prevalent in the State because the
fishermen do not possess boats and are not rich enough to purchase
large nets. With a little encouragement and demonstration it is
‘very easy to establish deep-water netting and thereby increase the
fish-supply. It will be possible then to exploit deep perennial tanks
-and other reservoirs which are hitherto uncared for owing to lack
of proper fishing gear.

‘Oosa Valai’ an encircling gill-net improved by the Madras
fisheries department for deep-water netting should also be introduced ;
this will require a large-sized gill-net with big meshes and two boats.
It is used early in the morning and late in the evening when fishes
come to the surface.

In our rivers practically no fishing is done during the rainy season
when rivers are in flood. Drift-nets or ‘Rangoon Valai’ as used
for catching ‘hilsa’ in the Godavari near Rajahmundry may be tried

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

with advantage. These nets have got floats, but no weights:
and are plied from a boat for catching fishes coming upstream.
Similarly, a purse net or ‘Shangla-jal’ which is used for catching
‘hilsa’ from a boat in the Hoogly river may also be tried.

Acknowledgements.

We are indebted to the Supply Secretary, (Rural Department)
for all the help and encouragement, and to the University authorities,
professors of Zoology and Botany, for providing library facilities.
We are grateful to the P.W.D., (Irrigation) for all the facilities
provided during our survey work. Our thanks are due to our
colleagues of this department whose ungrudging help was always
forthcoming whenever needed.

REFERENCES.

Bhimachar, B. S.—Mysore State Fisheries Bulletin No. 1 (1941).

Comber, E.—‘Protective Legislation for Indian Fisheries’, J.B.N.H.S., vol.
KVli (1906).

Elwin, Verrier.—The Baiga (John Murray, London) (1939).

Grigson, W. V.—Noites on Aboriginal Problems in the Mandla District (1940).

{dem.—The Maria Gonds of Bastar (Oxford University Press), (1933).

Hornell, J.—The fishing methods of the Madras Presidency’, Madras
Fisheries Bulletin (1938).

I.C.A.R. Reports.—The Hilsa Fish’, Indian Farming, vol. lI, No. 9
(1942).

Farugi, A. J. & Sahai, R.—On the Methods of Catching Fish in the United
Provinces and Scope of Establishing Inland Fisheries in these Provinces,
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc., 1943, 13, Section B, pp. 198-214.

John, C. C.—Fresh-water Fish and Fisheries of Travancore’, J].B.N.H.S.,
vol. xxxViii (1935).

Khan, H.—‘Methods of Fishing in the Punjab’, Ibid., vol. xxiv (1930).

Naidu, M. R.—A Report of the Fisheries Survey of Bengal.

Setna, S. B.—Fishing for ‘Bombay Duck’ (Harpodon nehereus): Destruc-
tive netting methods’, J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxv, (1931).

Sundra Raj, B.—‘Notes on Fresh-water Fish of Madras’, Rec. Ind. Mus.,
vol, Xli (1916).

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR
ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

BY
M. SayvEEDupD-Din,
Prof. of Botany, Osmania University,
Hyderabad Deccan.
(With three plates.)

(Continued from page 246 of Vol. XLIV, No, 2).
XU—Enicostemma littorale Blume
(GENTIANACEAE).

SYNONYMY AND SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION.

Enicostemma littorale Blume, Bijdr (1826), 848, H.F.B.I., IV,
101; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb., V., II, Pt. 1, 189; Gamble, FI. Pres.
Madras, Pt. V, 875. Syn: Slevogtia maritima Dalz. in Kew Journ.
Bot. V. 2 (1850), 137. Adenema Hyssopifolium G. Don, Syst. V. 4
(1837), 201; Wt. Ic. t. 600. Hippion orientale Dalz. & Gibs., 157.

A perennial glabrous herb 4-10 in. high, branched from the base, and from

‘a thick rootstock; stems or branches erect or procumbent, sub-quadrangular,
‘glabrous. Leaves sessile, opposite, very variable, linear-oblong, 3-nerved at base,

the midnerve very prominent, marginal nerves obscure. Flowers small, sessile,
in axillary clusters. Calyx deeply 5-lobed. Corolla white, tubular below and
funnel-shaped above; lobes 5, lanceolate, overlapping to the right in bud.
Stamens 5, inserted at the middle of the corolla-tube; filaments filiform with a
small double-hooded scale at the base; anthers erect, acute. Ovary 1-celled;
placentas little intruded; ovules many; style short; stigma capitate. Fruit an
ellipsoid capsule. (Plates I & II). Flowers Aug.—Jan. Medicinal (Kirtikar,
5; Watt, 10).

Indian Names.

Krimihrita, Kshara Karma (Sans.); Chota Kirayata (Hind.) ;
Vallari, Vellaragu (Tam.); Nelaguli (Tel.); Kadavinayi, Mamijva
(Mar.); Nagajivha (Beng.).

Habitat.

Throughout India, from the Punjab and Gangetic Plain to Ceylon;
more frequent near the sea, not known in Bengal (Hooker, 4;
Cooke, 1); all plains Districts and to 1500 ft. in the hills, chiefly
however near the sea, often on black cotton soil (Gamble, 3) ; Gujarat,
common; Concan rare (Dalz. & Gibs., 2); A common weed {Mayu-
ranathan, 6); very common in morum (gravel) soil and dry places
at Adigmet and elsewhere (Sayeedud-Din, 8).

Distribution.—Malaya, Tropical Africa, W. Indies.

Anatomical Notes.

Structure of the leaf. (Plate III, Figs. 1 and 2). The cuticle
is striated, and the epidermis consists of large cells with outer walls
greatly thickened. The epidermal cells at the margin have both the
inner and outer walls greatly thickened, and the latter convexly
arched outwards. A few collenchymatous cells are present at the
margins. Stomata occur more on the lower than on the upper
surface, and do not belong to any special type, the guard-cells being
surrounded by ordinary epidermal cells. The stomata are not
buried in the epidermis as would be expected in a plant of this type,
but on the contrary the guard-cells are elevated and the front cavity
is on a level with the surface. The mesophyll is not differentiated
into palisade and spongy cells, but consists of uniform polygonal
assimilatory cells. These observations tally with those made by
Sabnis (7).

Internal secretory organs and clothing hairs do not occur either
in the leaf or in the axis. The vascular bundles of the veins are
bicollateral.

Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of small clustered crystals
mostly in the pith. It is wanting in the leaf.

Structure of; the .axis. .(Plate. Tl, Bisee3);. they cuticlesis
striated. The epidermis consists of tabular cells with both the inner
and outer walls thickened. The cortex is composed of chlorenchyma,
but the cortical cells in the ribs are collenchymatous. In the peri-
cycle a ring of sclerenchyma is not present. The vascular bundles
are bicollateral, the rings of soft bast being continuous on either
side. The medullary rays are narrow and uniseriate. The vessels
are small and arranged in rows. Wood-prosenchyma which is little
developed, is not provided with more or less typically differentiated
bordered pits as recorded by Solereder (9) for other members of the
Gentianaceae. The pith is composed of thin-walled cells.

Structure of the root (Plate III, Fig. 4). Stone-cells occur in
the pericycle. A pith is not present. The decaying of the primary
cortex as recorded by Solereder in the Gentianoideae, has been
observed.

CONCLUSIONS.

1. Stomata are surrounded by ordinary epidermal cells, and

hence do not belong to any particular type.

Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of small clustered crystals

only in the stem.

3. Clothing hairs and internal secretory organs are wanting.

4. Mesophyll is composed of uniform polygonal assimilatory

cells. 3

In the axis, the vascular bundles are bicollateral, and a ving

of sclerenchyma in the pericycle is not present.

6. In the root, stone-cells are found in the pericycle. ‘There is
no pith.

iS)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

I am thankful to my pupil, Mr. Maheshwar Raj Suxena, for the preparation
#»{ micro-slides, and to Mr. Sri Ramloo for the photograph and the drawings.

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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. BE II
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Sayeedud-Din.—Enicostemma littorale Blume.

For explanation see end of article.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pruate IIE

—— es

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Sayeedud-Din.—Eaicostemma littorale Blume.

For explanation see end of article..

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II.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
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Fig.
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Fig.

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 657

LITERATURE CONSULTED,

Cooke, T.—The Flora of ihe Presidency of Bombay, Vol. II, pt. 1, p. 180,
(1904).

Dalzell, N. A. and Gibson, A.—The Bombay Flora, p. 157, (1861).

Gamble, J. S.—Flora of the Presidency of Madras, pt. 5, p. 875, (1923).

Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India, Vol. IV, p. 101, (1885).

Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D.—Indian Medicinal Plants, 2nd Ed.

Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of Madras City and its
immediate neighbourhood, p. 183, (1929).

Sabnis, T. S.—The Physiological Anatomy of the Plants of the Indian
desert oe |2lo Be) Vol: Slik) Nos) 1 & 25 ppapt2-13, (1921):

Sayeedud-Din, M.—‘A further contribution to some of the common
flowering plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and
economic importance. Dicotyledons. J.B.N.H.S., Vol. XL, No. 2,
p- 204, (1938).

Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Eng. Ed., Vol. I
pp- 548-550, Vol. II, pp. 991-998, (1908).

Watt, G.—Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Vol. II], p. 245,
1890).

ie ‘a Se Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, t. 600, (1838-53).

EXPLANATION OF PLatTEs I—III.
Piate J.

Photograph of Enicostemma littorale Blume.

PLaTE II.

1.—Black and white drawing of Enicostemma littrole Blume. (Nat. size).
2.—Corolla opened out. (X 10).

3.—Pistil with calyx attached. (x _ 10).

4.—T. S. Ovary. (X Io).

PuLaTE III.

1.—Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata. (X 215).

2.—T. S. Leaf, showing: s,stoma; e,large epidermal ceils; m,un-
tiated mesophyll. (xX 215).

3.—T. S. Stem, showing: e,tabular epidermal cells; c,cortex composed
renchyma; col,collenchyma; v,bicollateral vascular bundles. (x 215).

4.—T. S. Root, showing: d,decaying of primary cortex; s,stone cells.

(X 215).

STUDIES ON THE SPOTTED BOLLWORMS OF COTTON—
EARIAS FABIA S., AND E. INSULANA B.

BY
M. C. CHERIAN AND M. S KYLASAM

(Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore.)

: Cotton buds and bolls are subject to varying degree of damage
by caterpillars of Earias fabia S, E. insulana B, Platyedra gossy
piella S, Heliothis armigera F and Rabila frontalis W. In
Coimbatore, the latter two do occur but in such sparse numbers
and at only certain periods of the growth of cotton that they had
at no time gone beyond the stage of minor pests, though in count-
ries like America and South Africa Heliothis armigera F had easily
attained the rank of one of the serious major pests of cotton.
Caterpillars of Earias fabia, E. insulana and Platyedra gossypiella
are easily the most destructive and cause considerable damage to
the growing buds and bolls. Fletcher and Misra (1921) have given
an account of the former but it relates mostly to the pest as pre-
valent in N. India. Recently, Deshpande (1936) has made a
valuable contribution on the spotted bollworms as far as they relate
to Bombay. As yet there has been no published record of the
spotted bollworms relating to S. India which would give a connected
account of the worms as they prevail in the south. The need for
such a contribution is obvious and an attempt is made in this paper
to supplement the knowledge in that direction. This paper
exclusively deals with the spotted bollworms under Coimbatore

conditions.

SEASONAL INCIDENCE.

(a) General. The cotton season starts from September-October
months when both Cambodia and rainfed cottons are usually sown.
The indications of borer attack are first discernible in November
when the affected top shoots show signs of withering. The spotted
bollworms as they try to make their way into the stem and branches.
through the axillary and apical buds cause destruction to the latter.
They feed on the core of the stems and this results in growth
ceasing altogether above the region of damage. It is claimed that
this kind of damage does really good to the plant in certain types
ot cottons by accelerating the production of monopodials on a
more extensive scale. Venkataraman and Jagannath Rao (1933)
had experimentally proved that such damage to the ‘Northerns’ in
Nandyal tract had given significant increased yield in the plants so

STUDIES ON THE SPOTTED BOLLWORMS OF COTTON 659

_ affected by top borers. Similar studies, however, made by Rama-
nathan (1931) in Cambodia and Uppam had given negative results.
Though one should welcome an attack of this kind in certain types
of cotton, there is always the inherent danger of this kind of initial
infection gathering strength and bringing about considerable loss
of buds and bolls at the time of heavy budding and bolling. From
the stems the caterpillars turn over to the buds and bolls as they
begin to appear in late November. Of the two kinds of spotted
bollworms that are found here, Earias fabia occurs in preponderent
numbers unlike in the Punjab where E. insulana is said to be the
most abundant. The latter sometimes appears now and then in the
season in cotton buds and bolls but never shows up prominently.

(b) Shed buds and bolls. Hilson, Ramanatha Ayyar and
Chockalingam Pillai (1925) have recorded that the majority of the
buds and bolls shed were apparently healthy, unaffected by pests
and diseases, and those that were attacked by insects traceable
to spotted bollworm damage. It was gathered from their studies
that the peak attack was reached in December with 659 damage
to the buds and bolls, and thereafter the incidence took a down-
ward trend and touched a very low figure of 5% by the middle of
February ; again it went upto 20% in May. Attempts were made
to study the incidence in the shed buds and bolls of Cambodia oz
borer attack on a wider basis with a larger material to work on.
The work was continued over a period of three seasons in the years
1937-38, 1938-39 and 1939-40. The shed material was daily picked
together in the mornings from a plot of two cents and examined
the same day for borer incidence. Sometimes the studies had to
be suspended due to dearth of material in the field and were resumed
when they became available again. The data thus obtained are
presented in the Table I.

It will be observed that the caterpillar population was very high
from the middle of December to the first week of January in 1937-38
and this period of intense activity of the bollworms coincided with
the maximum damage to the buds and bolls and the heavy shedding
noticeable then. Thereafter there was seen an abrupt falling off
in the population followed by a slowing down of shedding and a
decrease in the extent of bollworm damage therein. There was
also observable a tendency for the population to rise again in the
middle of May to July when shedding became prominent again and
the damage pronounced. But in 1939 similar trends were not ob-
servable; there was very little of shedding in the months preceding
February, and the caterpillar activity as judged from the population
percentage would appear to be comparatively low. The maximum
percentage of damage and population had never exceeded 2°8 and
1s in buds and 3°76 and 2-06 in bolls in the month of February
But in the previous year, 1.e.,

when shedding was most heavy.
ave had commenced

1937-38, the pertod of heavy shedding and dam
rather early and the maximum percentages ol damage and popu-

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46
TABLE |

Percentage of incidence of spotted bollworm damage and population
in Cambodia shed cotton.

| Bubs BOLLS

Year Gael ae a | ee Ea ne
Total ent tereel hage be Total |Dama- ‘Larval : qa ge | ARE.
exa- | > popu- jof da-) . ae | &X8- ged by popu- of da- ear af
mined | paras lation mage lation (™ mined | Earias ned |Batias| lation | mage eae
{ | |
1937
Novr.ii.| 679 | 344 3 1725027 O54 313 17 25 kOoLO 7°3
Decr. i.| 4203 | 1600 452 | 38:0 | 10°7 | 6137 | 2084 ; 715 33:9} 11°6
Be ii.| 2373 340 57 | 14°4 2°4 113827 | 1422 | 320! 10:3 | 3°3
1938
Jan. i.| 2154 60 6 2°8 0°3 420431 | 459 | 60 ogi’ O23
Peneiis |p eece 19 Ba Pep eres Pay | NRE Tol ec ey | 0°4
|
Faia sepecesenetsleccsoonensessss Secceste: no shed material’. cv.ccouscscssocsteessasneotencene
Mar. a taissieleesigus Soconstecabacecese “B00 no shed material.......... eeesensehitustses sesiicceas
| | |
Apr. ii.) 127 | 7\ — 5°5 |. =— 84 1 1 | Ieee oe
May. i.| 1507 | 418 60 | 27°38 | 40] 788 73 36) 89029) tnaes
HIB ECOL? 048 115 69, 2:0 | 1597 | 359 174 | 2270 | 10°9
June ij 3419, 835| 212 | 2441 62] 1683) 720) 361) 44:0 21°5
a icla 220 aie ek OG 44 | 45°0 | 150 | 461 148 65 | 32°0 | 14°1
July ij 896) 357| 162] 39:9) 182] 277| 87! 71! 31:0 | 258
is A276 a y24 O7 iTS 8) 10% 726, to sa uae 163 84 | 306 | 15°8
Aug. i} 457} 180] 70 | 394) 148] 1620| 478! 150) 289| 92
1939 |
At state PIU Wo ttresesecsrehetoeeecnescecs noshed! materials ese accel eeees eaeceeaesits
Feb. i.| 6780| 58| 22! 0°85 | 0-33 | 2462] 25 7| 10
Peels 1142 32 | 17 3) 2B a ce Sa O80 22 12 | 3°7 0
Mar, 4i:| 913 27 | 28; |':2:96; | 73:06 112 10 | 4) 8

ee i895 bra B2 |. vl7l) S114) 23:96105 | 261. ad cloak
Apr. i.| 511} 148| 30/27-0; 5:94] 216/ 71| 36 [32

ii. 72 23:07) 7:00] 256) 96/| 39 |37-
Decr. ii, 1748| 700 152 40° 0 8 6] 1097| 257) 113 |23-

Jan. i.) 7028 | 1517} 726/21: 6/10: 3|4963 | 908) 555 |18:
,, | 5210; 212} 57 | 4:06| 4:09} 3687 | 161| 59] 4:
4
1

Feb, 2 i.)" 7932)" 9 472)) 2208/7529) 12,605 1a 068 51 13
\ tyes lf e294) 7 | 3 124° 0/10° 4] 836 12 1

MWC WUBDOAHE
on
Sr On WW OGD Dw,

ro) ae.
“I

i & ii indicate fortnights.

lation for the period were 50.7 and 10.7 in buds and 55.0 and 11.6
in bolls. In 1939-40, again, the phases of shedding, damage and
population were found taking identical trends as were noted in
1937-38 but the high figures of 1937-38 were never reached. Ab-
sence of shedding in the early months of growth and low incidence
of bollworm a 1938-39 may be attributable to the continued
drought experienced during that period. On the other hand, a high

STUDIES ON THE SPOTTED BOLLWORMS OF COTTON 661

incidence of the bacterial disease caused by Bacteria malvacearum
was noted to have affected the buds and bolls in that season.

(c) In green and dry bolls. Though no actual examination was
made in 1937-38 and 1938-39, figures for the earlier years have been
compiled and are furnished in two separate tables hereunder (Tables
II and III).

TABLE II

Percentages of Harias fabia and &. insudana in standing green bolls
of Cambodia collected from 100 plants.

1920 1:79 1°05 5°77 | 5:30 | 3:10 | 2:50 | 3°10

1922 3°27 114s | 0:20 |i 5:37 ‘| 18-32 |, 13-13 7°19

1923 {| 3°73 0°53 0°93 1°65 1:80 |

1924 0:95 0-92 3°24 6:12 340 |

1925 7°21 0°91 3°50 12:20 | 17°10

1926 1:38 0°79 0°95 3°34 6°80 7°77 12°50

1927 1°44 2°23 3-45 7°40 11°64 10°50 | 6°64

1928 2°28 0:54 | 087 S83 2.03) | |

1929 3°78 1:50 1:50 4°40 | |

1930 | 3:95 1:80 3°47 3°02

1931 1:60 1 30irsiiue 1°50 11:50 |

1932 3:93 3:70 | 2°50 4-20 |

1933 2°80 | 3°70 4°40 | 7-99 2°20 | 1°79 | 3°20

1934 | 1:38 | 0°68 O71 | 14°80 | |
TABLE III

Dry boll infestation by Aarzas fabia and &. iusulana in Cambodia
cotton for the years 1922-1934,

i
so) se
ag 2S | Bolls | Locks Total |Percentage
Year oes = s | damaged | damaged No. of lock
As 8 | by Earias|by Earias| of locks | damage
i
Ory Oy
1922 Season | 61211 | 6480 2742 3015 183633 | 1°6
Kar 19972 | 15999 2597 3771 59916 6°3
1923 2599 | 379 | iil 120 8797 14
1924 863 | 213 61 75 2589 2:9
1925 1142 | 193 64 77 3426 2°3
1927 1045 | 232 80 99 3135 3°2
1928 1784 | din) 42 40 5352 09
1929 | 1343 167 88 136 {; 4029 3°2
1931 2803 620 191 240 | 8409 2:9
1932 2477 | 812 205 | 370 | 7431 5-1
1933 3783 717 424 | 700 | 11349 6°3
Season 840 654 260 608 2520 25°0
1934 \ Kar 1999 | 955 | 140 251 5697 1:6

(rn PR EC I TE SE I I

It will be seen that the infestation in the green bolls in the
months of January is always low scarcely exceeding 3.95% except

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

in one year (1925) when it shot upto 7.25%. It then steadily and
slowly rises and reaches the peak by the end of April when the
crop is, as a rule, pulled out on the farms and is no longer available
for following up the trend of infestations in subsequent months.
Nevertheless, the figures for four years which are available indicate
that there is a tendency for infestation to go up beyond April. As
regards the damage to locks in dry kapas it seldom exceeded over
6.0% though in one year (1933) as- high a figure as 25.0% was
recorded.

NATURE AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE

The caterpillars bore into the buds, flowers and bolis and feed
on the inside contents of the ovaries. They sometimes totally
destroy them or bring about shedding. Though an internal borer
for most of its larval life the caterpillar has a tendency to withdraw
and move out into another bud or boll. This habit which is in
contrast with that: of the pink bollworm is responsible for more
widespread damage observable in the buds and bolls. It has
already been mentioned that top boring of the stems is a feature
in the early stages of the growth of the cotton. This kind of damage
sometimes affects adversely the vields of certain types of cotton by
delaying the flowering; it sometimes helps to give an increased
yield as well, as noted elsewhere. Being a dirty feeder, the
attacked boll even if it should persist cannot be expected to give
clean lint when it finally bursts. To this extent the damage must
be considered fairly heavy. More often the damaged bolls get
hard, mummified and seldom open properly. From the incidence
figures for shed buds and bolls it is clear that the spotted bollworms
are active early in the season and bring about a severe shedding of
the early formed flower buds. According to Hilson (1925) the buds
that appear in the period from the middle December to late
January are the most efficient in developing into good bolls.
Unfortunately, this critical period synchronises with intense activity
of the bollworms which results in more widespread attack and
consequently more of shedding in this period. The loss under this
head is considerable. If the bollworm factor is eliminated at this
vulnerable stage and an increase in the stand of bolls secured there
will ultimately be more yield at the end.

ALTERNATE HOST PLANTS

Both the species of moths were found breeding in Abutilon
indicum, A. hirtum, Hibiscus rosasinensis, H. cannabinus, H. escu-
Jentus, H. vitifolius, Malvastrum coromandelianum and Althoea
rosea; they are not noted on Thespesia populnea, Sida cordifolia,
Hibiscus panduriformis and IH. subdarifa. The caterpillars were
found right through the year in varying proportions. From the
studies made so far, Hibiscus vitifolius pods were found to be more
heavily infested by the spotted bollworm, nearly 19.0% of the pods
being found bored. Abutilon spp. are found to carry a larger po-
pulation of E. imsulana caterpillars and this finding is in agreement

STUDIES ON THE SPOTTED BOLLWORMS OF COTION 663

with that of Fletcher and Misra (1921). Infestation percentages in
the two host plants i.e., H. vitifolius and Abutilon hirtum over a

period of four years are furnished in the table IV below.

Incidence of spotted bollworms in host plants

Hibiscus vitifolius

ae See

Abutilon hirtum

Year ue) ww ofa SE ol jan O [aw &
ga 3%} Population g Sa as 4%) Population Bs 5 | oz
ages oe |a@ ape B/e 8) ——_-___| a | a

Ps) = & oy i xu
KIS &) E/b | E/i SS se of i “ 8) E/b | E/i es] 8

1937 |1169) 229 | 189 8 196 16°8 | 906/145 | 27 31 16:0) 6°4

1938 | 918) 155 | 122 3° | 16°9 12:5 2745) 319| 34 195 11°8) 8°5

1939 907| 169 | 107 — |18°6) 11°8 | 556; 25); — 3 Av5\.9°6

1940 | 767,148 | 111 — (a 14°5 not taken

NATURAL ENEMIES.

The caterpillars were found
conditions.
given below.

to be parasitised under the field

A list of parasites so reared from the field material is

a
2 2 Host and |
Name BS a its | Plant host
i & | stage |
| | |
|
BRACONIDAE
Microbracon lefroyi D& G. ecto £.fabiaand| Shed cotton buds,
EZ. insulana\flowers and bolls; H7é7s-
caterpillars. |cus esculentus pods.
Microbracon greent ( Ash) ecto do. Hibiscus vititolius
pods ; Abutilon hirtum &
A. indicum pods.
Microbracon hebetor (Say) ecto E.. fabia Hf. esculentus pods.
caterpillars,
Bassus 0. Spe endo do. Shed cotton buds,
flowers and bolls.
Rhogas aligarhensi Quadri. endo do. Shed cotton buds,
flowers ard bolls and
H. esculentus pods.
ICHNEUMONIDAE
Melcha nurset Cam. endo do. HI, esculentus pods.
CHALCIDAE
Elasmus johnstoni Ferr. ecto E. fabia Shed cotton buds and
larvae andjbolls and A. vwitifolius
prepupae. pods.
TACHINIDAE
Actia hyalinata Mall, endo E. fabia Shed cotton buds and
larvae. bolls.
CHLOROPIDAE
Polyodaspis compressiceps; endo | do. HT. vitifolius pods.

Duda.

en mmnnce errr rere \ieieenacss esl

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

It will be seen that there are three kinds of Microbracons.
parasitising the caterpillars under field conditions. Microbracon
lefroyi parasites which are characterised by the ebony black trans-
verse bands on the 3rd and 4th abdominal segments seem to attack
the caterpillars infesting cotton and H. esculentus only. They have
not been bred so far from caterpillars in H. vitifolius and Abutilon
spp. pods though the host population in the latter was always high
and the host plants co-existed with cotton in certain cases and some-
times were situated far off from cotton. Microbracon greeni has.
been found to attack E. fabia caterpillars in H. vitifolius and
E. insulana caterpillars in Abutilon pods but has never been reared
so far from the cotton buds, flowers and bolls nor from H. esculent-
us pods. This behaviour and the disparity in size and color be-
tween the two strongly suggest that the two parasites are not
identical as is inclined to be regarded by Lal (1939). Laboratory
breeding trials have fully borne out the above assumption; the
specificity of the parasites had never changed and they always bred
true to type. Microbracon lefroyi was found to parasitise worms
in tender buds, flowers and bolls. It was not much in evidence in
well developed bolls. Its activity was evident at the time of heavy
production of buds and bolls and it faded off when the budding
slowed down. Breeding of this parasite which presented difficulty
in the earlier years was made easy by giving caterpillars enclosed
in partially cut tender bolls of 1 cm. to 2 cm. diameter, the contents
of which were partially scooped out; the cut halves were then sealed
with the caterpillar in, by means of a loop of thread. The cater-
pillars given in this way were easily accepted and _ parasitised.
Further details on these parasites will form the subject matter for
another paper which is to be published shortly.

It will be interesting to record that Eumenes edwardsi has been:
found to hunt E. fabia caterpillars and stock them in its nest built
on the tops of trees.

LIFE HISTORY STUDIES.

The two previously mentioned publications give details on the
life history of the two species. It is not intended therefore to cover
the same ground once again except where it is absolutely necessary.
Both the species are nocturnal in habit. They pair on the 2nd day
of emergence and soon after the females commence to lay eggs;
egglaying is chiefly confined to the early hours of the night.

Eggs and egg period. Under field conditions the eggs are found
all over the parts of the plant, more being observed in concealed’
situations like the leaf axils, bracts, leaf veins on the underside etc;
they are never closely laid but are scattered loosely in twos and:
threes. Fresh eggs are of deep sky blue tint, with light green
sheen at the top; they are of the shape of a crown and are highly
sculptured. Within 12 to 20 hours after egglaying, the fertilised eggs
develop a pink spot on the crown region and a pink annular band
immediately below the crown; on the 2nd day the blue gloss changes
to dull buff color but the pinkness of the band becomes very pro-
nounced; on the 3rd day the egg shell becomes dull brown to white:

STUDIES ON THE SPOTTED BOLLWORMS OF COTION 665

and the developing larva is now visible underneath. Larval
emergence is more restricted towards the crown region than towards.
the base. It takes nearly 60 to 72 hours for the eggs to hatch.
Moths are capable of laying a maximum of 385 eggs spread over
5-13 days; their longevity does not exceed more than 15 days.
The fresh hatchlings have the habit of partly nibbling the egg shell.
The fecundity record for E. fabia is furnished below. There is not
much of difference in the life history details in the two species.

Fecundity record of Earias fabia.

333 mone
i vo Ww BOn ae Dl > vi
Sere S Ye Date of Egglaying fons cals ag
(Ve HZ ol/,,./a
aS ge) 15
o = =
| OhA ie Sy BOL alOn Tle. 12 | |
Tee lpedegeo ge eee ee cat si eeisss eae es
| 11 35 54 45 | |
| 264270628 29K180 Site dl 42 139/)4) |
2. | 25-3-33. | —— —— ———- ——— —— ——- —— 311 7 1h
| AO S825 502) 7420335 17. eS |
| PO se Sil shy aes |
3. | 27-3-33. | —-—— a 838 &
| 10 28 45 | |
| Bey Te) ay Se ay | | |
4, | 10-4-33 —— SE — j} 263 | 5 | 8
84 69 62 35 13 | |
| ZONE ZI E227 36024 425526 27 -28'°-29) |
5. | 16-41-33 |- a ——; 29 8 | 14
58 54 44 39 36 21 22 15 | |
20h 2iau 229 23. 24,025 20) 27/428 |
6. | 18-4-33 | ——- ee ie 24Oe ele ss 11
| (55) 428938) 27 (38)? 247718 - 9
| 190920) 2922 123-224
de 18-4-33 —_——_——_ —_—— 95 3 8
OSae22 ES
Zl 22 823,24 25 426 27 28 29
8, 19 4-33 |-——- —- —_—_-——_--——— 235-9 12
| 390040) G9l4 2742226017916" 9) | |
Zien 22S 2
9: 20-4-33 | —— —_—-——_——. ——-— 188 3 5
50n00, 72 |
20n 2 les 22) 23) 24825" 126
10. 20-4-33 — —--—- — ——_ —— 267 7 8
15) 989 G8) 4609-242 :222 09

Larval and pupal periods.—The larvai life extends over a period
of 10-12 days after which the larvae spin the cocoons and pupate
therein; the prepupal period lasts for about 24-36 hours. In the
publications so far cited there is no mention made of the characters
by which one could distinguish one species from the other in their
larval stages. It is possible to distinguish the caterpillars of the
two species from the 3rd instar stages. The larvae of E. insulana
apart from their paleness in color and more extensive creamy
color in their body possess well defined finger shaped processes
which are wanting in E. fabia caterpillars. A description of the

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIElY, Vol. 46

advanced FE. insulana caterpillars is given. Head: Clypeus white,
two semi lunar smoky black patches on the front united; Prothorax :
a pair of transverse stripes light black; the anterior bolder and
well defined but broken in the middle; an inverted V-black mark
in the centre in front of the first stripe; spiracle black. Meso-
thorax: dull olive with creamy white patches interspersed; two
pairs of finger shaped processes, one median and the other lateral;
the median 2.5 mm. twice as long as the lateral, purplish, topped
by single white hair and covered with a felt of purplish hairs; base
and the bottom broadly orange. The lateral, white small covered
with a felt of white hairs and topped by single white hair; basal
end with an orange patch; a big black oval spot between each
patch on either side. Metathorax: similar to meso but in the lateral
pair of processes bigger than that of the meso. First abdominal
segment: white patches more extensive; two pairs of equal sized
processes, one median and the other lateral with white felt of hairs
on both; the bases orange; the lateral placed immediately above
the black spiracle. Second abdominal segment: with only one well
developed pair which is: lateral, placed below and behind the
spiracle ; two pairs of big black round patches, one median and the
other lateral; the median pair of processes reduced to stumps.
Third abdominal segment: very much like the first but with a
larger white area. 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th abdominal segments: with
the same number of processes as the 2nd and 3rd; the fourth has
a large white area with less of black spotting. 8th and gth abdo-
minal segments: same as above, the goth having a median area
which is distinctly black and warty. roth abdominal segment:
median area with a conspicuous shining black warty surface. Legs:
with a black touch at the coxal end. Pupation is partially on the
plant and partially in the soil debris containing shed material.
Adults emerge in 7-10 days after pupation. There is so far no
indication that long cycle pupae do exist.

ADULT EMERGENCES AND SEX RATIO.

It has often been observed that, for some reason or other, a
few pupae get mummified and there was no emergence of adults
from them. The time of emergence is usually restricted to the
early hours of the morning between 3-5 a.m. It would appear that
the females slightly predominated in number over the males. Out
of 138 adults reared in 1933 over a period of two months in March
and April, 66 happened to be males, the rest being females.

NON-RESPONSE TO TROPISMS.

The moths are not usually well attracted to powerful light; nor
do they come to traps which are charged with odorous chemicals
like oils of Citronella, Geranium, Anisi, bergamol and terpenes
like Eugenol, Iso Eugenol, etc. Gingelly oil cakes seem to show
very slight attractiveness when soaked in water and exposed in
shallow trays in the cotton fields.

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE 667°

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT,

The authors take this opportunity to thank the Bureau of
Entomology, Washington, for kindly identifying the parasites.

REFERENCES

1. Deshpande, B. P. and Nadkarny, M. I.C.A.R. Series, Monograph No. 10
(1936).

2 arena T. B. and Misra, C. S. Bulletin No. 5, Agri. Res. Inst., Pusa
1921).

3. Hilson, G. R., Ramanatha Ayyar, V. and Chockalingam Pillai, R. Bulletin.
No. 156 (1925).

wally Kerb: ‘Cur. “Sciz, Voll’8; No: pp. 125-126 (1939).

- Venkataraman, S. N. and Jagannatha Rao, C. Mad. Agr. J., Vol. 26,
No. 7 (1933).

nab

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE

BY
F. N. BeEtTTs.

This paper is intended to give some account of the bird life of
a small stretch of country, which I was able to study fairly intensively
over a period of three months, from mid-February to mid-May.

The locality was the Jagi Road quarry, lying on the Assam
Trunk Road, halfway between Gauhati and Nowgong, just where
the first ridges of the Khasia Hills begin to rise from the dead level
plains of the Brahmaputra valley.

The particular area under review is bounded on the north by
the Trunk Road, and is about 14 miles in length by 3 mile in
breadth. It consists of a strip of flat ground varying in width from
200 yards to + mile, behind which rises a forested ridge 200 feet
high, dropping on the far side to plains level, where a brook forms
the southern boundary. To the north, beyond the main road, the
plains extend 15 miles or more to the Brahmaputra, a vast expanse
of tall thatching grass, swampy ‘bhils’, and a certain amount of
paddy cultivation. To the south the land rises in a series of forest
clad ridges, with a general east to west trend, as far as the eye
can reach. All this 1s reserved forest and quite uninhabited.
Malaria is very prevalent, and the population, even in the plains,
small.

Climate. I was unable to obtain any rainfall figures, but, judging
from the vegetation, it is likely to be in the neighbourhood of 80/90
inches. During the period under consideration rain fell, on an
average, 3 times a week, usually in the form of heavy thunderstorms.
during the night, often accompanied by a strong wind. At the
time of my arrival in February, the air was comparatively dry with
a sharp drop of temperature at night. By the middle of May, it
was hot, humid, and steamy both day and night.

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Flora. About 2/3 of the area was under forest. The flat, low-
lying portion was covered with a dense growth of evergreen,
tropical rain forest, forming a solid canopy, the trees overgrown
with ferns, orchids and other epiphytes and interlaced with lianas
and rattans. A thick undergrowth grew below, straggling saplings,
plants of the Strobilanthes type, and a particularly virulent type of
stinging nettle. The slopes and summit of the hill were clothed
in mixed deciduous and bamboo forest with comparatively little
undergrowth. I arrived at the end of the wintering season, when
most of the trees and the bamboos had shed their leaves and were
bare. The flowering trees, Simul, Erythrina, and the Asoka tree
were just coming into bloom. By the time of my departure, the
whole forest was in full leaf, and over a part of the hill the bamboos
had seeded and died off. A circumstance that made the area of
particular interest to me was the fact that the vegetation was very
similar in type to that of the part of India with which I am best
acquainted: the evergreen and deciduous jungles of the Western
Ghats in Coorg and Mysore. Differences, indeed, there were, as
is only natural in view of the fact that the Assam forest lies over a
thousand miles north of Coorg, but this is partially compensated
by the fact that the former is only a few hundred feet above sea
level while the latter lies between 2500 and 3500 feet. The annual
mean temperature is probably not very different in the two cases,
but in Assam, as would be expected from its more northerly latitude,
the seasons are much more marked and the temperature range at
either end of the scale, greater.

The south depends mainly for its rainfall on the S.W. Monsoon,
more than half the yearly total falling during June, July and August,
accompanied by a strong wind off the Indian Ocean, which makes
this season cool and pleasant, quite unlike the steamy, greenhouse
heat of Assam in the rains. In the latter district, the precipitation
is spread out over a much longer period, and comes in showers
interspersed with hot sunshine. This, combined with the marshy
character of much of the valley of the Brahmaputra makes the climate
generally far more humid though the actual rainfall may not be
much greater. This is borne out by the greater intermingling of
evergreen and deciduous vegetation in Assam, and also to some
extent by the distribution of bird life.

Although the area with which I am dealing is such a small one,
it can be divided into a number of very distinct biotopes.

1. Evergreen Tropical Rain Forest. Originally covering most
of the flat ground between the road and the hill foot. Now confined
to a patch about + mile square at the eastern end of the area, and
a thin strip along the base of the hill, running up some way into the
various re-entrants and ravines. Also a fairly wide belt along the
stream forming the southern boundary. Parts are swampy, and
grow beds of broad leaved plants of the cardamom type and a little
Pandanus.

2. Deciduous and Bamboo Forest. Occupies quite half the area
including the whole of the hill. The latter rises in the centre into
a dome of granite. Here vegetation is sparse and stunted, giving
way altogether on the summit where the naked rock breaks through

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE 669

in a smooth, gently rounded whaleback. The ridge drops at either
end and breaks up into a mass of enormous boulders, some of them
40-50/ in height. Here the vegetation is much stronger, large trees
flourishing in the pockets of rich soil in the clefts and rifts, and
spreading a network of roots over the stone faces where leafmould
lodges and provides nourishment for a host of lesser shrubs and
seedlings.

3. Grass Savannah. A pure stand of thatch grass a couple of
acres in extent on the eastern border.

4. Secondary Forest. A stretch of flat land at the foot of the
hill at the extreme eastern end of the area. It had been evergreen
forest which had been felled some years previously, leaving a number
of trees standing though by no means sufficient to form a canopy.
A strong secondary growth of shrubs, saplings and ageratum had
sprung up, but constant firewood cutting and cattle grazing kept
it fairly open. A very important section from the bird point of view.

5. Camp Area, Quarry and Railway. Generally open grass,
buildings and cultivation with a number of scattered trees. Included
in this area some 20 acres of evergreen forest in which for anti-
malarial reasons, the soil had been drained, and the undergrowth
cleared and burnt, leaving the trees forming the canopy untouched.
I call this the evergreen clearing.

6. Meadow and Abandoned Cultivation. A considerable expanse
of plain at the western end of the area about half of which was
open grazing land, meadow with short cropped grass and scattered
trees, the rest a solid mass of Ageratum six or eight feet high among
which remained a few sickly looking trees apparently half choked
by the rampant weed.

In the detailed list of birds which follows, I have included notes
as to the comparative status of identical or closely related species
found in similar biotopes in S. India, but a few general observations
may not be out of place here. I have pointed out above that the
more humid climate in Assam gives rise to an admixture of ever-
green and deciduous vegetation which rarely occurs in S. India
where the vegetational zones are clearly marked and follow the lines
of the isobars running north and south. There is a similar trend
in the distribution of bird life. While the area under consideration
conformed in the main to the characteristics of the S. Indian
deciduous zone, a number of birds occurred which in the south are
restricted to the evergreen rain forests. There were also a number
of absentees which one would have expected to see. Too much
notice cannot be taken of this as the area was such a small one.

Breeding. The breeding season of birds has no definite limits
in tropical countries, but there is a maximum period, and in Assam
it appears to be about a month later than in the south, i.e. April/May
as against March/April. The casualties among the eggs and young
of wild birds are always extremely high, but the figures 1 obtained
for the nests which I found were positively catastrophic, and must
surely have been exceptional. Of course there must have been ten
nests in existence for every one which I found, but those I discovered
were, I think, a fair average, and by no means always the most

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

conspicuous. I was always careful to avoid disturbing the nest or
the surroundings, and in no case was there a desertion as a result
of my first visit. Other human interference could practically be
ruled out, and there were very few crows or tree-pies about to spy
on my goings and comings. One or two nests definitely succumbed
to storms, a few others were smashed and pulled about, but in the
vast majority of cases the eggs or young simply disappeared with
very little disturbance of the nest. The fact that the area was
inhabited by a pack of about twenty Langurs, another of Stump-
tailer Macaques, and at least 3 pairs of Giant Squirrels may have
had something to do with it. Having done no collecting, I refrain
from using subspecific names.

1. Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow. Scarce. Only seen round the village,
seldom in the forest. In Southern India they are found throughout deciduous.
forest even in the wildest parts, though thinly distributed. They are always the
first on any carrion, and it is their appearance, probably, that summons the
vultures.

2. Dendrocitta vagabunda. Common Tree-Pie. Occasionally seen in the camp:
area, apparently as casual visitors from cultivation. Not resident and never
seen in the forest. In S. India they are equally at home in cultivation and deep
in the deciduous jungles though not the evergreen.

[Dendrocitta formosae. Not seen. It might have been expected, being common
enough in the Himalayan foothills. In S. India, the analogous D. leucogastra,
while typically a bird of evergreen forest and never found in the purely deciduous.
biotope, is decidedly partial to the intermixed strip on the border of the two
zones. |

[Paridae. Strangely enough no tits were encountered. In S. India Machlo-
lophus xanthogenys would certainly have occurred in this sort of biotope with
possibly Parus major though this is more of a dry zone bird. ]

3. Garrulax pectoralis. Black-gorgeited Laughing Thrush,

4. Garrulax monileger. Necklaced Laughing Thrush. Both species occurred
and except when seen together, so that the difference in size became apparent,
they were almost impossible to tell apart in the field. A flock, often of the two
species mixed, inhabited the boulder strewn eastern edge of the ridge both in
deciduous and evergreen facies. Shy and not very noisy for Laughing Thrushes.
They fed almost entirely on the ground turning over the drifts of dead leaves
with a great deal of rustling and scratching. JI have often expected to see some
big bird like a pheasant or junglefowl from the noise that was being made.
By the end of March they appeared to be paired and the flock broke up to a
large extent. J found a nest of G. pectoralis. It was a large, rough, bulky cup:
of dead twigs and tendrils containing 4 bright blue unspotted eggs. The bird
sat close but was extraordinarily adept at slipping off without giving a clear
view and hiding in the undergrowth without a sign of her presence. Two pairs
haunted this area and were extremely shy and silent at this time except in the
evenings when they made a great noise while going to roost, one bird of a pair
scolding and chattering, and being answered by its mate.

S. India. N.E. India being the real home of the Laughing Thrushes, it was
natural to find them well represented in the Assam area. The sole S. Indian
species (apart from Tvrochalopteron cachinnans which has a_ purely montane
distribution and hardly enters the purview of this paper), Garrulax delessertii, is
confined to the evergreen forest biotope and would not be met with in this
intermediate type.

Argya and Turdoides ; Neither of these genera were seen. In S. India one
would have expected T. somervillei in the Deciduous and Camp and Maidan
sections, and probably A. subrufa in the secondary and thatch grass facies.

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE 671

5. Pomatorhinus (schisticeps?) Scimitar Babbler. One or two pairs, some-
times small parties, usually were to be seen in evergreen facies, climbing about
the trunks and branches of the trees and poking their long bills into crevices.

S. India: P. horsfieldii is quite similar to the above in habits.

6. Alcippe inpalensis. Nepal Babbler. Only seen in evergreen facies where
it was not uncommon in pairs or small parties, feeding in the undergrowth or
on the ground. A nest found on April 16th in dense forest was a foot from the
ground in a young rattan palm where the fronds emerge from the brown, coir-
like leaf spathes. It was a deep cup made of the loose, tattered bark on which
it was built and was lined with black rhizomes. The three eggs were quite fresh,
and indistinguishable from those of A. poioicephala. The sitting bird was very
bold, leaving the nest reluctantly, and remaining close at hand with its mate,
scolding angrily.

S. India: A. poioicephala is quite similar in habits and habitat. Its nests
are usually made of moss.

7. Pellorneum ruficeps. Spotted Babblevy. Seen in pairs and small parties
all through the forested sections whether evergreen, deciduous or secondary. It
was particularly fond of bamboo facies. A nest was found in a very typical
situation on March 25th, containing 3 heavily incubated eggs. It was a ball of
dead leaves very well hidden in a drift of dead leaves at the foot of a bamboo
clump on the edge of a firepath. The parent, once the young were hatched, used
to approach and leave the nest on foot, running through the undergrowth like a
mouse. She provided mostly smallish insects, but on one occasion a cockroach
of considerable size. The young left fhe nest on the 12th or 13th day from
hatching.

S. India: The local subspecies is quite similar to the above in every way.

8. Yuhinasp. A pair were seen in deciduous forest on the hilltop, working
through the undergrowth and low bushes.

9, Aegithina tiphia. Jova. Scarce. Seen once or twice in the Camp section,
and in the thin deciduous forest on the crest of the ridge.
S. India: It would be likely to be common in this sort of biotope.

10. Chloropsis aurifrons. Gold-fronted Chloropsis.

11. Chloropsis jerdoni. Jevdon’s Chloropsis.

Both species were fairly common in the secondary facies and in the camp
area where they haunted large isolated mango trees. They were certain to be
found at any time on Bombax, Erythrina and Asoka trees when these were in
bloom.

12. Chloropsis hardwickii. Ovange-breasted Chloropsis. More partial to the
evergreen facies than the other two. It was seen feeding on the scarlet flowers
of a strobilanthus-like plant in secondary facies, not more than four feet from
the ground. This was unusually low, as all the Chloropses are birds of the
treetops.

S. India: The first two species have much the same habits as in Assam,
while the third does not occur.

13, Molpastes cafer. Red-vented Bulbul. Fairly common in the Camp and
Maidan, usually in pairs. Rarely seen in the secondary facies and not at all in
the forest.

S. India: The Assam bird looks much darker than the S. Indian and has
definite whitish cheek patches which are not noticeable in the latter bird. Its
status in comparison with Otocompsa emeria is much the same as in S. India.
M. cafer occupies mainly the dryer and more open country, and O. emeria the
wetter and more evergreen. Over much of their range they overlap and in an
intermediate biotope with a bias towards evergreen such as one finds at Jagi
Road, O. emeria is, as one would expect, dominant.

14. Otocompsa emeria. Red-whiskered Bulbul. Common throughout the Camp
area, Maidan, secondary jungle and the borders of the deciduous, also on the

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

hilltop where the forest thinned out. It was not so conspicuously the commonest
bird in the countryside as it usually is where it occurs in the South. As in the
South however I found more nests of this bird than any other presumably because
they are always easily accessible and usually not particularly well hidden,
while the sitting bird takes no pains to conceal her departure. No nests seen
before April 13th. Six nests were found between April 13 and 28. All were
robbed before hatching. The full clutch in Assam appears to be 3 as against
an average of two in S. India. In the South, breeding peak is reached a month
earlier, usually by mid-March. In the field the Assam bird can be distinguished
by the light coloured tips of the tail feathers, and the fact that the red cheek
patches are so reduced as to be invisible at any distance.

15. Otocompsa flaviventris. Black-crested Yellow Bulbul. A forest Bulbul.
It was most numerous in the secondary jungle but was also seen in the deciduous
facies and also on the borders of the evergreen. It is an arboreal species seldom
coming near the ground. A pair were seen collecting Ageratum seed down on
April 11. A nest with two incubated eggs was found on April 26, seven feet up
in a thick bush in shady but not very dense forest. It was a flimsy cup of dead
yellow leaves bound with a little cobweb.

S. India: Pycnonotus gulavis of S.W. India only differs from this bird in
having a short hardly noticeable crest as compared with the long forward pointing
crest of O. flaviventris, and a red throat patch lacking in the latter bird. Apart
from this the two are nearly identical in habits, habitat, song, nest and eggs.
They both have the peculiarity of making their nests very largely of yellow dead
leaves. Judging from field study it looks very much as if we have here a bird
which has developed, in the extremes of its range, differences that are undoubtedly
of specific value but by no means such as to justify putting the two into separate
genera, in company with other species not nearly so closely related. Unless
there is some very good taxonomic reason against it, I suggest that O. flaviventris
should be transferred to the genus Pycnonotus. Apart from the shape of its
crest it has no near affinity whatever with O. emeria.

16. Criniger gularis. White-throated Bulbul. A few pairs were regularly
but widely distributed through the evergreen facies to which they were entirely
restricted. A very noisy bird, its note an ugly scolding, wheezy croak. They
keep to the thick treetop canopy and are very shy and hard to see. A _ possible
nest which, however, was deserted before eggs were laid, was found on April 10
in the undergrowth in thick forest. This bird has no S. Indian counterpart.

17. Geokichla citrina. Ovange-headed Ground Thrush. A single bird was
seen on two or three occasions feeding in the evening in the clearing in the ever-
green jungle round the camp where the undergrowth had been cleared. It was
shy and silent and like its South Indian congener, which has similar habits and
habitat, it is probably a rains breeder.

18. Turdus boulboul. Grey-winged Ouzel. A single male was seen with fair
regularity feeding on the ground in the open meadows at the western end of
the area, and diving for cover into the Ageratum thickets when disturbed. There
is no real southern representative. T. simillimus is a montane species which
only appears in the deciduous zone occasionally in winter.

19, Copsychus saularis. Magpie Robin. Common and familiar as always.
There were a number of pairs both in the secondary jungle and in the camp
clearing to which they took very kindly. There was a tree just in front of my
hut with a number of rotten, hollow branch stubs. These throughout April and
May were continually being explored and fought over by a pair of Magpie Robins,
a pair of Indian Rollers, and several Jungle Mynahs. I never discovered which
if any finally set up house in them.

S, India: The Magpie Robin here is in every way similar.

20. Kittacincla macroura. Shama. Common in_ the secondary and
deciduous biotope particularly in bamboo facies. A nest was found on April 22
with 4 eggs in an isolated stump in a clearing in the secondary jungle two feet
from the ground. It was a cup of black rhizomes in the bottom of the hollow.
The eggs hatched on April 23. Both parents fed the young on grubs or cater-

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE 673

pillars of some kind. The young when last seen on May 2nd were in full quill
and would have been due to fly in 3/4 days at most i.e. 12/13 days from hatching.

The Assam Shama struck me as being more numerous, tamer, and more
ready to come into the open than its S. Indian congener, Furthermore, whereas
the latter is a rather disappointing singer, letting fall five or six rich notes and
then falling tantalizingly silent, in Assam they whistle freely for minutes together
like the Magpie Robin.

21. Myophonus temminckii. Whistling Thrush. This was a_ surprising
absentee. It is common all along the Himalayan foothills, and the rocky stream
in the shady ravine in the southern border of the area was an eminently suitable
habitat. Actually, though my wanderings took me considerably beyond the
boundaries of the area under survey, I never saw it in the locality. In S. India
though its congener horsfieldii is mainly a bird of the evergreen it is found in
much drier country than Jagi Road given only a permanent, swift running hill
stream with a border of evergreen vegetation along its banks.

22. Enicurus schistaceus. Slaty-backed Forktail. A pair frequented a
300/400 foot stretch of the stream bounding the area in the south, in very dark,
heavy forest. Like Pied Wagtails in habits, they are never still, rarely if ever
forsaking thestream bed, flying in a semicircle when driven to the limits of their
territory and coming back to the stream behind one. They disappeared about
April 3oth. Migrated?

23. Sitta castanea. Chesnut-bellied Nuthatch. A pair were seen on two
occasions in thin deciduous jungle. In S. India this is a bird of the drier parts
of the deciduous zone only, and would hardly have been expected in an_inter-
mediate biotope like that of the Assam area.

24. Siphia strophiata. Orange-gorgetted Flycatcher. A single bird was seen in
deciduous forest on the hill top on April rith. It was probably on migration.

25. Alseonax latirostris. Brown Flycatcher. There were one or two pairs in
bamboo facies. They were singing in early April and probably going to breed.
S. India: Found in similar bamboo country.

26. Niltavya macgrigoriae. Macgrigor’s Niltava. One or two pairs were seen
in February and early March in the evergreen clearing and the adjacent ever-
green forest. They disappeared later.

27. Eumiyas thalassina. Verditey Flycatcher. Seen at intervals in the Camp
clearing up till March roth presumably on passage.

28. Hypothymis azurea. Black-naped Flycatcher. Very common. It was
quite the commonest flycatcher. Most numerous in secondary jungle and bamboo
facies but occurring everywhere even in thick evergreen forest. A deserted nest
was found on April 16th built on a loop of creeper hanging under a bamboo
clump in secondary forest.

S. India: Quite similar here but not nearly so common.

29. Rhipidura albicollis. White-throated Fantail Flycatcher. A_ single bird
was seen for a day or two at the end of February in the evergreen clearing.

S. India: R. aureola is strictly a bird of dry deciduous biotope and would hardly
have been expected in this sort of intermediate zone.

30. Notodela leucura. White-tailed Blue Robin. Once seen in thick under-
growth in thick evergreen forest.

31. Calliope pectoralis. Eastern Ruby-throat. Once seen in March in
Ageratum scrub. Lanius spp. Shrikes. No true shrikes were seen which was
very surprising. One would have at least expected L. migriceps which is so
common over most of Assam. In S. India the meadow land and Ageratum scrub
would have provided an ideal habitat for L. schach at all times and L. cristatus

in winter.

674. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

32. Hemipus picatus. Brown-backed Pied Shrike. Not common. A_ few
pairs were distributed through the area mostly in deciduous forest. A pair were
seen building a nest on March 24th in a typical site 20 feet up on the upper
surface of a thin horizontal bough of a leafless tree standing by itself on a firepath
on the hilltop in thin deciduous jungle. Both birds were bringing cobwebs.
They began sitting extremely tightly on April 2 and continued to do so for a
week until the bough on which the nest was built was broken off one night in a
storm. The nest was as usual a minute cup of lichen bound thickly with cobweb
to the upper surface of the branch where it appeared as a scarcely discernible
excrescence.

S. India: The local subspecies is quite similar in habits and distribution.

33. Tephrodornis gularis. Large Wood-shrike. A flock was generally to be
seen in the deciduous jungle on the hilltop, sometimes coming down into the
quarry. I saw one building a nest on April 18 in a bare outlying horizontal fork,
20 feet up in a leafless tree on the hilltop. It was bringing cobwebs. As usual
the nest was built on top of the bough, where it broadened out at the point of
division, so that very little was discernible from below. Ten days later the bird
was sitting, brooding with the head back and bill pointing vertically upwards,
so still that it might have been in a trance. With its grey plumage it looked
just like a broken stub of the tree itself.

S. India: T. g. sylvicola is found in similar biotope but in much greater
numbers.

34. Pericrocotus speciosus. Scarlet Minivet. Seen on several occasions in
small flocks in deciduous jungle but was by no means common. The Southern
Indian P. flammeus would be definitely common in country of this type.

35. Chaptia aenea. Bronzed Drongo. Very scarce. Seen on two occasions
in secondary jungle.
S. India: It is very common indeed in this sort of intermediate forest biotope.

36. Chibia hottentota. Hair-cresied Drongo. The typical drongo of the area,
in fact the only one which could be said to be common. It occurred freely all
through the deciduous forest, secondary jungle, Camp and Maidan sections. Any
flowering tree was certain to have half a dozen on it feeding on the nectar and
on one occasion I saw seven or eight feeding among the blossoms of a shrub
with scarlet flowers growing 6/7 feet high in a secondary clearing. This species
appears to be the typical drongo over much of Assam in light forest or well-
wooded cultivation. It is bold and familiar and lives and breeds in tea gardens
where there is a good growth of shade. It_is interesting to note that the relative
status of this species and Dissemurus paradiseus in Assam is quite reversed in
S. India. In the latter part of the country, the local subspecies of C. hottentotta,
which even in the field is noticeably smaller than the Assam bird, is scarce and
erratically distributed. They appear to wander widely, a few turning up when
any of their favourite trees are in bloom, and then disappearing again. ‘They
are always shy and hard to approach. Dissemurus paradiseus on the other hand
is common all through the moister deciduous and intermediate zones especially
in bamboo facies and well-wooded cultivation in the neighbourhood of bamboo
jungle. It is one of the typical birds of the shady coffee and cardamom plan-
tations.

37. Dissemurus paradiseus. Large Racket-tailed Dyongo.

A couple of pairs had territories in the deciduous jungle on the hillside where
there was a fair growth of bamboo. They were much shyer than their S. Indian
congeners, and I never saw them except in fairly thick forest. Like the latter,
however, they were extremely noisy birds and great mimics.

38. Bhringa remifer. Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo. A single bird was seen
for about a week always in the same spot on the borders cf the evergreen and
secondary facies. It was silent and extremely shy and unlike most drongos did
not choose some bare outstanding bough on which to perch, but kept very much
to the interior of tall leafy trees, so that one only saw it when on the wing. In
this species the rackets are formed by equal vanes on either side of the quill,

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE 675

whereas in Dissemurus the rackets are altogether on the outside’ of the quill, the
inner vanes being rudimentary.

39. Phylloscopus sp. Willow Warbler. Several species occurred but apparent-
ly only as winter visitors.

40. Orthotomus sutorius. Zailoy Bird. Occurred in the open weedy clearings
in secondary forest.

41. Irena puella. Fairy Bluebird. Seen on occasions in pairs in the ever-
green facies. None appeared to be permanently resident within the area.

S. India: The bird here is quite similar and is a good deal commoner in the
sort of jungle found at Jagi Road, than it was in Assam.

42, Oriolus xanthornus. Black-headed Oriole. Seen all through the Camp
area and deciduous forest at various times. By the end of March a pair had
settled down in a comparatively restricted territory in the thin open woodland
at the top of the hill, where they evidently intended to breed, but I did not succeed
in finding a nest and do not think incubation can have staried up till the time
I left on May 7th, as both birds were still about. I saw them feeding on berries
and on two occasions on large hairy Bombycid caterpillars. These were beaten
on a branch for at least ten minutes before being swallowed, presumably to
remove the stinging hairs.

S. India: Were this species is confined to dry purely deciduous country.
O. oriolus which is common in moist deciduous and intermediate evergreen facies
in S. India as a winter visitor, was not seen in Assam.

43. Gracuia religiosa. Grackle. Fairly common in noisy flocks of up to a
dozen, usually in the deciduous forest. There were 3 or 4 enormous Bombaz
trees on the hillside whose straight boles, running up fifty feet without a branch
were riddled with the grackles nest holes, the work of several seasons. Two
or three pairs were nearly always to be seen of an evening, volubly discussing
the day’s affairs in the upper branches of these trees. The holes are quite
distinctive, oval in shape and untidily finished off, the edges being chewed and
blurred, not clean cut like a woodpecker or barbet’s work.

S. India. The local bird is quite similar in habitat and behaviour.

44, Sturnia malabarica. Grey-headed Mynah. Quite common in the Maidan
and Ageratum scrub area where by the end of April they were breeding in holes
in the scattered trees. I never saw them in any of the forested sections.

S. India: S. m. blythii while equally common in parkland and wooded culti-
vation is also found freely in light open deciduous forest.

45. Acridotheres tristis, Common Mynah.

46. Aethiopsar fuscus. Jungle Mynah. Both species occurred in the Camp
area, Maidan, and round the village, but not in the forest, either deciduous or
evergreen. Both were breeding by mid April in holes in trees round and in the
Camp. While in the area I have demarcated, both species co-existed, A. fuscus
never extended its range very far from the foot of the wooded hills, and as soon
as one got out into the open grass plains north of the Trunk Road, A. tristis
held the field alone. From the field naturalist’s point of view it seems absurd
to place two species so similar in different genera.

S. India: Here the comparative distribution is much the same as_ in
Assam. A. tristis is always to a greater extent commensal with man. While
it may be found in dry deciduous jungle well away from cultivation, in the
wetter areas it is strictly confined to the neighbourhood of habitations.

47, Sturnopastor contra. Pied Mynah. Quite common in the Maidan section
and the more open, grassy portions of the Camp area. Sure to be found where
cattle were grazing. They were nest building by the second week of April.

48, Saroglossa spiloptera. Spotied-winged Stare. A large flock spent a couple
of days feeding on the blossoms of a big Asoka tree on the hilltop. This was

1 Only apparently on the outside, but actually inside, a twist in the shaft
producing the illusion. Eps.

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the only time they were seen, with the exception of a solitary bird a few days
later on a flowering Erythrina in the quarry. They were noisy, chattering birds
highly social and typically Starlings. :

49. Uroloncha striata. White-backed Munia. Seen regularly in pairs and
small parties in the secondary jungle. Found several empty nests from March
19 onwards. These were evidently used for roosting purposes as I flushed 3 or
4 birds out of one nest on more than one occasion, and the nest had definitely
not been used for breeding.

S. India: The bird here is quite similar in every way.

50. Uroloncha punctulata. Spotted Munia. Only once encountered when
flushed a large flock of 50 or more out of some bushes on the edge of the
secondary jungle.

S. India: Common in similar country.

51. Ploceus passerinus. Weaver Bird. I saw a flock on March 28th in non-
breeding plumage, feeding among the flowers of a blossoming Asoka tree in the
deciduous section, well inside the forest, not at all where one would expect
Weavers. They were there in the same place on April 18, one male in breeding
plumage. On May 5th, probably the same flock had started building at the top
of a 4o foot tree on the edge of the secondary jungle where it bordered on the
thatch grass patch. Five nests were in progress, thatch grass being the material
used. Near by though not actually in the area, a colony were building on the
roadside telegraph wires, a site I have never seen used in S. India though it
seems not uncommon in this part of Assam.

S. India: JI have never seen Weavers actually in forest in S. India though
they are common enough on the outskirts both in deciduous and intermediate
biotopes wherever there are paddy fields. There their breeding season is deter-
mined largely by the paddy cultivation. They use strips of paddy leaves almost
exclusively for nesting material, and seldom begin work before June when the
crops are a foot or more high.

52. Passer domesticus. House Spavrow. A number lived round the quarry
workers’ huts. Purely commensal with man.

53. Hirundo daurica. Red-rumped Swallow. The only swallow definitely
identified. It was quite numerous in the open parts of the area—Camp, Quarry
and Maidan. A pair was seen collecting mud from a puddle on the main road
in mid-April but I did not find the nest.

S. India: Here, on the whole, a bird of dry deciduous country.

54. Motacilla citreola. Yellow-headed Wagtail. Two or three frequented the
Maidan pastures for a few days from April 14th, evidently on passage. ‘They
were in full breeding plumage.

55. Cinnyris asiatica, Purple Sunbird. J did not see any until the end of
March when they became common in the open parts of the area, and in thin
deciduous forest. A nest with young in the quill was found in the quarry on
April 13th. On April 18th this had been half destroyed, probably after the young
had flown, and a female presumably the owner was removing the materials to
a new site a couple of hundred yards away.

56. Aethopyga siparajia. Yellow-backed Sunbird. Not numerous but regularly
to be met with in cultivation and the waste land sections overgrown with
A geratum.,

57. Aethopyga gouldiae? Manipur Yellow-backed Sunbird. J believe 1 saw
this once in the secondary jungle. It was rather a quiet, unobtrusive little bird,
flitting about in the interior of bushes and not so active on the wing as most
of its kind.

53. Dicaeum cruentatum. Crimson-backed Flowerpecker. One pair seen in
cultivated land. These were the only flowerpeckers noticed which was surprising

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE 677

as there were plenty of parasites of the Viscum and Loranthus families. In
S. India one would expect to find D. erythrorhynchos common in such biotope.

59, Arachnothera magna. Streaked Spider-hunter. Probably a good deal
commoner than one realised but owing to its swift flight, cryptic coloration, and
preference for the canopy of tall trees in evergreen forest, it was difficult to see.
A nest which I believed to have been of this species was found in process of
construction on March 30 in a sapling growing in a cleft between two huge
boulders in thick shady forest. It was completed and the full clutch of 4 eggs
laid on April 11th. It looked like a huge and very ragged sunbird’s nest without
the usual cobweb binding, being composed of dried grass and bark shavings which
looked as if they had been robbed from a tree rat’s home. There was a lining
of bamboo leaves. The bird was shy and I was never able actually to identify
her on the nest which she left like a streak of lightning on one’s approach, but
there was always a Spider-hunter near by making much noise and demonstration
at a safe distance. On April 26th the nest was found on the ground with two
eggs still intact. There had been several very heavy storms and it looked as if
it had got soaked, and, being very loosely and roughly suspended from the tip
of a twig, had pulled away from its foundation and collapsed with its own weight.
The nest was about 15 inches long, of which the straggling tail of rubbish hanging
below took up a good third, by six inches at the widest. This type of nest
appears to be more like that of a Broadbill than the normal Spider-hunter
pattern. But the bird that flew off was definitely not a Broadbill. The eggs were
whitish fairly heavily spotted with greenish brown especially at the big end but
not so heavily as to conceal the ground colour,

60, Pitta cyanea. Blue Pitta. This was seen on several occasions on the ground
in thick undergrowth in evergreen forest. I found what I believe to have been
a nest of this species at the end of April, though I never actually saw a bird
visit it. It was a large round structure the shape of a football, over a foot in
diameter with a four inch wide entrance on one side, substantially constructed
of sticks and dead leaves, and placed on the top of a foot high tree stump in
the middle of a bed of broadleaved, canna-like plants, under the shade of ever-
green forest. On April 30th it was being lined with bamboo !eaves and rhizomes,
but two days later it appeared to have been disturbed and eggs were never laid.

61. Pitta nipalensis? Blue-naped Pitta. A bird believed to have been this
species was observed on several occasions feeding late in the evening in the
evergreen clearing on the forest edge. It was extremely shy and would run
back into the jungle as soon as it saw one coming, and it was usually too dark
to get a really good view. It was a typical Pitta in shape and action, with the
characteristic long legs and almost complete absence of tail.

S. India: P. brachyura is a fairly common winter visitor but does not breed.

62. Serilophus rubropygius. Hodgson’s Broadbill. A pair were seen in ever-
green forest on April 26th. They were quiet, rather sluggish birds, keeping to
the treetops, perching very erect and the tail kept well down and frequently
twitched.

63. Picus canus. Black-faced Green Woodpecker. Occurred regularly in pairs
and small parties, mainly in evergreen but also in deciduous forest. I flushed
birds from nesting holes on April 14 and 16 in both cases in small trees in thick
evergreen forest and low down. One of the holes was not more than 18 inches
above ground level, the lowest woodpecker hole I have ever seen. Both appeared
to be old borings used a second time. From the second hole I flushed both male
and female at different times.

64. Picus chlorolophus. Lesser Yellow-naped Woodpecker. Not so numerous
as the last but fairly often seen in evergreen forest. It occurs in similar biotopes
in S. India.

65. Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus, Tickell’s Golden-backed Woodpecker, A family
party seen on one or two occasions in deciduous forest. Much the same habits
as the S. Indian bird and with a similar call.

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

66. Gecinulus grantia. Pale-headed Woodpecker. A_ striking little wood-
pecker. A pair was seen on several evenings about gth to 14th. March in
bamboo facies of the deciduous forest, and in the neighbouring, more open
secondary jungle. They were very active, running up and down the bamboos
constantly calling each other with a peculiar chattering call, flapping their wings
as they did so. In shape and posture they resembled Micropternus brachyurus.

67. Hypopicus hyperythrus. Rufous-bellied Woodpecker. Seen on one or two
occasions among the scattered trees of the maidan section ol the area.

68. Sasia ochracea. Rufous Piculet. This pretty little bird was seen on a
number of occasions in secondary jungle and bamboo clumps in the deciduous
forest, usually quite low down. Almost invariably solitary. An active little

creature, very tit-like in its ways.

69. Picumnus innominatus. Spotted Piculet. Very similar to the fast in
habits and habitat but a good deal more common.

S. India: This is the only piculet which occurs and it is rare. It is found
in the same sort of biotope, but ascends the hills to 5000 feet.

70. Thereiceryx lineatus. Lineated Barbet. There were a fair number in the
open parts of the area, the Camp zone and Maidan with their scattered trees, and
also less often, in secondary forest, though rarely if ever in the big forest.

S. India: The analogous species T. viridis is far commoner than the above
in this sort of biotope; in fact it is about the commonest bird.

71. Cyanops asiatica. Blue-throated Barbet. Much commoner than the last,
widely distributed all through the deciduous forest and secondary jungle. I
watched one digging out a nesthole on April 11th in a dead bough. It pecked
with open beak, biting and wrenching out chunks of wood. At intervals it would
pause to utter it’s—‘bring, bring, bring’. As it called the air pouches on the
sides of the throat could be seen dilating.

72, Xanthoiaema haemacephala. Coppersmith. This was rather scarce. It
was usually seen in the secondary jungle where it kept to the tops of high trees.
Not nearly as common as X. malabarica would be in similar biotope in S. India.
There X. haemacephala is a bird of very dry deciduous country.

73. Surniculus lugubris, Drongo Cuckoo. A regular frequenter of the
secondary jungle and the evergreen clearing. It was very like a small drongo
in colour, shape and flight, but the bill was noticeably cuculine and it was slug-
gish and lacked the brisk activity of the king crows. It was usually seen solitary
on a leafless bough at the top of a tree. A noisy bird with a whistle of five
piping notes on a rising scale, and occasionally another call rather like that of
the Plaintive Cuckoo. Although recorded from S. India, it is definitely rare
there, and I have never come across it. j

; 74. Penthoceryx sonneratii. Banded Bay Cuckoo. Once seen in secondary
orest.

US. India: The commonest of the small cuckoos in this sort of biotope,
foisting its eggs on the Iora principally.

_ 75. Chaicites maculatus, Emerald Cuckoo. A pair of these delightful little
birds lived in the secondary forest. They were usually to be seen on bare or
lightly foliaged trees. They were unusually active for members of the cuckoo
tribe, with a brisk, decisive flight, as they constantly flitted from bough to
bough or flew out to take insects on the wing. They had a characteristic perching
attitude, a crouch, often along, instead of across a bough, the long wings when
folded extending beyond the tail tips. The note was a constantly uttered trill,

pov aunliee that of the Loriquet, which bird they indeed resembled in Size and
ight.

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE 679

76, Rhopodytes tristis. Green-billed Malkoha. Three or four fairs .were
scattered through the secondary junple, the thin deciduous jungle on the hilltop,
and the border of the Maidan. They were sluggish birds usually seen in pairs,
spending most of their time sitting in some thick-foliaged shrub or sapling of
no great height. I never saw one feeding. The note was a low croaking ‘ko,
ko, ko’. On April 18 I flushed one from a small isolated tree, 10 teet high,
smothered in creepers on the edge of a fire line, and found a nest there in the
heart of the tangled mass. It was a_ridiculous little cup for so large a bird,
made simply by interlacing and twining the surrounding and still green and
living and unbroken leaves and tendrils. There was one fresh egg which was
robbed by some creature the next day.

S. India: R. viridirostris, a smaller species of much the same habits occurs
in similar biotope with a tendency towards dry, deciduous scrub jungle.

77. Centropus sinensis. Common Crow-Pheasant. There appeared to be
only two pairs in the area, one living in the secondary jungle and the thatch
grass patch adjoining, and the other in the Maidan and the neighbouring
Ageratum thickets. The latter pair used to come out of an evening and feed in
the open meadow, often in the company of the local junglefowl flock. They
seemed a good deal shyer and less noisy than in S. India, where they are very
common both in deciduous and evergreen country, avoiding only the extremes of
dense, continuous forest and bare, treeless plains.

78. Centropus bengalensis. Lesser Crow-Pheasant. At least one pair lived
in the thatchgrass patch and the secondary scrub and forest adjoining, but
they were seldom seen, skulking in the thickest cover and only visible on the
rare occasions when they took wing. They seem common in grass throughout
Assam. In S. India exceedingly scarce.

79, Psittacula krameri, Rose-ringed Paroquet. Not at all numerous and
great wanderers. Seen in small parties in the deciduous jungle or more fre-
quently flying over the area in the evening on their way to roost. Very much
forest birds here.

S. India: In this biotope one would have expected to find P. cyanocephala
and P. columboides common.

[Loriquet Coryllis vernalis. Never seen here which was surprising as in
S. India it is exceedingly common in similar biotope. ]

80. Coracias benghalensis. Common Roller. Two pairs inhabited the Camp
area and at least two more the Maidan. Their territories were large, each pair
holding sway over not less than 10/15 acres. They were evidently going to
breed in the area, but I never actually discovered a nest. As stated elsewhere
a good deal of quarrelling went on between the robbers, Mynahs and Magpie-
Robins over possibly suitable hollows in the scattered trees in the Camp. In
S. India this is a bird of the plains and dry open deciduous jungle. It is scarce
in the wetter parts of the deciduous belt and is not found at all in the evergreen
country.

81. Eurystomus orientalis, Broad-billed Roller. At least two pairs frequented
the area. One of these was usually to be seen among the scattered trees of the
secondary jungle and the neighbouring deciduous forest-covered hillside. The
other pair lived at the opposite end of the area in the Maidan, and the mixed
forest on its borders. The wings are more pointed and the flight more darting
and rapid than in the case of the Common Roller. Unlike that species they
hardly ever came to the ground, frequenting the tops of tall leafless trees, and
flying out to catch insects on the wing. On March 1oth I saw a pair apparently
courting. They perched side by side, making a great noise, a chattering croak.
As they called both birds would nod their heads slowly up and down and at
intervals one or other would swoop down to a grackle’s hole, one of many bored
in the trunk of a tall Simul tree about 40 feet up, pause clinging to the entrance
a second or two, and fly up again.

S. India: Were this bird is rare and apparently confined to evergreen forest
in the extreme S.W. i.e. Travancore. It has not been noted as far north as.
Coorg or Mysore.

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

82. Merops superciliosus. Blue-tailed Bee-eater. One or two small parties
were seen on several occasions on the Maidan. They appeared to be on passage
and not resident.

S. India: Only found in the dry, arid plains of central Mysore. Does noi
occur in forest.

83. Aicemerops athertoni. Blue-bearded Bee-eater. A pair were usually to be
seen in the spindly, thin deciduous jungle on the hilltop, especially on the
borders of the outcrops of bare rock. As in S. India where they are found in
similar biotope but are not nearly so common, they are rather silent, sluggish
birds, their note a low croak. On one occasion I saw a pair feeding on nectar
on a flowering Erythrina tree. While some breed in April/May, the principal
season is undoubtedly October. At this time one comes upon their newly bored
holes every mile or so in the banks of the bridle paths ail through the Assam
hill tracts. Bh BANSHERS

[Kingfishers : None were seen. |

84. Anthracoceros malabaricus. Large Indian Pied Hornbill. A flock of about
ten were the most striking avian inhabitants of the area. They frequented all
parts of the deciduous and evergreen biotopes and ranged a good deal beyond
its borders, but they were nearly always to be seen at some time of the day
within its limits. In the evenings at sunset, just before going to roost they
used to come down regularly to one or other of the big termite hills scattered
about the open grass of the Maidan, and make a light supper on the termites
emerging for their night’s work, often in company with a junglefowl or two.
Their antics were most amusing as their enormous bills were very ill adapted
for dealing with such small prey. By the end of February they were beginning
to pair, the cocks chasing the hens, and the courting couples perching side by
side caressing and cuddling each other. By mid-March though still to be seen
in a loose, noisy flock, they were evidently fully paired off. During April the
flock broke up and the birds were seen much less though up to the end of the
month one still saw occasional pairs so it did not look as though incubation
had begun. I did not succeed in finding a nest and fancy they retire further
into the forest to breed.

S. India: Confined to heavy evergreen forest on the Ghats.

85. Harpactes erythrocephalus. Red-headed Trogon.

Scarce, seen once or twice, solitary in evergreen forest. A silent, sluggish
bird, spending most of its time sitting very erect on a bough, occasionally
flitting out after an insect. Quite similar to the S. Indian H. fasciatus in habits
and habitat.

86. Huhua nipalensis. Forest Eagle Owl. A large horned owl which Tf
believe to have been this species was flushed on several occasions from thick
foliaged trees in the evergreen forest.

87. Astur trivirgatus. Crested Goshawk. A pair lived in the area, mostly
in evergreen jungle though they were shy and seldom seen. Their nest was found
on March t2th, 25 feet up in the top of a creeper-overgrown tree in thin forest
in a swamp. It was a substantial platform of stout twigs, eighteen inches wide,
which appeared to have been constructed entirely by the birds themselves. There
was a deep cup lined with leaves now dry, but apparently green when first
brought. There were no eggs. The bird was seen near the nest on several
occasions subsequently, but only on March 18 was she seen sitting. On March 21
I flushed her from the nest. Unaware of her departure her mate flew up just
then with something in his claws, saw me and beat a hasty retreat. There were
now two eggs, round and bluish-white with a few blood smears. The bird flew
round while I was climbing and made one or two feints at me but did not
actually attempt to attack. A few days later the nest was deserted for some
reason, and the birds were not seen again except on one occasion. A pair of
junglefowl were heard calling hysterically in the secondary jungle not far from
the deserted nest. On going to see what was the matter, I flushed one of the
Goshawks from the ground. Tt carried nothing away, nor was there any sign

BIRD LIFE IN’ AN ASSAM JUNGLE 681

of its having struck anything on the ground. I can only imagine that the jungle-
fowl had chicks and that the hawk had made an abortive stoop on them and
was searching for where’ they had hidden themselves.

S. India: Occurs in similar biotope and I have found the nest in much the
same situation. Very much a forest hawk, hiding in thick trees and relying
on a sudden, swift, short stoop to capture its prey.

88. Accipiter virgatus. Besra Sparrow-hawk. Hearing a great commotion
of small birds one day in an evergreen ravine, I flushed a Besra carrying some bird
almost as big as itself which it had just killed. I could not identify the prey
but believe it was a Laughing Thrush of some kind.

89. Haliastur indus. Brahminy Kite.
90, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite.
9]. Pseudogyps bengalensis. White-backed Vulture.

92. Sarcogyps calvus, Pondicherry Vulture.

While they can hardly be classed as residents all these scavengers were to
be seen at various times in or above the area. The Brahminy Kite was the
most uncommon and the White-backed Vulture the most numerous. Vultures
of both species were often to be seen resting on tall trees on the hill and probably
roosted there. P. bengalensis was breeding in Feb. in large numbers in big
peepul trees round the railway station and the bazaar outside the area limits.

93. Sphenocercus apicaudus. Pintailed Green Pigeon. A small flock was seen
on one occasion on April 27 on a fruiting banyan tree in deciduous forest.

94. Dendrophassa pompadora. Ashy-headed Green Pigeon. None were seen
until the last week in April when vast numbers, flocks of 100 or more gathered
to feed on a certain smooth green fruit, the size of an olive, growing on a clump
of trees in a ravine. On April 29th, a nest was found in an apparently most
unsuitable spot. It was a fairly substantial twig platform in a main fork, 40
feet up in a completely bare tree right out in the middle of the Maidan. The
sitting bird was ludicrously conspicuous and the tree an obvious perching
place for every hawk, owl, and crow in the neighbourhood. True there was a
drongo’s nest in process of construction on another branch of the same tree
which might have provided some protection but one would have expected the
pigeon to choose some leaty evergreen where its colour would give it perfect
camouflage. It was rather interesting to find breeding going on while the
species was flocking so intensively in the neighbourhood. It rather suggests
that the birds lead a perennially nomadic and highly social existence, breeding
taking place wherever a suitably large and long term source of food supply
exists. ay
S. India: The Southern subspecies is the typical green pigeon of this sort
of intermediate biotope. Crocopus phoenicopterus occurs in dry deciduous country
and the Imperial (Ducula badia) is found on the higher hills and in the evergreen
forests.

95. Chalcophaps indica. Linevald Dove. Fairly common in the evergreen
forest especially on the edges of clearings and firepaths where it could feed on
the ground. It was shy and more often heard than seen. It is quite similar in
habits and habitat in S. India. Definitely a bird of the evergreen forests, but
wandering into the intermediate zone on the borders.

96. Macropygia unchall. Bur-iailed Cuckoo-Dove. Confined to the evergreen
forest where it was a good deal commoner than the last. Appeared to be
exclusively frugivorous, rarely if ever coming to the ground. It was usually
solitary or in pairs, except for a few days, at the end of April when numbers
foregathered with scores of green pigeon to feed on a certain fruit. Even then
they behaved independently and not as a flock.

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

97. Streptopeiia chinensis. Spotted Dove. Exceedingly common everywhere
except in the evergreen forest. As in similar biotope in S. India, it was much
the commonest of the pigeon family and indeed one of the most numerous of
any species of bird.

98. Gallus. bankiva. Red Junglefowl. Common throughout the area in ever-
green and deciduous forest. A flock of about a dozen used to feed every evening
in the meadows of the Maidan, emerging from the jungle about 4 p.m. and
retiring again at dusk, when they went to roost in the bamboos. Oddly enough
cocks in full plumage were in the majority, the proportion of cocks to hens
being about 7-5 at any rate up to the end of March, and there seemed little
sign of breeding or rivalry among the males. During April however the flock
broke up and the birds apparently distributed themselves in pairs throughout
the deciduous and secondary biotopes. Morning and evening the jungle would
sound like a barnyard as cock shrilly challenged cock. As mentioned previously,
an odd bird would often join the hornbills in their evening snack of termites
on the anthills in the Maidan.

S. India: G. sonneratii is very similar in habits but is not so gregarious and
is rarely if ever seen in flocks.

99. Polypiectron bicalcaratum. Peacock Pheasant. Two cocks of. this
interesting species lived in the area. They each owned a restricted territory in
the bamboo facies of the deciduous jungle on the borders of the secondary belt.
They lived about 500 yards apart and their favourite feeding grounds were the
clear leafstrewn spaces beneath the clumps of giant bamboos. They were
exceedingly shy and wary, never coming out into the open, but they gave
themselves away by their vocal efforts. Every evening the two birds would mount
some fallen log, boulder, or low tree, and crow loudly for five or ten minutes
together, each answering the other. There was usually one period of crowing
about 5 p.m. and another at dusk when they went to roost. If they realised
that there was a human in the neighbourhood, they would at once fall silent,
hop down, and slip away into the undergrowth. I frequently stalled the birds
when they were calling but never saw any females in the vicinity, though on
one occasion, just before roosting, the male was accompanied by two hens
as he fed through the low bushes. One of the cocks used to roost regularly
by himself on a low bush beneath a bamboo clump, and returned to the same
spot in spite of my having shot unsuccessfully at him with a revolver at 5 yards
range only the previous night. The territories seemed very restricted extending
little more than a couple of hundred yards round the bamboo clumps which
formed their headquarters. .

100. Genmaeus horsfieldii. Black-breasted Kalij. Not as numerous as the
junglefowl but there were at least four or five cocks with their respective harems
distributed through the area, both in evergreen and deciduous forest. One cock
and two hens used to feed regularly on the Maidan in the evenings in company
with the junglefowl flock. From mid-Feb. to mid-April, one invariably saw a
cock with at least two and sometimes three hens in attendance. After that T
have seen solitary cocks, and breeding had presumably commenced. ‘They were
rather silent birds, and the bubbling crow of the cock was by no means a
frequent sound.

101. Gorsakius melanolophus. Malay Bittern. A single Bittern haunted the
swampy forest at the east end of the area throughout March and April. It
spent much of its time perched in some thick foliaged tree, feeding in the bog
below when so inclined, and, on being disturbed flapping off to another tree a
few yards away. I never heard it utter a sound, nor was it ever seen away from
this restricted area of forest swamp.

102. Leptoptilus javanicus, Lessey Adjutant. Could hardly be classed as a
resident as their feeding grounds were in the paddy fields and thatch grass ‘bhils’
north of the Trunk Road. Very often of an evening 4 or 5 of these stately birds
would be seen perched on one or other of the giant simul trees on the hillside,
sun bathing and drowsing after the day’s work.

BIRD LIFE IN AN ASSAM JUNGLE

683

ANALYSIS OF BREEDING ACTIVITIES

Species

Garrulax pectoralis ...

Pellornceum vuticeps...

Alcippe nipalensts

Otocompsa emeria

Otocompsa tlaviventris.

Kittacincla macroura...

Hemipus picatus

Tephrodornis gularts...

Sturnopastor contra ...

Ploceus passerinus

Urolonche striata

Arachnothera magna ?..

Cinnyris 2eylonica

Pitta cyanea

Picus canus he

No. of
Nests

No. in
Clutch

L-¢5
1-¢3

1-c4

1-c2

Date
found

15. iii

28 iii

16.iv

13.iv
30.iv

26..iv

2) ..iv

24 iti

18.iv

SiN;

13.iv

26.iv

l4.iv

Result

Robbed 20. iii

Successful...

Robbed

All robbed...

Robbed ...

Successful...

Blown down

in storm.

Success

till last Sitting

seen.
?

Blown down Building

in storm.

Successful ?

Deserted

Remarks

Full clutch 15.iii.

Full clutch 28.iii,

2 Chicks hatched,
one egg addled, on
28.iii. Chicks flew
on 10.iv, 13 days
from hatching.

. Full clutch fresh eggs

16.iv, robbed 25.iv,

No incubated clutch
under three in no.

26.iv Incubated.
30.iv Robbed.

Hatched 23.iv.

Flew 6/7.v.
11/12 days from
hatching.

Building 24. iii,
Sitting Zale
Destroyed 1l.iv.

up Building 18.iv.

28.iv.
Building 9.iv.

Building started
c. 28.1v.

In occupation 19/25
March. No eggs
ever seen. Possi-
bly only roosting
nests,

9.iv.
Full Clutch 14.iv.
Destroyed 26.iv.

Well grown young
13.iv. Nest being
dismantled 18.iv.

Building 26.iv.

before lay- Lining 30.iv.

ing’.

Deserted 2.yv.

Sitting when found .

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. 46

ANALYSIS OF BREEDING ACTIVITIES— (Continued)

No. of
Species as ; rie d Result Remarks
Clutch

Rhopodytes tristis ... l-cl 18.iv Robbed... 18.iv Fresh egg.
22.iv Robbed.

Astur trivirgatus ... j-c2 «14,311. «Deserted... 14.iii Ready for eggs.
21.iii Sitting 2 eggs.
l.iv Deserted.

Dendrophassa pompadora. 1-c? 29.iv Success 29.iv Sitting.
while ob-
served.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF APHIS NERII (FONSC.)

DurGADAS MUKERJI and BASANTA KuMAR BEHURA
Entomological Laboratory, Department of Zoology,
Calcutta University.

Morpholog

This species is easily recognised by the deep yellow colour of the body
with cornicles, cauda and anal plate black. The antennae extend beyond the
cornicles. The joints of the legs are black. The tip of femur is shaded
fuscous both in the alate and apterous forms but not in immature ones. Thoracic
terga are dull grey in alate forms. The antennae are uniformly black in
alate forms but are not so in apterous ones. 9 to 12 equal-sized sensoria lie
in one line on article III of the antennae of alate forms. The red eyes of
the immature young can be seen through the skin of the abdomen of the adult
apterous females. A waxy yellow liquid is exuded through the siphons,
which on exposure to air rapidly becomes coagulated. The body turns brown in
colour when dead. The morphological details of the aphid under report are
given at the end of the paper under caption ‘Measurements’.

Distribution

The species is practically cosmopolitan in distribution. In India, this
aphid species has been reported from Lahore (Das, 1918), Delhi, Rohtak,
Karnal (Deshpande, 1937), Coimbatore, Bellary (George, 1927) and Mysore
(Krishnamurty, 1928). Goot (1917) gives a list of specimens. of aphids in the
collection of the Indian Museum and mentions therein that this species occurs
in Calcutta as well as in Barakuda Islands (Orissa).

Host Plant.—Das (1918) reports this species of aphid from a number of
plants and George (1927) mentions that Daemia plants are likewise host plants.
Goot (1917) records its occurrence on Tylophora asthmatica W & A. Here in
our college garden at Ballygunge, Calcutta and near about this locality, we
find this species clustering on the leaves especially on the veins of the abaxial
and adaxial sides, as well as on the leaf stalks, stems, flower stalls and on
the fruits of Calotropis gigantea R. Br., which is locally called the akanda.

This pest is harmful to the host plant since it occurs in great numbers and
causes heavy loss of sap. The leaves of the plant become shrivelled and turn
yellow in colour and ultimately wither away. The leaves get covered with
honey-dew excretions of the insect encouraging fungus-growth.

OBSERVATIONS ON APHIS NERII (FONSC.) 685

Seasonal Occurrence.x—Both alate and apterous forms of this insect were
most abundant during the cold months of December 1944 and January 1945.
The apterous forms only, however occasionally were seen as late as the hot
months of May, 1945. They disappeared in June, July and August 1945.
Both forms, however, began to reappear towards the last weelk of September
and became very abundant again in December. They were markedly absent
during the rainy season. "

It is remarkable to note that no sexual forms (male) appeared among
the lot under our observation. The alate forms as compared to the apterous
ones were fewer in number. Apterous parthenogenetic forms which were
viviparous were reared in our laboratory within glass vials. Parthenogenesis
was studied upto the fourth generations in the laboratory during the months
of February and March 1945. The life cycle ran thus—

alate form

apterous form

Curiously, we did not obtain any alate form in our culture in glass vials,
but the alate and apterous forms both appeared when apterous specimens
were reared on a pot plant of C. gigantea, R.Br., kept within our laboratory
in the month of April, 1945. -Of the apterous forms born of the alate within
glass vials, the longevity during the months of February and March 1945
extended to twenty days. The largest number of young produced by a single
apterous female was forty-seven and the maximum number of broods pro-
duced within 24 hours was seven. The young undergo four moults. The
interval between each instar was irregular. The voung reared in the last
part of February, 1945 usually moulted in the following manner—

First moult—4th day after emergence.
Second moult—5th day after emergence.
Third moult—7th day after emergence.
Fourth moult—oth day after emergence.

Association of Ants.—We have not. come across any record of ant association
with this species of aphid in India. Moreover, Wheeler (1910) quotes Mord-
wilko stating that the siphons are best developed in aphids which do _ not
live in droves and are not attended by ants. But we find that these aphids
live in droves though their siphons are well developed. Moreover, we find
that though association with ants is not common there are few instances
where an association with two species of ants occurred. Cremastogaster dorhni,
Mayr., and Acantholepis. frauenfeldi, Mayr., were attending the aphid. The
ants stroke and caress the aphids by touching the extremities of their body
with their entennae: first with one and then with the other antenna. The
latter is moved extremely rapidly. The aphid responds to the solicitude of the ant
by raising its abdomen a little and releasing from its anal aperture a drop
of transparent liquid which rolls down the ant’s mouth.

Now it happens that the aphids survived on the host plant till late in
April when attended by the ant A. frauenfeldi, Mayr., while they disappeared
from all other plants even from the plant on which the ant C. dorhni, Mayr.,
was to be found abundently, if no A. frauwenfeldi, Mayr., was attending. It
may be inferred that the latter species of ant gave better protection than the
former species.

Minute yellow mites are also found in abundance near about the aphids.

Enemies.—Two species of lady-bird beetles Chilomenes sexmaculata,
Fabr., and Scymnus spp., which were very abundant from the latter part of

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

January, were its chief enemies. They, in their larval and imago stage, especiai-
ly in the former one, destroyed large number of aphids. The larvae of lady-
birds catch hold of them on the sides and suck them dry.
Thysanopterous nymphs also attack the aphids and suck their juice.
Common Syrphids (Diptera) actively deposit their white eggs near the
aphid colony and their blind larvae suck large number of aphids dry.
Aphids also disappeared overnight probably due to attack of some diseases
as has been recorded by Das (1918).

MEASUREMENTS
(Of Specimens mounted in Berlese Medium)

Apterous viviparous female.—Body length, 2.407 to 2.8768 mm. (av. 2.6364
mm.); body width (abdomen), 1.363 to 1.8038 mm. (av. 1.5629 mm.); antennze
total, 1.7226 to 2.0901 mm, (av. 1.8387 mm.); I, 0.0986 to 0.1175 mm.
(av. 0.1164 mm.); II, 0.079 to 0.1044 mm. (av. 0.0865 mm.); III,
0.406 to 0.551 mm. (av. 0.4587 mm.); IV, 0.2944 to 0.3951 mm. (av, 0.3322
mm.); V, 0.2277 to 0.2813 mm. (av. 0.2444 mm.); VWI, 0.5394 to 0.6612 mm.
(av. 0.5993 mm.); spur, 0.4205 to 0.5191 mm. (av. 0.4716 mm.); cornicles,
0.5104 to 0.6496 mm. (av. 0.5693 mm.); cauda, 0.232 to 0.2697 mm. (av.
0.2529 mm.); hind tarsus, 0.1494 to 0.1958 mm. (av. 0.1694 mm.).

Alate viviparous female.—Body length, 1.97 to 2.73 mm. (av. 2.4254 mm.) ; width
of thorax, 0.819 to 0.936 mm. (av. 0.8965 mm.); antennee total, 1.5434 to 1.9442
mm. (av. 1.7525 mm.); I, 0.0816 to 0.116 mm. (av. 0.0931 mm.); II, 0.058 to
0.0798 mm. (av. 0.0707 mm.); III, 0.0495 to 0.4963 mm. (av. 0.4514 mm.) ;
IV, 0.2925 to 0.3851 mm. {av. 0.3287 mm.); V, 0.2165 to 0.2789 mm. (av.
0.2504 mm.); VI, 0.4729 to 0.6215 mm. (av. 0.555 mm.); spur, 0.3637 to
0.485 mm. (av. 0.4296 mm.); fore wing length, 3.2335 to 3.4887 mm. (av.
3.3088 mm.); fore wing width, 1.2079 to 1.2992 mm. (av. 1.2582 mm.); hind
wing length, 1.769 to 1.9785 mm. (av. 1.8975 mm.); hind wing width, 0.551
to 0.609 mm. (av. 0.5934 mm.); cornicle, 0.3814 to 0.4785 mm. (av. 0.4109
mm.); cauda, 0.145 to 0.2204 mm. (av. 0.1757 mm.); hind tarsus, 0.1363 to
0.174 mm. (av. 0.1522 mm.).

REFERENCES

Bingham, C. T —1i903. Fauna of British India, Hymenoptera (2) 139, 316.

Das, B.—1918. “The Aphididae of Lahore.’ Mem. Ind. Mus. 6 (4) 204-206.

Deshpande, V. G.—1937. ‘A preliminary account of the Aphididae of
Poona.’ Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 39 (4) 743.

George, C. J.—1927. ‘South Indian Aphididae.’ Journ., Asiatic Soc. Bengal.
N.S. 23, 5-6.

Goot, P. Van der.—1917. ‘Notes on some Indian Aphides.’ Rec. Ind. Mus.
13 (4) 183.

Krishnamurty, B. 1928. ‘Aphididae of Mysore.’ Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist.
Soc. 33 (1) 214.

Swain, A. F.—1919. ‘A synopsis of the Aphididae of California.’ Univ.
California Pub. Technical Bull. Entom. 3 (1) 87-92, 117-118.

Ullah, G.—1940. ‘Studies of Indian Aphididae I. The Aphid Fauna of
Delhi. ind. Journ? Ent.<2 (2) 107:

Wheeler, W. M. 1910. ‘The relations of ants to plant-lice, scale insects
tree-hoppers and caterpillars. Ch. XIX.’ Ants, thetr structure, development
and behaviour. 339-360. a

NOTES ON SOME BUTTERFLIES
FROM
PENANG AND PROVINCE WELLESLEY, MALAYA.

BY
Lr.-CoLt. J. W. Rawtins.

A list of butterflies collected by L. R. Wheeler in Penang was
published in The Entomologists Record and Journal of Variation,
vol. liv. 1942. This list contains 168 species collected over a
period of three years. In view of this I hesitated to record the
results of only three months collecting but have decided to do so
as I can add 19 species to Wheeler’s list all of which were taken on
the Island. These 1g species include some rare and interesting
butterflies which have been identified by Dr. A. S. Corbet of the
British Museum (Natural History) to whom I am most grateful
for the help he has given me.

1 went to Malaya with the force that reoccupied the country
in 1945 and by the end of September found myself stationed in
Butterworth on the coast opposite Penang Island. Unfortunately
{ was only there for three months, the three wettest months of the
year, when butterfly life is at its lowest. Collecting was possible
only on Sundays and on the odd half day now and again or my list
might well have been longer. Nevertheless I seem to have had my
share of beginner’s luck and added a number of species which were
new to my collection.

Province Wellesley consists of a strip of territory on the west
coast of Malaya, bounded on the north by the Muda and on the
south by the Krian rivers. To the east the boundary is entirely
artificial and runs approximately parallel to the coast and some
ten miles from it. The country is for the most part flat and
heavily cultivated. It consists largely of paddy fields, rubber, and
cocoanut plantations. There are no hills worth speaking of except
at Bukit Mertajam. Here there is a small group of hills thickly
forested, with several streams and an artificial lake in the catch-
ment area.

Penang Island lies some two miles off the coast. It too is
heavily cultivated; rice, rubber, and cocoanut plantations cover
the coastal areas. In the centre is a small group of hills rising to
Penang Hill which is 2,700 ft. high. In the north these hills fall
steeply to the coast and are still largely covered with natural
forest. A part of Penang Hill was cleared some twenty or thirty
years ago. This, I believe, has had some effect on the rainfall. A
good deal of secondary growth has grown up recently. The
Waterfall (Botanical) Gardens at the foot of Penang: Hill he in a re-
entrant in the hills with a stream flowing through the middle of
them. The gardens were used as an ammunition dump by the
Japanese and at the time at which I was in Malaya they had suffered

O88 (JOURNAL, BOMBAY INATURALSHIST. SSO ChE 2 amV0l N46

from neglect and were closed to the public owing to the danger from
live ammunition. The flowering trees and shrubs attracted many
butterflies and it was in and around the gardens that I did most
of my collecting.

Penang is not rich in butterfly life, but a number of rare species
are able to maintain themselves in the forested area on the north-
ern part of the Island. 1 concentrated my attention on Penang
rather than the mainland, partly because it was more accessible
to me and partly because Penang has a fascination of its own.
Its forests are full of birds and from the tops of the hills one
can look out across the tree tops over the sea to the mainland and
Kedah Peak wrapped in cloud. .

The butterflies north of the Krian river are in some cases
intermediate between, or even belong to the Burmese rather than
the Malayan race. For example, Amblypodia atosia from Penang
appears to conform to the Burmese rather than the true Malayan
race. Hence in the list which follows, in doubtful cases I have
adhered to the binomial rather than attempt the trinomial system
of nomenclature. In preparing the list Corbet and Pendlebury’s
‘Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula’ has been followed through-
out except in one or two cases. Species taken on Penang Island

which do not appear in Wheeler’s list are marked with an *.

P'APILIONIDAE.

1. Troides helena cerberus (Feld). N.R. Found on the island and mainland.

2. Papillo varuna (White.) N.R. Often seen flying high around lower slopes
of Penang Hill. ;

3. P. aristolochie (F.) N.R. Island and mainland.

*4. P. paradoxa (Zink). Two od were taken on jungle paths below Penang
Hill. One or two others seen. Q is excessively rare. Fond of resting on wet
mud.

5. P. memnon agenor (1..) Not very plentiful at this time of year.

6. P.bhelenus (L..) Common around Penang Hill.

7, P. iswara (White.) Two ¢ taken on 14 Dec. °45 at 1,000 ft. in Batu
Feringgi Catchment Area. They were newly hatched and in company with two
others which were flying round and alighting on a hybiscus bush which they
were unwilling to leave even after I had taken the first specimen.

This butterfly has a very distinctive flight and is readily distinguished from
P- helenus. Distant in his Rhopalocera Malayana quotes Mr. Wallace on this
species as follows :—

‘P, iswara has an undulating flight, like that of the South American Morphos,
or even sometimes approaching that of the Noctuidae and they rest with the
upper wings deflexed over the lower.’

Distant states that it does not appear to be an abundant species. Corbet and
Pendlebury describe it as ‘somewhat local’.

8. P. polytes romulus (Cr.) Common everywhere.

9, P. demoleus malayanus (Wall.) Not so common as its Indian counterpart.

10. P. antiphates itamputi (Btlr.) One ¢@ taken on Jatana at Bukit Mertajam
yn mainland.

11. P.sarpedon (LL.) N.R. Occurs on Island as well as mainland.

12. P. agamemnon (L..) Not very common at this time of year.

PIERIDAE.

*13. Leptosia nina malayana (Fruh.) Abundant everywhere along jungle paths.
14. Delias hyparate matarete (Btlr.) N.R. on Penang.
15. Appias lyncida vasya (Fruh.) Not very common at this time of year.

NOTES ON SOME BUTTERFLIES 689

16. Catopsila pyranthe (L.) Common.

17. C. crocale (Cr.) Common.

18. €. scylla (L.) Fairly common on the Island and mainland.
19. Eurema hecabe (L.) Common everywhere.

DANAIDAE.

+20. Danais aspasia (F.) Occurs on the Island and mainland but is rare.

21. OD. similis vulgaris (Btlr.) Very common everywhere.

22. D.melanippus (Cr.) Fairly common.

23. D.chrysippus margharita (R6b.) Fairly common.

24. Ideopsis gaura parakama (I'ruh.) Not uncommon around the top of
Penang Hill, but difficult to capture as it flies fairly high. I did not see it on
the mainland.

25. Euploea mulciber (Cr.) Common on Penang.

26. E., diocletiana (i°.) One J taken on top of Penang Hill. No others
seen.

SATYRIDAE,

27. Mycalecis fuscum f. (Feld.) Somewhat focal. I never failed to find it
at Bukit Mertajam but never came across it on the island.

28. M. mimeus(L.) Very common.

29. Ypthima huebneri h. (Kirby). Very common.

30. Y¥. baldus (F.) Common.

31. Orsotrioena medus m. (F.) Common. |

32. Elymnias hypermnestra (L.) The ¢ is common everywhere. In North
Burma and in Rangoon I always found the ¢ of this butterfly more plentiful
than the . On the other hand at Kallar, South India, the 9 of E. hyperm-
nestra caudata seemed more plentiful than the Gis Specimens of E. hypermnestra
from Penang appear to be intermediate between the true Malayan race and
Burmese race. A sufficient series was not obtained to say whether or not the
Penang race is E. hypermnestra beatrice the true Malayan race.

AMATHUSIDAE,

33. Faunis arcesilaus (F.) Occurs on the Island and mainland. Not a very
common species and difficult to capture. It is fond of resting on forest paths
among dead leaves and when disturbed it flies slowly up. the path very close to
the ground for a few yards and then turns off into the thickest jungle where it is
impossible to follow.

The only representative of this family that I came across cnowch others
do occur.

NYMPHALIDAE.

34. Eriboeea athamas (Drury). Fairly common at Bukit Mertajam.

35. Euthalia cocytina puseda (Mre.) R. J found this butterfly in one place
only just above the Waterfall Gardens, where several were seen. Generally
settled fairly high on the leaves of trees out of reach.

*36, E. garnda(Mre.) R. Penang Island.

*37. E. lubentina (Cr.) R. One ¢ of this lovely butterfly taken on animal
droppings in a small nallah on Penang Island. Within two or three inches of
it was a specimen of Pantoporia asura idita which returned to the same spot
within a few minutes and was also taken.

38. Adolias dirtea (F.) Fairly plentiful especially | on Penang. . As usual with
this butterfly the 9 was more plentiful than the ¢.

39. Parthenos sylvia lilacinus (Btlr,) I did not take this butterfly on Penang
though it occurs at Bukit Mertajam. It is a slightly smaller insect than the
South Indian race and as its name implies has a rich violet tinge.

40. Limenitis procris milonia (Fruh.) Not common at this time of year.
Found on the Island and mainland.

*41, Pantoporia asura idita (Mre.) I took this butterfly both on the Island
and mainland. It is attracted by animal droppings. Fond of flying near the
ground over damp open patches in jungle.

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIELY, Vol. 46

42, Neptis vikasi omeroda (Mre.) Presumed to occur on Penang. Two
specimens seen at very close quarters which I failed to secure.

43. N, hylas (L.) Common.

44, Precis orithya wallaci (Dist.)

45. P. alamana javana (Feld.) All are common. P. atlites being

46. P. atlites (L.) the commonest.

47, P. iphita horsfield (Mre.)

48. Cupha erymanthis lotis (Sulz.) Common on Island and mainland.

49. Cethosia methypsea(Btir.) Fairly common on the higher slopes of Penang
Hill. ¢G oO only were seen.

ERYCINIDAE.

*50. Abisara neophroa chelime (Fruh.) Not common on Penang or mainland.
51. A. kausambioides (Nic.) Rare on Penang though commoner at Bukit
Mertajam.

LYCAENIDAE.

*52. Gerydus boisduvali (Mre.) V.R. Penang Island. One ¢g was taken on
10 Nov. 45 near the Waterfall Gardens. Understand from Dr. Corbet this insect
is V.R. throughout Malaya.

53. Allotinus horsfieldi(Mre.) Common ever ywhere.

54, Castalius rosimon({*.) Common everywhere.

55. C.ethion (Db!. & H.) Probably occurs on Penang. One specimen was
observed which I assumed to be this butterfly, but it kept just out of reach.

*56. Pithecops hylax coryus (Fruh.) R. Penang Island.

57. Celestrina pellecebra p. (Fruh.) R. Penang.

58. Zizeeria otis (F.) V.C. everywhere.

59, Euehrysops cnejus(F.) N.R.

“60. Lyceenesthes emolus goberus (Fruh.) R. Penang.

61. Lampides boeticus (L.) V.C.

62. Amblypodiaatosia (Hew.) ) Both common on Penang.

63. A. raflesii (Nic.) A. atosia from Penang is blue and resembles
the Burmese race rather than the true Malayan race which is purple on the
upperside.

64, A. eumolphus maxwelll (Dist.) R. One ¢ and three © were taken on
21 Sept. 45 at Bukit Mertajam within a few yards of each other.

65. A. abseus a. (Hew.) R. Penang.

*66. Loxura atymaus fuconius (Cr.) N.R. on Penang or mainland.

°67. Spindasis syama terama (Fruh.) R. Penang.

*58. Biduanda thesmia (Hew.) R. Penang.

692. Marmessus lisias (I'.) R. Penang.

*70, Catapecilma major emas (Fruh.) R. Penang. One ¢ taken in Waterfall
Gardens on 16 Dec. 45. Wheeler took C. elegans in much the same place. The
two butterflies are difficult to differentiate.

*71. Rapala suffusa S. (Mre.) V.R. One dG taken in Waterfall Gardens.

72, R. jarbas(F.) R. Three ¢ and a 9 were taken near Waterfall Gardens.
A fast flying insect, has the habit of flying up and down a path and alighting
momentarily on a bush or plant. Even when disturbed it will return to the
same spot.

*73,. Sinthusa gasaka amba (Kirby). V.R. Penang.

HESPERIDAE.

74. Orthopetus phameus (Hew.) R. Penang. One ¢ taken late in evening
as rain was beginning to fall.

“75, Charmion flculaea (Hew.) N.R. Penang.

76. Celenorrhinus asmata a. (Btir.) R. Penang.

77. Tngisdes gana perakana (Fruh.) N.R. Penang.

78. lambrix salsola (Mre.) Common both on the Island and mainland.

“79. Koruthaialos xanites (Btlr.) N.R. Penang. I did not see this on mainland.

80. Sancus pulligo (Mab.) N.R. on mainland.

Sl. Kerana nigrita (Latr.) N.R. Penang. Quite common at Bukit Mertajam.

82. Notocrypta paralysos (W.M. and Nic.) N.R. Penang.

83. Erionota thrax (L). Large insects that fly at dawn and dusk and are
attracted by light.

NOTES ON BIRDS COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA og!

*84. E.taurus (Evans). I have a @ of both E. thraw and E. taurus both
taken indoors at dusk at Butterworth where they are by no means uncommon.
One or other, probably both, are certainly present on Penang Island. £. taurus
was separated from thrax by Brigadier Evans in 1941. The genitalia of the

CG o differ considerably though the Q Q are practically indistinguishable.

E. thrax. 9 F. W. apex acute, termen straight, F. W. vein 1 is equal to
vein. 7 of H. W.

85. Hidari irava (Mre.) R. both on Peflang and mainland. Rather variable
in colour. Like Erionota this insect is attracted by light though it seems to fly
by day more frequently than Erionota.

86, Padraona mesoides (Bilr.) C. everywhere.

87. Baoris conjuncta javana (Mab.) Fairly common on mainland though I
failed to find it on Penang Island.

NOTES ON BIRDS COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA,

1935 tO 1945.
BY
A. C. Trotr.

The following notes relate to birds collected by, or seen by me
during the period 1935 to 1945 in Persia. My usual place of re-
sidence has been Tehran, the capital, but I have also travelled to
other parts of the country. I have also incorporated a few reports
from friends when I felt sure that they knew the bird concerned:
and some notes left to me by Mr. Brotherston, who spent some
months as an officer in the south of Persia, at Ardekan, and at
Kazvin, have also been inserted. For the identification of specimens
I am indebted to the Natural History Museum. I have tried to
include all the birds I saw or collected: one or two of the very
common birds, e.g. the mallard, have not been included as I never
secured specimens and did not actually note the bird on any parti-
cular date. The expression ‘Lar valley’ in which I obtained a
number of birds is nothing to do with the town of Lar in the pro-
vince of Fars in South Persia: it refers to the valley in the Elburz
range which leads towards Demavend, and hes 30 miles north east
of Tehran.

Corvus corax Juinnaeus. Raven.

Ravens are often seen near Tehran: I have a note of a pair seen east
of Tehran on the 28th Feb. Many fine ravens were seen in the Siah Palas
valley (which leads into the Lar, on the Caspian side of the Elburz water-
shed) at an altitude of 8,000 ft., at the end of July.

Corvus cormix cornix Linnaeus. Hooded Crow.

The hooded crow is one of the commonest birds of Tehran: the Tehranis
say that the white of the egg is good as an eye-salve. They are fond of
nesting in high plane-trees, which abound at Tehran.

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Corvus cornix ? sharpii Oates. Sharpe’s Crow.

Seen between Resht and Masuleh in Gilan, March.

Coryus frugilegus frugilegus Linnaeus. Rook.

Innumerable rooks are to be seen at Tehran throughout the winter.

Pica pica bactriana Bonaparte. Magpie.

These resident and ubiquitous birds certainly go up as far as 9,000 ft. as
I saw one at the top of the Tirak pass above Mubarakabad on the 28th July.
It sometimes flies about in the summer (e.g. at Avcheh village in August)
making its curious call, which sounds like ‘ker-plonk’.

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (Linnaeus). Red-billed Chough.

I saw some of these birds at Shiraz in the winter: the local people said
they were good to eat. I sent home a skin from north of Tehran (Elburz
foothills) in January. On the 28th July I saw a colony of these choughs at
7,000 ft. on the Tirak pass leading from Mubarakabad to Siah-Palas and the
Lar valley. The young birds which had evidently recently been hatched were
making a curious squeaking noise.

Sturnus vulgaris caucasicus Lorenz. Starling.

1 6 near Gulhek. juv. March 15.

I noted huge flocks of starlings near Robat Kerim on the 14th November.
They breed at Gulhek: I saw some there on the roth June and young ones
on the 12th July: they were nesting in walnut trees. I also saw some at a
village near Hamadan on March goth, and near the Assadabad pass on

August oth.

Pastor roseus (Linnaeus). Rose-coloured Starling.

1 @ Surkh Hissar, 10 miles east of Tehran. May 14.
1 6 Village Bdabd-Salman, 20 miles S.W. of Tehran. June 25.

These birds evidently arrived in the Tehran area in some’ numbers between
the 7th and the 14th May: the one I shot on the latter date was with
several others in a tree. The second one was one of a flock of four, but
many more were seen near by. The local people call this bird sdrt-i-ablaqg, as dis-
tinct from the simple sdy which means the common starling. The rosy pastor
is the bird which the Persians say can be so useful in getting rid of locusts:
according to the well-known fable anyone who has a plague of locusts has to
travel to a certain well at Qazvin and get from it a bottle of water: he
must then take the bottle to the place where the locusts are and break it on
the ground, when rosy pastors will appear by magic and eat up the locusts.
I saw no young, and did not see any after June 14.

Oriolus oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus). Golden Oriole.

{ shot a pair of orioles at Tehran on the 20th May. They are very common
birds at Gulhek in the summer from June to September. On the 30th June
a pair were seen nesting at Tajrish, 10 m. north of Tehran.

Coccothraustes <occothraustes coccothraustes (Linnaeus) Hawfinch.

1.Q. Tehran Legation. Jan. 16.

1 6 Gulhek, north of Tehran. Feb. 2.

The earliest date on which I saw hawfinches was Jan. 4th, and the latest
Feb. 23rd, at Gulhek. Their visits to Tehran seem to be irregular, for in
some years I never saw any, though I was on the watch for them.

Chioris chloris (Linnaeus). .Greenfinch.

1‘? Gulhel. 1Peb.
Shot on a branch of a plane tree: consorting with siskins.

NOTES ON BIRDS. COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA 693

Carduelis carduelis loudoni Zarudny. Goldfinch.

it OG near Gulhek. Feb, 16.

Goldfinch are very common at Tehran in February and March: my earnest
record of them is a flock on a tree in the Legation garden on Jan. 15th:
and my last a big flock on the golf-course, Tehran, on the 30th March.
Mr, Brotherston saw some at Kazvin on June 20th,

Carduelis cannabina bella ( = fringillirosiris Bp. & Scl.) Linnet.

1 Q@ Lar valley, near Deli Chai camp. July 14.

1 Q same place. July 14.

1d same place July 15. One of a pair.

These linnets were flitting about on low bushes and appeared to have just
arrived. They were consorting with grosbeaks (Cuypodacus). I saw a pair
on a hillside near Safid-4b, at an altitude of about 9,000 ft., on the 6th August.

Spinus spinus (Linnaeus). Siskin.

t 9 Gulhek. Feb. 16
locks of siskins were sometimes to be seen on the foothills north of Tehran
in February and March.

Metaponia pusilla (Pallas). Gold-fronted Finch.

1 ¢ near Chihil Cheshmeh spring, 7,000 ft. Aug. 4. Testes v. large.

1G same place. July 13. Testes v. large.

{ saw this fine little bird continually, flying near the spring: it was very
bold and tame: no females were found, nor a nest, but I feel sure it must be
breeding in the rocks near Chihil Cheshmeh in the Lar Valley.

Rhodopechys sanguinea sanguinea (Gould). Crimson-winged Finch,

i 3d near Chihil Cheshmeh. spring in Lar valley. July 13.

i Q same place: drinking in the spring. Aug. 4.

{ saw the bird once more at the spring on the 5th August: and also one
which settled near the river, evidently making for the spring. It was not so
common as the Gold-fronted Finch but the red patches on breast and wing made
it very conspicuous and remarkable.

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Hodgson). Scarlet Rose-finch or Grosbeak.

1 92 Deli Chai camp in Lar Valley. July 1o.

1 ¢ same place. Organs not large. Very common. July 14.

1 G Chihil Cheshmeh, near the spring: very conspicuous on umbellifers.
Making characteristic call or churr. Aug. 3. Testes large.

1 Q same place. Very common. Aug. 3.

These birds were calling to one another, especially in the evening and were,
{ feel sure, breeding. The call was a sort of plaintive combination of churr
and peep with the note rising at the end: this monotonous single call went on
for a long time.

Fringilla coelebs subsp.? 9 Chaffinch.

1 @ Gulhek. Feb. 12. ;

The chaffinch is common round Tehran from November to February: flocks
of 20 or 30 are often seen in the Legation feeding on grass during that period.
Mr. Brotherston saw some at Ardekan on Dec. 18. On the 4th January I
watched chaffinches feeding on the seeds of catalpa trees in the Legation: they
_were picking the seeds out of the old pods which remained on the trees. I

saw flocks of them between Resht and Masuleh, in Gilan, on March tr.

Fringilla montifringilla Linnaeus. Brambling.

1 ? Near Gulhek. March.

{ saw a brambling in the Legation garden on the 16th Jan.: another a few
miles north in February, and the last one about the middle of March. I also
saw one in Gilan, in the jungle between Resht and Masuleh, on the 11th March.

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Montifringilta nivalis alpicota (Pallas). Snow Finch.

1 Q Chihil Cheshmeh spring. July 13.
1 d same place. Aug. 3. Testes small.

Flocks of about 40 snow finches were continually doing evolutions in perfect
timing, all wheeling at the same instant and then all perching on the rocks,
round the spring in the Lar valley. Some birds had a white spot under the
chin. I believe that they were breeding in that valley though I found no nests.

Petronia petronia exiguus (Hellmayr). Rock Sparrow.

1 § Chihil Cheshmeh spring. Lar valley. July 13.
This was the only time I noted this bird: it was drinking at the spring.

Passer domesticus ? biblicus Hartert. House Sparrow.

2 $6 9 Gulhek. 5,000 ft. March 15.

House sparrows were not common at Tehran or in the neighbourhood. 1
noticed a good many at Bushire in December, and at Ahwaz on the 17th
February: also at Sdadeghabad near Hamadan on the joth March. Mr.
Brotherston saw some at Kazvin on the 19th June.

Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus Tschusi. Spanish Sparrow.

x ? Abadan, sea level. December.
This bird had been caught accidentally in a trap.

Passet montanus subsp.? Tree Sparrow.

Seen by Mr. Brotherston at Kazvin on July 25.

Emberiza citrinella erythrogenys C. L. Brehm. Yellow Bunting.

1 Q Near Guthek. Feb. 17.

2 6 Q Near Tehran. Jan.

1 ? Lar valley: near Deli Chai. Fat. Sex undetermined, July 13.

i Q Lar valley: safid-A4b: in grass. 7,000 ft. Aug. 1.

The yellow bunting is very common in spring at and near Tehran, usually
in flocks among the growing wheat and barley. I also saw a good many in
the Lar valley at the end of July.

Emberiza hortulana Linnaeus. Ortolan Bunting.

y ? Near Tehran. March.
The ortolan bunting is seen near Tehran occasionally in spring: I saw one
at Surkh Hissar, 10 miles east of Tehran, early in March.

Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. Black-headed Bunting.

: § Surkh Hissar, 10 miles east of Tehran. April 3o.

The black-headed buntings come rather later than the yellow buntings and
are often in large flocks, feeding in the wheat and barley. Mr. Brotherston
saw some at Kazvin on the 2oth June.

Ammomanes deserti fraterculus Tristram. Desert Lark.
1 ? Isfahan, 5,500 ft.: near Siah-kuh. Sept. 18.

Galerida cristata subsp.? Crested Lark.

1 6 Near Gulhek. Feb. 17.

Crested larks were always common on the plains round Tehran. On coming
back from the high passes of the Lar valley I noticed the first crested lark
at Larak, about 6,000 ft.: the bird does not seem to go higher than that. J
saw some at Bushire in December.

Alaemon alaudipes subsp. Bifasciated Lark.

I saw this bird at Huleila, on Bushire island, on Dec. 16. Jt was on the
sea-shore,

NOTES ON RIRDS. COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA 695

Otocorys alpestris albigula Bonaparte. Shore Lark.

1 2 Sultanatabad near Tehran: Feb.

I saw a flock of about 30 of these birds near Jajarud in the high ground,
on snow, at about 6,000 ft., on March st. During the winter a heavy fall
of snow usually drives some of them to seek their food quite close to Tehran:
I saw some just north of the town in February.

Otocorys alpestris penicillata (Gould). Shore Lark.

1 Q Lar valley: near Deli Chai: solitary: shot in evening: July to.

1 ? Q juv. near Sefid-4b in Lar valley: one of a party of four: July 13.

1 dG near Deli Chai camp. Organs small; solitary. July 31.

All these three specimens were from the Lar valley: the bird did not appear
to be common but it looked 4s if it was breeding there, or very near there
in one of the high valleys on the Caspian side of the watershed. Buxton points
out that the race penicillata occurs as far south as Isfahan: evidently therefore
this race and albigula overlap.

Anthus pratensis (Linnaeus). Meadow Pipit.

1 Q Lar valley: near Deli Chai. July tro.
This bird was shot in bushes. Organs undeveloped. I have notes of the
bird at Bushire on December 15th.

Anthus sordidus ? decaptus Meinertzhagen. Brown Rock Pipit, or Plain Pipit.

1 Q near Deli Chai camp in Lar valley found on nest. July 12.

This bird had a well-concealed nest in a clump of achillea in a level part of
the valley: the nest had three eggs, which I secured. I did not see the mate.
The female ran some way when sent off the nest, and in appearance reminded
me of a bifasciated lark, only smaller. It is therefore certain that this bird
breeds in the Lar valley in July. I have not found any reference to this bird
as far north as the Elburz mountains: Blanford mentioned one obtained in
April 50 miles north of Isfahan, at 5,000 ft. We now know that it breeds at
7,000 ft. considerably further north.

Anthus trivialis trivialis (Linnaeus). Tree Pipit.

Mr. Brotherston saw one at Ardekan on the 21st January.

Motacilla flava subsp. Blue-headed Wagtail.
1 6 Lar valley: Deli Chai. juv. July 9. organs very small.

Motacilla flava feldegg Michahelles. Black-headed Wagtail.

I saw two of these birds in the Lar valley between Chihil Cheshmeh and
Safid-4b on July 13th, and shot them but unfortunately did not manage to save
their skins. They were in very good feather, the yellow breast being of a
beautiful canary shade, contrasting with the jet-black head. I watched a few
more flitting about on bushes.

Motacilla alba persica Blanford. White Wagtail.

1 6 Gulhek. March 15.

The white wagtail is common round Tehran especially in the spring. I saw
some at Bushire on the 15th December, and Mr. Brotherston saw some between
Ahwaz and Tehran on the 12th June.

Sitta neumayer rupicola Blanford. Lesser Rock Nuthatch.

1 ? Lar valley: Chihil Cheshmeh: near spring: July 13.

Another one looking just the same was seen on August 1st near the Div-
asi4b in the Lar valley, at about 10,000 ft.: and another at Puloor (about
5,500 ft.) on July 16. 3!

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Sitta europea persica Witherby. Nuthatch.

1 ? Pir-i-Zan pass, 60 miles w. of Shiraz: creeping about branches of bushes.

1 also have notes of nuthatches near Tehran on two occasions: (1) February
28th at the village of To-chal east of Tehran on the old Khorasan road, and
(2) March ist, a company of 12 on the high ground at Jaja-rud: but these
were probably S. tephronota. I also saw one on a tree at Noglabar, on the
road to Resht on the borders of Gilam, on March 13th.

Parus major blanfordi Prazak. Great Tit.

1 ? Tehran. January.

1 ? near Tehran. February 28.

The great tit is very common in the trees of Tehran from January to
March. One sees it throughout the year also: I have records of it at Gulhek
in July. They are in very good feather in the middle of March. Mr.
Brotherston noted one at Kazvin on the 1gth June.

Remiz pendulinus (Linnaeus). Penduline Tit.

I never saw this bird, but its nests were hanging from the tips of poplar
branches in what is called the ‘bisheh’ on the Julfa side of the river at Isfahan.

Regulus ignicapillus ignicapillus (Temminck). Firecrest.

I saw a firecrest early in March at Surkh Hissar, 10 miles east of Tehran :
it was flitting about the tops of elm trees and was just distinguishable among
the swelling elm buds. I shot one on the 5th March but the impact of the shot
blew it to pieces.

Lanius collurio Linnaeus. Red-backed Shrike.

1 o Surkh Hissar, 10 m. east of Tehran. April 30.

1 ¢ Lar valley. Near Safid-Ab confluence with Lar river: Testes fairly
large. August 1.

This bird was not common near Tehran.

Pycnonotus leucotis mesopotamiae Ticehurst. White-eared Bulbul.

I saw and heard this bird at Bushire on the 15th December: and also saw
an albino in a cage there. I also saw the bird at Ahwaz on the 17th February.

Muscicapa striata neumanni Poche. Spotted Flycatcher.

1 Q Surkh Hissar, 10 m. E. of Tehran. May 7.

Spotted flycatchers were in the gardens’: round Tehran from about April 30th
to May t1oth.

Ficedula hypoleuca semitorquata (Homeyer). Pied Flycatcher.
o Chal-Harz, 10 miles north of Tehran. March 15.
I also saw one at Gulhek on the 13th March, and Mr. Brotherston saw one
at Kazvin on the 2oth June.

Agrobates galactotes (Temminck). Rufous Warbler.
Mr. Brotherston saw cne at Kazvin on the 21st June.

Turdus ericetorum philomelos Brehm. Song-Thrush.

1 ¢ Tehran Legation. January 18.

Song-thrushes are fairly common at Tehran from January to March: I saw
a young one at Gulhek on the 24th March. Mr. Brotherston saw one at
Ardekan on the oth January.

Turdus merula aterrimus (Madarasz). Blackbird.

1 ¢ Tehran Legation. January 18.

Blackbirds are common, and vociferous, in the gardens round Tehran from
the middle of January to the end of March: on the 28th March they were
singing well. I saw one on the lawn at Gulhek on the roth June. I also
noted them at Ahwaz on the 17th February.

NOTES ON BIRDS COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA 697

Turdus ruficollis atrigularis Temminck. Black-throated Thrush.

1 dG Gulhek. March 2.

1 Q Surkh Hissar, 10 m. E, of Tehran. March 14.

I have notes of this very common bird round Tehran from the 11th January
to the 14th March. The amount of black below the chin varies considerably.

Monticola saxatilis (Linnaeus). Rock Thrush.

1 ¢ Deli-Chai camp in Lar valley. Full plumage. July 12.

1 ¢ Chihil Cheshmeh, Lar valley. juv. August 2.

1 do Near the same: Juv. August 6.

This was one of the first birds I noticed when I entered the main valley
on July 27th: the birds I saw then were mostly youngsters just beginning to:
fly. From then until Aug. 9th, when I left the valley, I frequently heard the
sweet notes of their call, resembling that of the song-thrush. The third specimem
was taken by hand, unable to fly. The bird evidently breeds in the valley, im
July and early August,

QOenanthe deserti subsp? Desert Wheatear.

I saw one on the golf-course at Bushire on the 14th December.

Oenanthe finschi barnesi (Oates). Arabian Wheatear.

1 ? Jajarud: Kamard valley. January 5.

I also saw this bird between Tabas and Robat-i-Khan on the road to
Yezd on the 9th October The local inhabitants at Jajarud told me that the
bird was well known and called by them mishka.

Oenanthe leucomela leucomela (Pallas). Eastern Pied Wheatear.

1 ? Isfahan: desert south of town. juv. September 18.

Oenanthe oenanthe oenanthe (Linnaeus). Common Wheatear.

1 ¢ Lar valley. near Chihil Cheshmeh, in the valley leading south to Siah-
palas. July 29. Testes small.

I saw the common wheatear again in the Lar valley on the 2nd August.
Mr. Brotherston saw it at Kazvin on the 18th June,

Oenanthe chrysopygia (De Filippi). Red-rumped Wheatear.

I saw this bird on the bare hillside leading up to the Tirak pass between
Mubarakabad and Lar, at about 7,500 ft., on July 27. And again on the pass
above Avcheh leading over the watershed into the Lar valley, at 8,oo0o0 ft., on
August 12.

Saxicola rubetra noskae (Tschusi). Whinchat.

2 6 Q near Deli Chai: juv. (Lar valley) July to.

1 G Lar valley: near Safid-ab confluence, juv. July 13.

1 6 Lar valley: Safid-ab camp. August. 1.

1 6 Lar valley: near Chihil Cheshmeh. August 2.

The whinchat was very common in the valley and judging from the number
of young birds it seems very probable that it breeds there about June or early

July.

Phoenicurus erythronotus (Eversmann). Eversmann’s Redstart.

1 ¢ Sultanatabad, near Tehran. February 5.

1 ? Tehran. January.

Eversmann’s redstart is common in January and February in the cultivatiom
north of Tehran. It also appeared to be breeding at Surkh Hissar, 10 miles E.
of Tehran, in March, in small bushes of Berberis.. Redstarts were breeding in
clefts of rocks throughout the Lar valley, at 7,500 ft., at the end of July. I
watched the birds feeding their young on several occasions. The nest was
usually so far in between two huge rocks that it was impossible to get at it.

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

At the beginning of August redstarts were very common round the rocks near
Chihil Cheshmeh in the Lar valley: their black heads and red tails, with a
constant quivering motion, were very noticeable. The last date on which I saw
them there was Aug. 6.

Phoenicurus ochrurus (Gmel). Black Redstart.

One was seen by Mr. Brotherston near Ardekan on December 18.

Luscinia megarhyncha africana (Fischer & Reichenow). Nightingale.

Nightingales are to be seen and heard frequently in the gardens round
‘Tehran from the 2oth January to the middle of June, when their well-known
and sometimes overpowering song ceases to be heard. It is a common cage-
bird and if brought up in captivity is said to sing well. On the 9th October
I noticed one in the desert between Tabas and Robat-i-Khan on the road from
‘Tabas to Yezd.

Luscinia syecica subsp.? Blue-throat.

Blue-throats were only seen by me in the Lar valley: they seem to reach it
after July 16th as I saw none on that date though I was looking for them:
{1 saw an adult in good plumage near Chihil Cheshmeh on July 30th and obtained
the following specimens :

1 dg Chihil Cheshmeh spring: August 4.

I Q same place. August 4, juv. in speckled plumage.

I saw two or three other young birds in speckled plumage: all were drinking
at the spring.

Erythacus rubecula hyrcanus Blanford. Redbreast.

1 do Chal-Harz, just north of Tehran. March 20.

The redbreast is not a common bird near Tehran. In December I received
sone shot at Abadan.

Troglodytes troglodytes hyrcamus Zarudny & Loudon. Wren.

1 ? Tehran Legation garden. January 16.

The wren was only seen by me at Tehran during the third and fourth weeks
of January. The specimen shot was remarkably dark in colour.

Cinclus cinclus caucasicus Madarasz. Dipper.

1 ? Gulhek, 7 miles north of Tehran. February.

This bird is also to be seen in July and August in the Lar river, at about
7,000 ft.: and also in the Kand river near the village of Kand in March. (20
miles N. W. of Tehran).

Hirundo rustica subsp.? Swallow.

Noted at Ahwaz on the 19th February, and on the Caspian Sea, near Babul
Sar, on the 5th June.

Riparia rupestris (Scopoli). Crag-Martin.

I saw some crag-martins near the Chihil Cheshmeh spring in the Lar valley
on July 29th, flying about hawking after insects at mid-day. Mr. Brotherston
saw some between Ahwaz and Tehran on the 12th June.

Micropus apus subsp.? Swift.

Mr. Brotherston saw some swifts between Ahwaz and Tehran on the 12th
June, and I saw some at the village of Baba-Salman, °20 miles S.W. of Tehran,
on the 25th June.

Micropus melba melba (Linnaeus). Alpine Swift.

An officer who knew the bird well saw some Alpine swifts at Shimshakk,
20 m. N.E. of Tehran, at about 6,500 ft., on the 31st May. Mr. Brotherston
saw some at Ahwaz on the sth June. aE

NOTES ON BIRDS COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA 699»

Caprimulgus europaeus subsp.? Nightjar.

Mr. Brotherston saw one at Kazvin on August 5.

Merops apiaster Linnaues. Bee-eater.

The common bee-eater is frequently seen round Tehran and indeed on most
parts of the Persian plateau: my records from Tehran range between May 12th
and September 4th. At Avcheh village at 6,500 ft. I watched a flock circling
round and chasing insects on the 13th August. I saw some near Khorramabdd:
in Luristan on the 16th April.

Merops orientalis biludschicus Neumann. Little Green Bee-cater.

I saw the little green bee-eater at Bushire on the 14th December, in large
flocks.

Upupa epops epops Linnaeus. Hoopoe.

The earliest date I have for the hoopoe at Tehran is the 20th March: in:
June they were nesting at Gulhek: and on the 4th August I saw five in the
Lar valley, at 7,000 ft.

Coracias garrulus garrufus Linnaeus. Roller.

This bird, which breeds in the Legation gardens at Gulhek, seems to reach:
the plateau round Tehran early in April, and remains till the end of August
at any rate. In the Lar valley over the Caspian watershed I saw none: the:
last place at which I saw rollers in going from Tehran to Lar was at Avcheh
village, about 7,000 ft.

Coracias benghalensis benghalensis (Linnacus). Indian Roller.

Very common at Bushire on the 12th December.

Ceryle rudis rudis (Linnaeus). Pied Kingfisher.

Mr. Brotherston saw one between Ahwaz and Tehran on the 11th June.

Dryobates syriacus syriacus (Hempr. & Ehrenberg). Syrian Pied Woodpecker.

This woodpecker is one of the commonest birds in gardens at Tehran. It
nests in the British Embassy compound at Gulhelk between about the 26th June
and the 12th July, often in walnut trees. Mr. Brotherston saw one at Kazvim
on the 13th July, and I shot two, one a youngster, on the Tang-ab pass,
60 miles south of Shiraz on the road to Firuzabad, on the 2nd May.

Cuculus canorus canorus Linnaeus. Cuckoo.

1 o Deli Chai camp, in Lar valley: July 12.

This bird was hawking about for flies near the camp early in the morning
and looked very like a sparrow hawk at first. Its organs were fairly well
developed. The well-known call is sometimes heard at Tehran in May and
June. Mr. Brotherston saw one at Kazvin on the 13th July.

Bubo bubo ruthenus Puturlin & Zhitkow. Eagle Owl.

1 ¢ Gulhek. February 1.

These large birds are most often seen in the spring at Tehran, solemnly
sitting in a tall tree, often being mobbed by small birds: but the owl usually
takes no notice at all. The monotonous call disturbs the slumbers of many
dwellers in Tehran. On the 29th November a young one was found in the
British Legation garden unable to fly: it seemed to have been damaged but I
could find no sign of a broken limb. Mr. Brotherston saw one near Ardekam
on the 16th December.

Carine noctua bactriana (Hutton). Little Owl.

1 ¢ Gulhek. February 2.
Occasionally seen at Tehran in the spring. On the 12th June Mr. Brotherstom
saw one between Ahwaz and Tehran.

“00 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Falco peregrinus subsp.? Peregrine Falcon.

One was seen by Mr. Brotherston on the 17th June at Tehran.

Faice subbuteo snbbuteo Linnaeus. Hobby.

1 Q Qaitarieh, a garden near Gulhek. September 29.

No doubt this bird breeds in the gardens round Tehran: the one I shot
was with several others in an elm tree: the local name is Qzirqi but that name
may apply to other falcons too. I saw some newly fledged hobbies at Isfahan
in August, where they breed in poplar trees: and Mr. Brotherston saw some
mear Kazvin on the 28th July.

Falco columbarius subsp.? Merlin.
Mr. Brotherston saw a merlin at Kazvin on August 5th.

Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus. Kestrel.

The common kestrel nests in many gardens near Tehran in June and July.

1 ? Surkh Hissar, 10 m. east of Tehran. May 7.

They often nest on the tops of large plane trees, and the screaming of the
young birds is ccnstantly heard. Another favourite breeding place is the
gardens round Eurkh Hissar. I also saw kestrels at Hulaila on Bushire island
on the 16th December, and in the valleys near the Lar valley between July 28th
and August 6th.

Falco naumanni naumanni Fleischer. Lesser Kestrel.
1 ¢ Gulhek.. March 15.
I also saw this bird on the shore of the Caspian near Ramsar in April.

Falco vespertinus vespertinus Linnaeus. Red-footed Falcon.

Mr. Brotherston saw one at Kazvin on the 18th June.

Buteo rufinus rufinus (Cretzschmar). Long-legged Buzzard.

1 ? Shah Abdul Azim, just south of Tehran. January.

This bird is sometimes seen north of Tehran during the summer.
Accipiter nisus nisus (Linnaeus). Sparrow-Hawk.

1 o near Gulhek. February 109.
I did not find this bird common round Tehran. Mr. Brotherston saw one
Kazvin on the 30th July.

Milvus migrans migrans (Boddaert). Black Nite.

1 ? near Gulhek. January 2.

This bird is not uncommon around the foothills north of Tehran. I found
a young one in the Legation at Gulhek on July 15. I also saw some on the
Caspian foreshore near Babul-sar (Meshed-i-Sar) on May 3oth. Mr. Brotherston
saw some between Ahwaz and Tehran on the 12th June. Many were to be
‘seen round the Chihil Cheshmeh camp in the Lar valley on August 2nd: at
a height of 7,000 ft.

Pandion haliaétus (Linnaeus). Osprey.

I saw an osprey fishing in the Lar river, at an altitude of 7,000 ft. on
July 13th: and another fishing in the Caspian sea on the 4th June.

Gypaétus barbatus subsp. Bearded Vulture.

Seen by Mr. Brotherston at Kazvin on August 5th.. I sometimes saw them
in the air near Tehran during the summer.

Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus). Egyptian Vulture.
Often seen round Tehran, especially in the winter. Mr. Brotherston saw
one at Ahwaz on the 6th June.

NOTES ON BIRDS. COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA 701

Gyps fulvus fulvus (Hablizl). Griffon Vulture.

These huge birds no doubt breed in the Elburz range, especially in the high
mountains round Demavend: colonies of them can be seen in that neighbour-
hood occasionally. On the 16th July I saw about 30 sated birds round a corpse
near the Deli Chai confluence with the Lar river, at 7,000 ft. Mr. Brotherston
saw some near Tehran on the 17th June: I have also the three following re-
cords of my own: gth December: south of Tehran: a few feeding on a corpse;
6th October: between Zahidan (Duzdab) and Shusp; and 12th October: near
Oum, go miles south of Tehran.

Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus). Black or Cinereous Vulture.

I saw one of these birds with other vultures round a dead mule near Qum
on October 12th. I also kept one for some time in the Legation compound
alive, from the 13th October.

Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus). White Stork.

Col. Day, R. E., informed me that a colony of storks were nesting at
Sar-i-Pul, near Kerind, on March 4th: this seems early. Mr. Brotherston saw
some between Ahwaz end Tehran on June 12th: and they are not uncommon
in villages in Garris and Azarbdijan, usually nesting on some ruined place in
the middle of the village. The Persians call them Hajji Lak-lak.

Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus). Glossy Ibis.

1 6 Village of Fardis in Veramine: 12 m. E. of Tehran. September 30.
This was the only time I saw this bird in Persia.

Ardea cinerea cinerea Linnaeus. Grey Heron.

The common heron was often to be seen round Tehran: I skinned one shot
at Veramine, 15 miles E. of Tehran, on the 7th October but did not keep the
skin. I saw some at Bushire on the 12th December and Mr. Brotherston saw

some at Kazvin on the roth July.

On the 6th June I saw a number at the estuary of the Cnalus river on the
Caspian Sea: and on the 13th July one was fishing in the Lar river, much to the
annoyance of trout-fishermen near by.

Ardea purpurea purpurea Linnaeus. Purple Heron.

1 6 Tehran Embassy. April 2oth.

This bird was shot while fishing in one of the ambassador’s ponds for
goldfish,

Ixobeychus minutus minutus (Linnaeus). Little Bittern.

1 ¢o Tehran embassy. April 13th.

This little heron was also caught while extracting the ambassador’s goldfish
from one of his ponds. Its stomach when skinned, however, was empty.

Botaurus stellaris stellaris (Linnaeus). Bittern.

The bittern is said to frequent damp places in the district of Veramine,
some 20 miles to the east of Tehran. I saw a carcase hung up in a shop at
Tehran on the 6th December: the bird was to be sold for eating, and came
from Veramine.

Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum Temminck. Flamingo.

1 saw a large flock in the sea S.E. of Bahrein island on the 17th December :
I also have a note of flamingoes seen on Lake Rezaiyeh (formerly called Urumia)
in the autumn.

Ausersp. Goose.

On March 14th a good many inhabitants of Tehran heard the honking of
many gaggles of geese overhead during the night; some had also been heard
on previous nights.

702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Tadorsa tadorna (Linnaeus). Sheldrake.

1 ? Abadan: shot in November.

Casarca ferruginea (Pallas). Ruddy Sheldrake.

Mr. Brotherston reports seeing one near Ardekan on January 13.

Anas strepera Linnaeus. Gadwall.

Mr. Brotherston saw one at Ardekan on the 18th January.

Anas angustirostris Ménétries. Marbled Duck,

1 ? near Tehran. January 1.

Querquedula crecca crecca (Linnaeus). Teal.

Mr. Brotherston saw some at Ardekan on the 23rd January, and they are
very common round Tehran in the winter.

Spetula clypeata (Linnaeus). Shoveller.

1 Q near Robat Kerim, 4o m. S.W. of Tehran. October 31.

Nyroca jerina ferina (Linnaeus). Pochard.

1 Q near Tehran. January 1.

Mergus albellus Linnaeus. Smew.

1 ? near Abadan. November.
Twenty-five tiny fish were in the gullet of this bird.

Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis (Shaw & Nodder). Cormorant.

1 gd near Tehran. February 23. In breeding plumage with white patches.
on the flanks. I sew several in Bandar Abbas and Bushire harbours in
December, and on the Caspian Sea in June. It is curious that cormorants

sometimes perch in the tall plane trees of the British Embassy compound: I saw
them doing so in March.

Phalacrocorax pygmaeus (Pallas). Pigmy Cormorant.

1 ? near Tehran: shot on a pool in a garden near the town: February.
I suppose this bird was a stray from Gilan and the Caspian region.

Columba livia gaddi Zarudny & Loudon. Rock Pigeon.

1 ? Kamard near Jaja-rud.

This is the resident race which is very common all round Tehran, breeding
in gandt holes and met with in almost every village.

Streptopelia turtur arenicela (Hartert). Turtle-dove.

1 6 Chal-harz, just north of Tehran. March,

1.6 Surkh Hissar, 10 m. E. of Tehran. May 14.

The second bird was apparently consorting with rosy pastors. Mr. Brother-
ston saw some turtle doves at Kazvin on the 5th August.

Pterocies orientalis (Linnaeus). Black-bellied or Imperial Sand-Grouse.

2 6 Q near Tehran. December 27.

These birds are fairly common in the winter: they seem to like feeding on
or near to main roads. I saw a flock of about 20 near Sultanabad on the goth

December.
Charadrius alexandrious alexandrinus Linnaeus. Kentish Plover.

_ I saw Kentish plover at Huleila, on Bushire island, on the 16th December :
and also on the banks of the Lar river, at 7,000 ft., on the 29th July.

NOTES ON BIRDS COLLECTED AND SEEN IN PERSIA 703

Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelie. Little Ringed Plover.

I saw the little ringed-plover on the 29th July in the Lar Valley near Chihil
Cheshmeh, in the bed of the river, with newly fledged chicks: chicks are hatched
by July 14th. The bird is common on the Lar at that time, and its plaintive

note is very frequently heard.
Erolia minuta (Leisler). Little Stint.

Seen at Dastak and Hulailah on Bushire island, 12th and 16th December.

Tringa totanus subsp. Redshank.

Seen at Dastak and Hulailah on Bushire island, 12th and 16th December.

Tringa ochropus ochropus Linnaeus. Green Sandpiper.

Seen in the Lar valley by the river Lar, and also by its tributary the
Safid-ab, on the 29th July.

Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus). Lapwing or Peewit

1 Q neat Tehran. January 1.
The lapwing is fairly common on the plateau round Tehran in January and
February. I saw one near Ahwaz from the railway, on the 17th February.

Chettusia leucura (Lichtenstein). White-tailed Plover.

I saw this bird at Hulaila, on Bushire island, on December 16th: and
another at Abadan in February.

Scolopax rusticela rusticola Linnaeus. Woodcock.

1 @ Gulhek, 7 miles N. of Tehran. December 26.

Woodcock frequent the gardens north of Tehran from about the end of
November: they are called in Persia usually abyd. I hear from a sportsman
at Burujird that woodcock arrive there in November and December after the
first frost: the birds come very thin but become fatter: Burujird seems to be a
migrating centre for them.

Capella gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus). Snipe.
Snipe are to be found to the south and south-west of Tehran during the
winter: a sportsman living at Kermanshah says they breed there.

Hydroprogne caspia (Pallas). Caspian Tern.

I saw a Caspian tern on the shore at Bushire on the 17th December.

Sterna albifrons subsp. Little Tern.

Mr. Brotherston saw a little tern at Ahwaz on the 6th June.

Chiamydotis undulata macqueeni (Gray). Houbara Bustard.

I saw a pair between Abadeh and Yezd-i-Khast on the 5th May: and Mr.
Brotherston noticed one near Nain on the 2nd February.

Fulica atra atra Linnaeus. Coot.
Mr. Brotherston saw one between Ahwaz and Tehran on the toth June.

Crex crex (Linnaeus). Corn-crake.

A corn-crake was found alive and kept alive for several days at the British
Legation, Tehran: from July 12.

Tetraogallus caspius caspius (Gmelin). Caspian Snow-Partridge.
1 @ Elburz slopes north of Tehran: at 9,ooo ft. February 21.

Alectoris graeca caucasica Sushkin. Chukar or Rock-Partridge.
1 Q Tochal mountains, about 15 m. north of Tehran, 7,000 ft. June 11th.

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

1 do ? Kamard valley, near Jajarud, 15 miles N.E. of Tehran. January.
These two birds were within a few miles of one another and it seems
strange that they should belong to two separate races.

Ammoperdix griseogularis griseogularis (Brandt). Seesee Partridge.

2 6 @Q 20 miles S.E. of Tehran. December 26.

This seems to be the race inhabiting the Elburz mountains and the vicinity
of Tehran. Around Shiraz I think the bird is different and must be A. g. ter-
meuleni. Zar & Loudon. I saw a family party of parents and several newly
hatched chicks on the Tirak pass, between Mubarakabad and the Lar valley,

on the 28th July.

Perdix perdix canescens Buturlin. Common Partridge.

1 15 miles E. of Tehran. Dec. 6. Fairly common in winter from here
northward. The local name is chil or kabk-i-chil. It is a distinctly pale race.

Coturnix coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus). Quail.

I ¢ near Safid-4b in the Lar valley. July 13.

I shot two quail but only found one: they were in the lush grass in an
open space watered by an overflow of water from the river. 7,000 ft. A sports-
man informs me that quail breed at Kermanshah and at Hamadan.

Phasianus colchicus talyschenmsis Lorenz. Pheasant.

These birds are resident in Gilan and Mazanderan, and are often sent up to
Tehran for sale from these provinces. They vary in colour a great deal.
The Persian word for them is Qargdvul, or in Gilan turung.

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ROSY PASTOR IN INDIA
| Pastor roseus (L.)|

BY
HuMAYUN ABDULALI

(With a map)

The Rosy Pastor is well known as a_ non-breeding winter
visitor to India and as a two-way passage migrant in the N.W.
and in the Punjab. It enters and leaves India on a restricted front
between the foot of the Himalayas and Central Baluchistan,
travels over the high ground of North Baluchistan, Central and
Northern Afghanistan and Persian Khorasan to the south-east corner
of the Caspian Sea. Its breeding grounds lie in Russian Turkestan
and westward to Turkey and beyond in S.E. Europe, normally
as far west as Hungary. Beyond Indian limits it provides one of
the most remarkable instances of east to west migration known
among birds.

An attempt to determine its status and movements in the rest
of India revealed a glaring paucity of information, and a circular
inquiry was published in the Journal (Vol. 45, p. 228) as well as
in the military news sheet Contact in an effort to collate fresh

MOVEMENTS OF THE ROSY PASTOR IN INDIA 705

information and to have a clearer idea of its movements. There
has been some response from members and others, but unfor-
tunately all this information comes mostly from the Punjab, where its
position is fairly clear. In a fresh effort to collect more informa-
tion, the data now available is here summarized.

There is a solitary record of a male obtained at Lahul in Tibet
on 1st July (Ibis 1925, p. 170) and another was seen on 6th July
1946 near Taklakot, 13,000, W. Tibet (Salim Ali; [oB NERS 465
p. 300). Stragg glers occasionally occur in Kashmir, but the late
Mr. Hugh Whistler has recorded (Ibis 1926, p. 579 and 1930, p. 10§)
that the migration passes into India south of the Kangra Valley
and also misses the Rawalpindi District in North Punjab. South-
wards through Peshawar, Jhelum, Gujranwala, Lahore, Firozpur,
Patiala, Saharanpur, Ambaila and Delhi it is exceedingly common
on passage, the autumn migration commencing early in July,
reaching its peak towards the end of July and petering out in
September, (Lt.-Col. J. A. L. Cowie (in epist.) saw the last birds at
Lahore on 8th September. They were in attendance on grass
cutters). The return passage makes itself felt towards the end
of March and is most pronounced during the first half of April.
By the end of April they are gone, though a few may be seen
early in May. Jn autumn and spring, birds are observed moving
south-eastwards and north-westwards respectively. Major General
Hutson has recently dealt in detail with the status of this bird
around Delhi and has noted them feeding on the berries of Salva-
dora persica and on the black berries of Capparis sepiaria (Ibis
1945, pp. 275-279. In J.B.N.H.S. ix (p. 66) is a reprint of a note
by E. C. Cotes on the Food of the Rosy Pastor first published by
the Indian Museum. It is said to do a large amount of destruc-
tion to locusts of which many more are killed than eaten.

In Sind, Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Province,
the position is almost identical, and is dealt with by Ticehurst
{Ibis 1922, pp. 616-618). It first makes its appearance in the Quetta
Valley about the middle of July and passes through en masse in
early August. Large flocks again appear in April and the birds
are seen upto the middle of May. Ticehurst specifically states that
it does not winter in British Baluchistan but that stray birds are
seen on the Mekran coast. Currie (J.B.N.H.S. xxiv, p. 564) in his
notes from Lahore confirms the two-way passage migrations and
says that ‘scattered flocks may be met with throughout the cold
weather’ and this is perhaps the correct status for the areas
already dealt with. At Bahawalpur Major Atkinson (in epist.) says
they are found in great abundance from about the middle of July
to October when the dates are ripening and the Bajra is in seed.
It returns (Sir R. M. Crofton, I.C.S. in epist.) in large numbers
in the second week of April, being chiefly interested in pipal fruit
and wheat gleanings. Ralph Stokoe (in epist.) found it common
in Jaipur on 7-9th October, 1945.

There is general agreement among all observers that more
immature birds appear in autumn, and Magrath (Ibis 1909, p. 131)
in his notes from Kohat maintains that ‘immature birds stay as
late as November.’ Currie notes that the autumn migration is

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

more leisurely and observers are also agreed that when the return
migration reaches its peak, there appears to be an attendant in-
crease in the intensity of purpose in the movement. In spring, the
movements in the north-western area coincide with the ripening
of mulberries and corn. .

Moving southwards, Salim Ali in Kutch noted them on_ his
arrival there on 5 'August, and was informed that they had already
been there for about a fortnight. His notes indicate that large
numbers were present on the 15th August, but thereafter, their
numbers declined and were far fewer when he left Kutch on 3
October. On his return on the 3 March a few birds were present.
They increased until large numbers were again seen on the 25
March all flying in a north-westerly direction. They were noted
as partial to the fruit of Cordia Rothii, Premna coriacea (?) Capparis
aphylla, Salvodora persica and S. oleoides, and were also devour-
ing large numbers of carterpillars.

For the large area of Rajputana, Kathiawar, Central India,
the Central Provinces and Peninsular India in general, we have
only the statement made by numerous observers that it is a ‘winter
visitor’.

In the forested areas like Balaghat (D’Abreau, J.B.N.H.S. xxi,
p- 1165) and Pachmarhi (Osmaston, J.B.N.H.S. xxviil, p. 455 “some
flocks in spring’), the records appear to indicate their arrival much
later than further westward. In Bhopal, Whitehead (J.B.N.H.S.
XXl, p. 155) records that ‘large flocks pour in as the Jowari ripens
towards the end of November’ and indicates the earliest date as
17 October. Salim Ali had not noted them when he left Bhopal on
29 September though he records them in Gwalior on the flowers of
Butea frondosa from early January upto the 16 April (J.B.N.H.S.
xli, p. 99).

Briggs (J.B.N.H.S. xxxv, p. 389) at Mhow records several large
flocks in March and also one in January, two in February, and four
in April. ,

In Berar, Mrs. Wright (J.B.N.H.S. xiii, p. 434) classes it as a
‘common winter visitor especially to the plains, first recorded on
the 23rd September’. She adds that ‘by the end of February when
Butea frondosa was in full bloom their numbers appeared to increase.
They were last seen on the 31st March when they disappeared
suddenly’.

In Gujarat, Salim Ali noted them commonly between 27th
October and 30th March feeding largely on peepal figs, Salvadora
berries and Jowar.

In Bombay, it ordinarily arrives in the middle of October (was
noted on 20 August 1939, which was a drought year in Gujarat
and Kathiawar, as also a pair in immature plumage on 28 August
46). Their numbers increase with the flowering of Bombax and
Erythrina in January and they are abundant until mid-April. The
fruit of Mimusops hexandra is also largely eaten. Jerdon (i, p.
333) says it usually makes its appearance in the Deccan (where
Burgess found them feeding on the flowers of the leafless caper)
and Carnatic about November, associating in large flocks and
committing great devastations on the grain fields, particularly

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Movements orf THE Rosy Pastor 1N INDIA.

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MOVEMENTS OF THE ROSY PASTOR IN INDIA 707

jowarl, Salim Ali saw large flocks in Warangal in February and
in the Nander District late in March.

Continuing southwards, Davidson ({j/.B.N.H.S. xi, p. 666) re-
cords them in North Kanara as ‘a cold season visitor both above
and below the Ghats but only seen occasionally in small flocks’.
This is amplified by Koelz who was in Londa from 7 January to
13 March (/.B.N.A.S. xiii, p. 19) and noted ‘small parties of half
a dozen or singly in fields’.

In Mysore (J.B.N.H.S. xliii, p. 579) Salim Ali noted them only in
Nov./Dec., but Taylor (S.F. x, p. 454) writes ‘plentiful in the
plains, but very few in hill tracts’. The species is omitted from
Bettsss wiherBindstor Coorg BIN AAS. xxxiil, pii.542),9 nonnspit
recorded from the Palni Hills (S.F. v, 387-410; x, 467-480).

Presumably following the birds which passed through Delhi in
July/August, we come to George Reed’s notes in Stray Feathers,
Vol. x, p. 54 from Lucknow. He found them fairly abundant in
early October, and holds that vast numbers are seen from the
middle of February to the end of April. Osmaston does not
mention it in his ‘The Birds of Gorakhpur’ (J].B.N.H.S. xxii, p. 568).
Lt.-Col. J. A. L. Cowie (in epist.) saw a few birds on the Red Silk
Cotton in flower on 13 February 1946 at Lucknow.

From Chota Nagpur and Orissa, Ball (Stray Feathers, Vol. ii,
p. 419) records it in February ‘wherever there are cotton trees
Bombax malabaricum’. ‘The localities covered by his paper were
Lohardugga, Sirguja, Gangpur and Sarunda, Sambalpur, west of
Mahanadi R., Orissa north of Mahanadi, Nowalgarh and Karial,
Raipur. He quotes Capt. Beavan noticing large roosting flocks at
Purulia as late as April. It is very rare in Bihar, Inglis quoting
one shot on 14 December and a few seen in March in the Madhubani
sub-division of the Darbhanga District (J.B.N.H.S. xiii, p. 629)
Jerdon quotes Blyth that ‘they visit the neighbourhood of Calcutta
only at the end of the cool season, when flocks of them are not
unfrequently observed on the arboreal cotton tree then in bloom’.
It is not listed by Inglis from Jalpaiguri Dist. (J.B.N.H.S. xxvi,
p. 988). Stuart Baker got one in Assam.

South-eastwards they were not noticed by Humayun Abdulali
at Vizagapatam in the North Madras Presidency during a week’s
visit at Christmas (J.B.N.H.S. xlv, p. 333).

From Madras the only information is Dewar’s who records it
without dates as ‘not common’ (/.B.N.H.S. xvi, p. 48). Biddulph
(J.B.N.H.S. xl, p. 243) at Rameshwaram Island noticed small flocks
in Dec./Jan./Feb., mostly in December, presumably on passage to
Ceylon where it is a winter visitor. [‘Sometimes large flocks’
(Waite).| Layard’s statement that one year in Ceylon he saw large
flocks in July for a week is quoted as unusual. (Jerdon i, p. 335.)

In the Andamans, Col. Tytler’s statement that several arrive
in flocks in January has been discredited by A. L. Butler who holds
that ‘it is an accidental visitor’. Osmaston twice saw flocks and
shot three specimens in these islands (Fauna of Brit. India—Birds,
lil, p. 30). This is very remarkable because there are no records
from Burma, so this migration presumably being from India over
a long stretch of water.

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

In the Madura District, Nichols records them from 21 October
to 12 April occasionally in flocks of upto goo birds. Here it is
known as ‘chdlam-batchi’ (jowari bird). (J.B.N.H.S. xliv, p. qor).

In Travancore, Ferguson recorded them as common between
September and March. Salim Ali saw only a few from December
to February (J.B.N.H.S. xxxvill, p. 500).

This rough summary gives a general idea of the mass entry
into India, a subsequent dispersal followed by another massing
for return. Considering the large numbers in which they swarm
into India, their movements must, to a large extent, be regulated
by the availability of food. In the plains and cultivated areas, the
ripening of wheat, jowar and other crops are the controlling factors
while where they occur in smaller numbers, they depend on the
flowering of the well known ornithophilous trees like Bombax
malabaricum, Erythrina indica and Butea frondosa. ‘They also eat
the fruit of the pipal (F. religiosa) Lantana camara, Salvadora
persica, Mimusops hexandra, Capparis aphylla and sepiaria and
Phoenix sylvestris.

To map out their movements more precisely it is necessary that
observers not only keep careful notes of the arrivals and departures
of this bird in their area, but also try and correlate them with the
availability of their food, which must always be abundant and is
usually conspicuous. We hope that members and others will con-
tinue to send in notes and observations to complete this investiga-

tion.

REVIEW

MEMOIR OF THE ANGLER’S CLUB. MADRAS, 1946.

This attractively got-up Memoir allords a pleasing insight into the activities
of the Madras Fisheries Department, for it was on the initiative of officers of
the Inland Development Section that the idea of founding this club was evolved
with the laudable aim and object of offering to the angling public the benefit of
sport (and science) on an organized footing.

Inaugurated on the 15th August 1945 the club has His Excellency the Governor
of Madras as Patron, and 27 Members, of whom eight are officials of the Fisheries
Department. There will no doubt be active and continuing efforts on the part of
members to rapidly increase their number (entrance fee Rs. 15/-, monthly subs-
cription Rs. 2/-) and popularize the movement. To a keen angler, membership
offers several important advantages as will be quickly realized by those who
join the club.

Perhaps in course of time the club will expand to include as Associate Mem-
bers the many along the coasts and inland who are keen though humble anglers
and able to afford only a lesser fee. Is it not possible in these days of co-
operative movements, that through such extension of activities and ideals of
the club, some very considerable assistance might not be afforded to the rather
uphill efforts of the Fisheries Department to check the immense devastation
caused among the fish of many species, more especially those of narrow and
shallow waters where plyers of small meshed nets, and other destructive devices
spare not even the tiniest of fishes? Humble Associate Members of the club,
once enrolled, suitably informed and organized might in course of time be the means
of creating that proper public opinion which is so essential. This once aroused
could become a very strong force to condemn and control the many wasteful
methods militating against the sport of the angling fraternity and such major
mal-practices as dynamiting and wholesale destruction of fry on spawning
grounds, which so very greatly lessen the potential supply of much needed
protein food to the many millions who so badly need it. From small beginnings
great things can result. This idea of your Reviewer is offered in a friendly
and helpful spirit.

The list of Angling Spots in the Madras Province contributed by Mr. P. I.
Chacko will be appreciated by both freshwater and sea anglers and will doubt-
less be continued in future issues of the Memoir. The several articles contri-
buted by other members are interesting and helpful. It is suggested that it
would also be mutually helpful were anglers to note down and report the local
vernacular names of different species, for names of fishes vary even within the
limits of a single district.

The photograph of the 7 lb. Mirror Carp taken in the Sims’ Park Lake,
Coonoor, is of particular interest to many members of the Bombay Natural
History Society in view of the article on this fish published in the April 1945
issue of the Society’s Journal.

Congratulations are due to those who have so obviously worked hard to
establish this club, believed to be the only Association of its kind yet formed
in India, the scope for expansion of membership and activities of which is
almost unlimited,

R.W.B.

THE BIRDS OF NORTHERN THAILAND. By H. G. Deignan, United States
National Museum Bulletin 186. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

This is a belated notice of a comprehensive paper concerning the Birds of
Northern Thailand, published in 1945.

It has been the practice of our Journal to publish papers on the fauna of a
district in many parts, often spread out over a period of years. This renders them
difficult of access and considerably lessens their value as works of reference. A
look at this volume endorses the suggestion recently made that the Society should
also issue bulletins of this kind, for though they would have relatively little sale
value, as works of reference they would certainly be worth the additional cost.

Our attention is first drawn to the systematic arrangement of the various
families and genera, where in strange contrast with the F.B.J. Birds volumes, we

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

begin with the Grebes, Pelicans and Vultures and conclude with the Sunbirds and
Buntings. Our systematic arrangement is admittedly obsolete and the new edition
of the Fauna must come into line, with the modern international practice.

There is also the inevitable reshulffiling of generic and specific names and the
field ornithologist begins to wonder if it is any use trying to keep in touch with
the so-called correct name of a species. That very distinctive bird, which we have
known for many years as Lyncornis, now becomes Eurostopodus. Kittacincla is
merged in Copsychus, and the races have again been reshuffled. Saxicola caprata
burmanica has been resuscitated as ditferent from caprata on the ground that the
adult females of the former have darker underparts. Anthus richardi and rufulus,
which were so painstakingly separated, are now said to be bridged by the form
sinensis and therefore cannot be considered separate species. Any critical examina-
tion of the systematics of the work is outside the scope of this review and we can
only refer to the several notes which are particularly interesting to the Indian
ornithologist.

It is strange that in spite of the care and trouble taken over the preparation
of this work, the author has omitted to record the measurements of the various
forms and merely states that one is larger or smaller than the other.

An attempt has been made to retain popular names in keeping with the
scientific ones, and we have poly-syllabic words like ‘Szechwanese Slaty-crowned
Redstart’, ‘Tenasserimese Red-whiskered Bulbul’, ‘Holarctic Short-eared Owl’, and
so forth. The popular name now becomes as difficult as the scientific one, and
no useful purpose is served.

There are many references to habits of birds which are interesting to the
field worker in India. It is maintained again that the King Vulture has priority
over Pseudogyps at meals. The gland in the middle of the back of Hemiucircus
canente is said to be ‘the origin of the buffy or greenish yellow colour with which
the plumage is suffused, and which can be washed off in a newly killed specimen’.
The author stresses the fact that Hirundo striolata sub-striolata (this is what we
iznow in our area as H. daurica nepalensis !) roost on wires instead of among reeds,
as do the other swallows. Large numbers visit Peninsular India during the cold
weather, and can be seen strung out in long lines along the telegraph wires.
We wonder where they settled before these man-made roosts became available.

There is an interesting note on the manner in which the two Nuthatches,
S. castanea and europaea appear to be representatives of the same species which
have split into two groups occupying distinct ecological niches, the former occur-
ring at low levels and the latter holding the high summits. There is reference
to flocks of twenty or more of Leat Birds (Chloropsis auvifrons) which we have
not noticed in India. Three species of Chioropsis are also said to occupy distinct
types of forests which are unfortunately not described in any detail. They are
said to feed only on nectarivorous insects, but we have no doubt that they drink
the nectar also.

The Red-whiskered Bulbul is said to be the only bird ‘which shows real
interest in the seeds of the Lantana’, but in India, at all events, many other birds
devour large quantities, e.g. Rosy Pastors, Babblers, Grey-headed and Brahminy
Mynahs, Spur Fowl, etc. The same bird is said to occur in loose flocks composed
of hundreds and it is possible that when in these numbers they might eat the
largest quantities of Lantana seeds.

There are some interesting notes on the Criniger group of Bulbuls, but it does
not appear that the last word has been written on this matter.

Young Copsychus saularis, throughout Thailand, have more black on their
rectrices than their parents, in whom the black decreases from the south to the
north. This is interpreted as indicating that the northern form has been derived
from the south. An item of this nature only goes to show the large amount
of systematic work yet to be done with a full series of specimens, which we are
sure, will be more interesting and valuable than the description of new races on
the strength of one or two specimens.

The author refers to a Red-breasted Fly-catcher occupying the same perch each
cold weather. Our old shilkar books talked of small jungle patches, where you
could shoot a tiger one year, and find another in residence in the following season.
Birds appear to have the same predilection for perches and haunts. An attempt
to find the actual factor which draws them to the same place would be of interest.

The local distribution of Rhipidura aureola is said to be linked with that of
pone Oe Ons pondicerianus and it would be interesting to compare their habitats
in India. : :

REVIEWS ae

The Indian Mynah has established itself in Thailand in recent years, as in
several other parts of the world, where it was introduced.

Sturnus malabaricus nemoricola is said to be an extremely variable form sub-
ject to both albinism and erythrism, often in the same individual. Three adult
Munias are recorded as, having fed young birds which dropped out of one nest.
Bayas are said to nest more often than not in the same trees as red ants of the
genus Oecophylla, which we have not noticed in India, possibly because here the
Baya builds usually on date palms, Tamarind or Babul trees, none of which has
leaves of which the ants could build a nest. We have, however, often seen nests
of Sunbirds quite close to the ball-nests of Oecophylla, particularly in mangoes.

This is a compendium of all available knowledge of the birds of a very interest-
ing area—the meeting place of many Indo-Chinese species, several forms of which
have again got isolated in the hilly areas and have broken up into geographical
races. Though a revision of the Indian avifauna would be a much larger and
more difficult job, we hope that those who take up this gigantic task where it
was left by Ticehurst and Whistler, will follow the thoroughness of this work.

EAs

FAR RIDGES. By J. K. Stanford. Pp. 208. 21 half-tone plates. C. & J. Temple
Ltd., London, 1944. Price 16s.

Far Ridges is at first intended to be a passing record of the meandering of
the Vernay-Cutting Scientific Expedition during the winter of 1938-39, through
the little -known country of Northern Burma where the naturalist and traveller
will find many a surprise awaiting him, more so, if he is prepared to face the
country through its climatic changes. Far Ridges is but an appetiser.

Major Stanford was an ornithologically minded member of the Civil Service
who had spent many years in Burma and finally ended up as Deputy Commissioner,
of the Myitkyina District, which borders ‘No man’s Land’. He retired from
service without the hope of ever revisiting the area of his official labours. But
Irate had decided otherwise. Through some turn in the wheel of Fate he joined
the Vernay-Cutting Expedition as ornithologist. Both Arthur Vernay and Suy-
dam Cutting are well-known explorers, hunters and _ travellers.

The author gives us a glimpse of the details necessary before an expedition
actually moves out into the field, the unseen snags and obstacles to be overcome
before the start, and the ‘forgottens’ after the start. He humorously gives a
picture of the journey out from England to the place of rendez vous of all the
members of the expedition, and its personnel. He was once the Deputy Com-
missioner of the area the expedition was passing through, now, just J. K. Stanford
he cannot help reflecting on the difference of reception. Now he returned as
an ornithologist and traveller, not to be troubled any more with the drudgery
of administration.

In the chapters that follow, the ornithologist is uppermost, but details of the
‘country and the local people are not missed, nor the sidelights of camp life.

The book, besides being a readable narrative of the work of the expedition,
is an ornithological record of the bird-life of the area visited—a record of many
new finds of scientific importance. Since this expedition, Burma passed through
the rigors of a dreadful war which spared not even the remote jungles. Perhaps
vast tracts have been destroyed which time alone will heal. Those interested
in the ornithology of Burma will find Major Stanford’s article ‘Some suggestions
for field Ornithologists in Post-War Burma’ in the Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society (Vol. xlvi, p. 478) most enlightening.

The book contains good photographs showing various aspects of the country
and people.

C. McC.

APPEAL.

The Odontological Museum of the College of Surgeons require
skulls of monkeys and other animals—particularly that of the
Lion-tailed monkey (Macaca silenus). If you could help in the
matter would you please write to :—

SiR FRANK CoLyer, K.B.E.,
39, Palace Road,
Streatham Hill,
London, S.W. 2.

RESEARCH REQUEST.

I am interested in obtaining reprints, copies of unpublished
manuscripts and results or observations made in connection with
the biological control of mosquitoes.

I want to bring this information together in the form of
annotated bibliographies.

J. B. GERBERICH,
Dept. of Biological Science,
Michigan State College,
East Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1.—THE SENSE OF SMELL IN TIGERS

With reference to Mr. Meston’s letter in the April 1946 number
of the Journal, the following experience may be of interest although
it does not give a definite answer to the question. I have shot a
number of tigers and many leopards, and only in this one case,
that of a tiger, have I noticed any evidence of a sense of smell in.
these animals.

This happened in December 1938 in the Mangaldai district of
Assam. This tiger had killed a cow in a bamboo plantation and
my shikar chair was put up in the centre of a thick clump of
bamboos, very well concealed, and about ten feet high. The tiger
came along very noisily about 8 p.m., strode up and down and
round about for a short time, came noisily up to the foot of my
bamboo clump, sniffed very loudly about half a dozen times, and
then cleared right off, also very noisily, never having gone any-
where near the kill. I do not think it could possibly have seen or
heard me.

I shot this same animal about a week later over another kill,
which was on open ground. I sat this time on a small platform
constructed inside the edge of Eupatorium or ‘giant Ageratum’
scrub jungle, well concealed by Eupatorium bound all round the
platform which was about three feet above ground. This time
he was much closer than previously, but showed no signs of
scenting me and was shot at a range of about fifteen feet, as he
stood on a slight ridge overlooking his kill and the open country.
Weather conditions and time of arrival appeared much the same
as before.

I knew this to be the same animal as he was one of three—two
tigresses and this tiger—having come into the garden and killed
nearly one hundred head of cattle. The two tigresses were shot
first, one over a kill, and the other stalked and shot in a river
pool, and the tiger as described, the last of the lot and that
finished the destruction.

Not very satisfactory, but there you are.

TrOK? PY BE.
EOK E. Os, T. E. H. SMITH.
ASSAM.

28th October, 1946.

[Mr. R. C. Morris’s comments on Mr. Smith’s note are of
interest. He writes:—. -

‘The experience described in the second para of this letter
exactly bears out my views that a tiger, and a panther for that
matter, has a hound (ground) sense of smell only but I do not
believe that they have a ‘winding’ sense of smell as deer, antelope,

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

bison, buffalo and bear have. I have had many similar experiences
myself; chiefly owing to the fact that the shikaries who erect the
machans will, unless supervised, leave their blankets and coats
lying on the ground near the machan tree. It is most difficult
to get them to hang their belongings on to branches of other trees.
The result is that a tiger comes along and gets the scent of the
clothes, etc. that had been lying on the ground, becomes suspicious
and goes away.’—EDs. |

2.—DESTRUCTION OF CATTLE BY TIGER EN MASSE.

A recent instance of two tiger killing eight of our grazing cart-
bulls at midday reminded me of Jim Corbett’s excellent book
“Man-Eaters of Kumaon’ and the equally good review of this book
by R. W. B. In his book Jim Corbett writes that a case of a
tiger having killed without provocation more than was needed to
satisfy its hunger had not come to his notice. Quite apart from
the killing of eight of our grazing cart-bulls, I know of at least
five similar instances in which the numbers killed varied from
7 to 15; in one case only were the cattle enclosed; the remaining
four instances being day-light occurrences.

I entirely agree with R. W. B. also in respect of his para. on
leopards and porcupines; I think leopards get stuck by porcupines
just as often as tiger. Lastly, although Corbett has not known of
man-eating leopards killing human beings by daylight R. W. B.
is quite correct in saying that this has not been the case in other
parts of India nor, I may say, in Ceylon; e.g. the famous Ponani
man-eater (a leopard).

17, AURANGZEB Roap,
New DE HI. R. C. MORRIS.
4th November, 1946.

3.—FIVE SHOTS WITHIN TWO HOURS AT THE SAME
PAN THE Re

Mainly because I did not expect any ordinary individual to
believe this incident, have I failed to put it into print before. To-
day I feel old enough to shoulder any ridicule which might be forth-
coming from the ‘unbeliever’.

Whilst planting in Travancore, it happened that my assistant
and his wife were returning to their bungalow, when on the road
just below ours, they spotted in the beam of their somewhat dim
lights, two eyes which to them appeared to be those of a tiger.
Returning to our bungalow, I got my ‘500 and went down to in-
vestigate. The two ‘eyes’ were still in the same place. After
firing we inspected the spot and confirmed the pug marks of a
panther. It meant turning the car lower down the road. On the
return journey, the lights again picked up a pair of ‘eyes’. Another
shot, and a clean miss. Knowing our own car carried a spot-light

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 715,

with a 500 ft. beam, we decided to have another try. Running
the spot-light over the Red Gum clearing where the panther had
been seen, the beam picked him up some 50 yards away. (By the
way another planting friend, together with my 12 bore and lethal,
accompanied us on this mission.) Shot number three,—a clean
miss. Turned the car, and on the return journey, found the com-
pounder standing near his house, and no doubt wondering what the
bag of hares amounted to. More in temper than meaning it, |
shouted to him to tie up a damned cow. Back to the bungalow
and dinner! No sooner had we started soup, when the compounder
sent word to say his cow was being killed.

Three of us were soon down on the road again. After finding
the kill, in the beam of the spot-light, we proceeded to await events.
The spot-light was switched off, but at the same time trained on the
‘kill’. After some five minutes a stone had been dislodged, and
came rolling down towards the car. My friend switched on the
light, which found the panther lying alongside the cow. From me,
Bang! Hell! and miss.

Back to dinner in all earnest this time. Halfway through
the meal, I suddenly had a ‘hunch’, If he’ll come back four times,
why not the fifth? Three of us again went down to the kill. The
spot-light showed no intruder, so we decided to wait for a while.
After perhaps ten minutes a noise was heard in the vicinity of
the ‘kill’, less than forty yards away. This time I meant to throw
all caution to the wind, so stepped in front of the spot-light before
it was switched on. The light was then switched on; and found
his lordship sitting on his haunches at the side of the kill. Like
the previous four shots, it was a ‘sitter’, but of course with the
light at the back of the sights, it made all the difference. This.
time he toppled over and rolled towards us, until finally held up by
a drain. In this, he struggled for a second or so, until my
friend fired a lethal bullet at him. The skin was in no way dam-
aged, but in case my friend reads this article, I think he probably
gave the stupid panther the coup de grace. <A perfect specimen
of a male panther, with no outward signs of any previous wounds.
Could he possibly have been stone deaf? It is difficult to put any
other construction on his persistent folly of remaining in the area
after having been shot at four times prior to the final shot.

CLOUDLAND ESTATE,

Cumsum P. O., H. GIBBON.
Manpura, S. I.
6th January, 1947. °

4.—REVERSAL OF FEEDING HABITS IN
A DEER AND A DOG.

Conditions of captivity may bring about extraordinary changes
is the habits of animals.

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

A deer and a dog were kept as pets for three years from their
early days. Curiously the distinction between their feeding habits
vanished. The carnjvorous dog swallows vegetables (cabbages,
cauliflower, and peels of fruits), with great pleasure and the herbi-
vorous deer relishes the flesh of a goat. Now they are great
friends with each other. One will not eat unless the other is pre-
sent and vice-versa.

Vegetable feeding among dogs is not so uncommon and may
be seen both in the wild state and under domestication. But for
the deer, which was caught in the forest when probably 3 weeks
old and reared under captivity, its abrupt change to a carnivorous
diet is perplexing. How its digestive system could accommodate
such a complete change in food, is unexplained. How an un-
accustomed protein meal is digested by its normal gastric secretion
is unknown.

The author will be thankful to his learned readers for an ex-
planation.

These two curious pets belong to Mrs. K. L. Lahiry; to her
the author’s best thanks are due.

ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY,

UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA, SIVATOSH MOOKERJEE.
35, BaLLyGuny CirRcULAR Roab,
5th November, 1946.

5-—NATURAL DEATH OF ELEPHANT.

Your comments contained in the last paragraph of the B.N.H.
Journal for August 1946, under the above heading, rings a com-
forting note in my memory.

Whilst lecturing on Jungle Lore in the capacity of Command-
ant of No. 2 Jungle Training School in Ceylon during the war,
I could always rely on one of the ‘grand lads’ putting forward the
usual chestnut! ‘Where do elephants go to die? and do they resort
to a common burial ground? My reply coincided almost verbatim
with your comments; with the following addition. ‘Excepting
thigh and skull bones, I have known a fully grown dead cow ele-
phant completely disappear within a period of two months.’ Al-
though the putrefying flesh and blood killed the grass and vegetation
over the area on which the carcase lay, within a short time,—no
doubt due to phosphates and other mineral properties,—this grass
and vegetation eventually grew to a greater profusion than previous-
ly. This, I think, largely accounts, in addition to your factors, for
the lack of evidence where the death of large animals is concerned.
Burial grounds. This to my mind is mythical!! Where traces of
large collections of animal bones have been found; more especially
in the case of pre-historic findings, this I attribute to one of the
following causes. (1) Disease. (2) Land-slide. (3) Trapped in a
glacier.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 717

Although not necessarily portending death, all animals when
feeling ‘off colour’ naturally seek seclusion. How often have we

seen this instinct put into practice where our own domestic pets
are concerned ?

CLOUDLAND ESTATE,

Cumesum P. O., H. GIBBON.
Mapbura Dist. Fag,

vth January, 1947.

6.—THE SIZE OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS.

I send you herewith details of some large elephants that have
been shot in India within recent years. As long ago as 1886
(vide The Statesman of February 23rd 1886) the question of the
11’ Asiatic elephant was exercising the minds of sportsmen and
others, and the late Mr. G. P. Sanderson had not measured any
larger than 10’ 64” high at that time. In recent years I have
measured two large tuskers, one belonging to the Raja of Gauri-
pore, Assam, which was to! 44” at the shoulder and the other be-
longing to the Maharajah of Gwalior, which is 10! 5” at the
shoulder. I doubt if there is a larger elephant than this in captivity
to-day, unless it be found among those owned by the Maharajah
of Nepal.

But while the existence of a captive 11’ elephant is still to be
proved, I have no doubt that such elephants exist in the wild
State. Very recently an animal was found dying in the forests
of Kachugaon, Goalpara District, ‘Assam, and was measured by
a Forest Officer after death and found to be 11/ high. His tusks
were as follows :—

1. 8/0” long, 1/44” thickest mid-girth. Weight 1 md. (82 lb.)

2. 8! o” long, 1’ 42?” thickest mid-girth. Weight 1 md. 14

chattaks (84 Ib.)
This elephant, I think, constitutes an all-round record for the
Asiatic elephant, and I shall be interested to know of any bigger.

The present Maharajah of Mysore claims to have shot an 11!
elephant in his State. This animal, a photograph of which appeared
in The Illustrated Weekly in 1940, had tusks which weighed 162 lb.
all told though they were a little over 6’ in length.

The present Rajkumar of Gauripur, Assam, shot a makhna
(tuskless male) in the Garo Hills of Assam in 1945, the fore-foot
of which measured 5/6” in circumference. It was not possible to
measure the shoulder-height of this animal as it lay in an awk-
ward position.

Coming to elephants below 11! in height, the late Mr. P. R.
Phukon of Gauhati, Assam, shot a tusker in the Khasi Hills of
Assam in 1938 which measured 10! 10”, Mr. Gyles Mackrell shot

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

a tusker in the Haltugaon Forests of Goalpara District which was
10/95” in height, while the undersigned shot one in Kachugaon
in 1940 of which the measurements are given below :—
Height—1o! 84”.
Tusks: 1277/3 length. 16; “thickest. joirthj7,7 elo. sweieiate
2. 7/1” length. 1/63” thickest girth, 77 lb. weight.
In estimating the above weights, a maund is taken to be 82 Ib.
in weight.

CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS,
SHILLONG, ASSAM. PD. SPRACHE YS uss:
15th October, 1946.

7.—RECORD SEROW.
(With a photo)

Major G. T. Allen, m.c., Assistant Political Officer, Lohit Valley
Sadiya, has sent us a Serow, which he states he discovered in a
hunter’s house in the Mishmi Hills in North Assam which is very

likely the record.

RECORD SEROW HEAD

The measurements are—right horn—124”.

left horn—13%”.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 71g

We enclose a photograph of the head and should be grateful
if you would record this in the Journal.

ARTISTS IN TAXIDERMY,

Mysore. VAN INGEN & VAN INGEN.
3rd October, 19406.

|The longest horns so far recorded of the Eastern race of the
Serow measure 11} ins.—a head obtained in the Mishmi Hills by
R. L. Sinclair. (Rowland Ward).—eps. |

8.—SHAMMING DEATH’

Mr. Dunbar Brander’s note on this subject (Vol. 46, No. 2,
p. 399) will doubtless attract attention of naturalists and sportsmen.

During the years when I hunted my Bobbery Pack in the
Hyderabad Dominions the jackal’s habit of ‘shamming death’ was
sometimes observed by me and my companions of those days.
The animal would allow itself to be mauled, hauled about and
left for dead—except when Prince, or Tiger, or Paddy, or Poligar
Bob had been at him!

When the jack found his simulation of death through im-
mobility and non-resistance had caused his assailants to leave
him he was up and off, to be perhaps caught a second time and
truly slain. But he was not always caught, not if there happened
to be sufficient near-by cover for his escape. In all those instances
the animal was in imminent danger of death by violence, or died
by violence, but no death cry was ever heard.

‘All of us have noticed the numerous instances among insects,
caterpillars, beetles and other crawling creatures of immobility
when touched, an obviously instinctive action by which further
molestation is frequently avoided. That, in common parlance, is
also ‘shamming dead’ or, shall we say ‘playing possum’.

The ‘death cry’. I have not anywhere read of death cry of
a tiger being remarked upon. That comforting assurance of de-
mise of a tiger shot at from a night machan has three times been
heard by me. Twice a male (4.2.25 & 15.3.26) and once a female
(7.4.25) all full grown animals and subsequent to the first memor-
able reading of Mr. Dunbar Brander’s Wild Animals in Ceniral
India, or it would have been then mentioned. This cry is not
made by all tigers wounded to death.

It is a loud cat-yowl unmistakably similar to the dying yowl
of a domestic cat killed by dogs, which I have unfortunately heard
in two unintentioned instances. It is curious that no panther has
been heard to utter this death cry, which is most certainly, in case
of the tiger, unlike any sound ever made in the course of his life
until his dying moment had arrived.

I have never observed simulation of death on the part of any
tiger or panther, but an acquaintance, the son of the Imperial Forest
Department student, who was mauled by the man-eating tigress of
Mundali on the 7th May 1889, pulled the tail of a supposedly

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

dead panther and was thoroughly ‘combed’ down by the enraged
beast. It cannot now be known whether it was ‘shamming dead’.
He lived to kill five lions in seven minutes when serving in East
Africa during the 1914-18 War and gave me a photograph showing
all the five in the picture.

BANGALORE. R. W. BURTON.
6th January, 1947. Lieut.-Col. I.A. (Retd.).

9—SPOT-LIGHT SHOOTING

In Australia record prices for all fur skins for the American
market coupled with the need for reducing the number of kangaroos
in some areas, where they eat the young wheat, has given rise to
shooting with rifles at night with a spotlight. Rabbits are shot
with ‘22 rifles, the light being usually a motorcycle headlight con-
nected to a baitery carried in a haversack. Rabbits take little
notice of the spotlight and it is easy to get a shot. Much the
same applies to kangaroos and foxes, which are usually shot
with heavier rifles. In the young wheat, shooters sometimes drive
about in utility trucks, and when a kangaroo is spotted, he is
chased or cut off in his attempt to get to the place where he gets
through the fence—usually netting with a barbed wire on top.
If it is clear moonlight, kangaroos travel very fast and take the
fences in their stride, but in darkness they go much slower and
stop at the fence, when they are usually shot. They can also be
got by moving through the grass land or open forest at night
whether on foot or from a truck. All animals are shown up by the
reflection of ght from their eyes. For shooting from a_ truck
you require a driver, highly skilled with good night sight, a spot-
light operator and the man with ithe rifle. All the party should pre-
ferably be insured against accidents, whether fatal or otherwise.
Without a truck each shooter carries his own spotlight and can
work single handed. When it was noted how little concern rabbits
showed for the spotlight, a fox terrier was induced to join in the
hunt, but he never managed to catch a rabbit because, the moment
he saw one in the spotlight he charged it as fast as he could and
the rabbit, presumably hearing him coming, at once put on full
speed and got away. ‘This indicates how acute the rabbit’s hear-
ing is for ground noises. His alarm of a couple of thumps with
his hind legs is well known. By itself rabbit shooting would
produce fewer skins than trapping (only the skins are wanted, the
carcases are thrown away), but foxes and kangarcos are also
shot at the same time so that when the fur skin market was at
its best a lucky shooter might earn several pounds in two or three
hours’ night shooting. A good kangaroo skin brought anything
up to 4#1-10-0 and fox skins rather more. Rabbit skins were
worth as much as 3 shillings each.

C/o. Messrs. Grinpiay & Co. Lrp., G. pe La P. BERESFORD.
BomBay. Major-General.
12th November, 1946.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 721

10o.—ON THE NESTING OF THE RED-BROWED FINCH
[CALLACANTHIS BURTONI (GOULD)]

This is a note of my personal observations near Gulmarg,
Kashmir, 25th June—17th July, 1946. I was loath to give up more
time to observing this nest, or I might have been able to record
more points of interest, but when one’s leave is not long and one
wants to cover a lot of ground, and see as many different birds as
possible one cannot afford to repair day after day for weeks on
end to one place to watch one nest.

This finch is not rare in the fir and deodar forests between
9,000 feet and the highest limits of these trees, around Gulmarg.
We saw a pair or an odd one of these birds on all our day-long
rambles in these forests in most directions from Gulmarg.

Although I only found one nest, I had my suspicions about the
existence of two others at least, and I am sure that the presence
of these birds in pairs here and there throughout this area meant
they were nesting. I saw no family parties of fully fledged young
and parents.

These finches are very confiding and allow of a close approach
when feeding on the ground, which they do frequently.

On 25th June, at about 09,500 feet I saw a pair of these birds
pulling small dry twigs and lichen from the branches of a very
large fir and taking the materials to near the top of a smaller tree
about 30 yards away. Both birds carried the materials, but owing
to their swift movements and the height of the nest I could not
be positive if they both built, though this appeared to me to be
so. The birds never flew direct to the nest but always alighted
some way below it and worked their way up to it.

The nest appeared to have been begun some days previously,
and as the last day of construction appeared to be 5th July, this
nest must have taken about 14 days to construct. This is borne
out by its comparatively massive nature.

On the 8th July the cock bird was seen to feed the sitting hen
by regurgitation.

In view of the risk from storms and jungle crows the nest and
eggs were procured on toth July. There were two eggs, both
showing slight signs of incubation when blown. They were of
a clear greenish blue colour of medium depth, with spots and
specks, the former blackish-brown with a brownish rnimbus and
the latter almost jet black. One egg has only one small spot and
a couple of specks while the other is quite well marked at the
broad end with a larger spot.and a patch about 3 mm. square
of closely set specks. One egg is more stubby in shape than the
other which is elongated and pointed at one end. The colour of
both eggs has faded a bit already. The shell is smooth with a
very slight tendency to gloss.

The nest was estimated by means of graticuled field glasses
to be considerably over 70 feet up, and about 12 feet from the top
of the tree, which was thinly foliaged compared to many of the
giants around it. The nest was built about four feet out from

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

the trunk of the tree on a fairly stiff branch, screened from above
by the next higher branch which bent down over it fairly closely.

The forest here was semi-open, well watered with small torrents
and interspersed with many small grassy margs.

The nest was in a tree about 100 yds. from one such marg
inhabited by gujars, with many jungle crows always around, so
much so that I little thought I would get the eggs before the
crows found the nest and destroyed it.

The nest was a massive, shallow cup. Outside width 5 inches,
outside depth 2? inches. Inside width of cup 24 inches, inside
depth of cup 14 inches. The outer nest consisted of a mass of
wiry lichen, pale greenish white in colour such as is found on
most of the firs and deodars in these forests, held together by
about a dozen stoutish dry twigs each about 6 inches long. The
inner nest was a shallow cup of fine dry herb stalks and rootlets
with a thick lining of hair, brown, white and black and seven
small feathers. There was a little woolly material between the
lichen and the inner cup. The hair was goat or cattle hair with
one combing of long black human hair.

C/o. GrInDLAY & Co.
New DE HI. H. P. E. WATERS.

14th September, 1946. Major

11.—IT HE STATUS OF THE PIED-CRESTED CUCKOO AND
GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD IN JASDAN STATE.

It was with great interest that I read in your Journal (Volume
46, No. 1, p. 187) the observations of Mr. V. M. Vasu on ‘Some
common birds of Kathiawar—absent or rare in Cutch’.

Mr. V. M. Vasu says the Pied-crested Cuckoo is unknown in
Kathiawar except in some well shaded areas near Bhavnagar and
probably Junagadh. I do not know about the rest of Kathiawar
but they are quite common in our State.

The Great Indian Bustard is) more or less, vanishing from
Kathiawar. My father has very wisely prohibited their shooting
in out State and the result is that, perhaps ours is the only State
in Kathiawar where they are safe. About a month ago Sir Cyril
Hancock, our Resident came and stayed with us, and as he had
not seen the Great Indian Bustard for some years I took him out
and showed him some birds and a nest and eggs. J am sorry
to say the eggs of this particular nest never hatched. The Great
Indian Bustard needs protection. Indiscriminate slaughter if
continued would make this beautiful bird extinct.

THE PALACE,
JASDAN. SHREE YUVRAJ OF JASDAN.
25th October, 1946.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 723

12.—THE KOEL [EUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEUS (LINN.)]. AS
AN EGG-STEALER.

f remember this incident of a koel stealing the eggs very clear-
ly. It must have been during the nesting season of 1944, though
I do not remember the month. One evening I was bird-watching
in the Horticultural Gardens, Lodi Road, Delhi (near Safdar Jang’s
Tomb). I was standing under an old, gnarled tree watching a dove
on one of the top branches, when I| noticed a movement lower down
the tree. Closer inspection revealed a hen koel hopping deliberate-
ly from branch to branch tili she reached a main limb of the tree,
along which she then proceeded to creep. Her movements were
absolutely silent, definitely furtive and appeared purposeful. On
reaching the trunk she disappeared from my view, and I moved
quietly round the iree, to see her tail emerging from a hole formed
by a hollow branch which had been broken off short near the
trunk. In a very short time she backed out of the hole, and I
saw that she held in her beak a pale blue egg, about the size of
a thrush’s, but without the black spots (she was only some 6-8 feet
above me). She hopped on to an adjoining branch and made
several very clumsy attempts to swallow the egg, jerking her
head back as far as it would go. In the end it broke, and I could
clearly see the yolk running down her: breast feathers. She
swallowed all she could and then, after a very short pause, moved
back to the nest hole and disappeared down it. Only a few inches
of her tail showed. She soon emerged bearing a second egg,
and this time flew rather awkwardly to another tree a few yards
off. I watched her through glasses going through the same
attempts at swallowing, but this time she dropped the egg. In-
stead of going after it she flew off and I recovered it. It was
broken and I shall never know whether it broke on falling or
whether I trod on it while searching in the grass. During the
whole of this performance there was no sign of the parent birds.

BRADBOURN,

CoLtp HARBOUR LANE, A. E. BAGWELL PUREFOY.
MARLBOROUGH, WHILTS.

7th October, 1946.

13.—BREEDING OF THE BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER
(MEROPS SUPERCILIOSUS PERSICUS PALLAS) IN
BHAVNAGAR STATE

The Blue-cheeked Bee-eater is a regular monsoon breeder in
Bhavnagar. They are seen to arrive on the coast in May and
start excavating their nest holes in June. Young are usually
seen in the latter part of July and August. Some years only few
pairs are seen nesting, at others small colonies of a dozen pairs or
more. In August and September large congregations of these bee-
eaters are observed on lakes, the seaside and fields, and they appear

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 40

to remain throughout the winter nionths. They are great travellers,
new birds arriving, and those that have remained for some time
departing. The migration appears to be North-South and East-
West during August-September. During the Spring they dis-
appear only to be seen, when a number of pairs return to breed
in the same areas as the preceding season.

Dit Banar,
BHAVANAGAR. Kk. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI.

5th October, 1946.

14.—BREEDING OF PALM SWIFT [TACHORNIS BATA-
SIENSIS PALMARUM (GRAY)| AND COOT (FULICA ATRA
ATRA LINN.) IN BHAVNAGAR.

Since 1944, with the enlargement of the lake, which is now a
large stretch of perennial water of approximately 3 sq. miles, there
have been two distinct changes in the,area below the lake. (1) The
subsoil water has risen more than double to what it was formerly.
(2) A humid basin has formed with the increase of vegetation. These
factors, and an early rainfall, much above the average, have, I be-
lieve, induced two species of birds to breed in Bhavnagar. This is
the Palm Swift (Tachornis batasiensis palmarum) and the Coot
(Fulica atra atra).

The Palm Swift, I have seen breeding on the Bhavnagar State
sea coast at various places where the temperature reached 102 F.
maxima in the shade, but it was not common even there. But
I had never seen it in Bhavnagar until recently, and having found
number of nests during May and June, I feel it is well established
with the suitable conditions now prevailing.

As regards the Coot, we had always believed it to be a migra-
tory species in Kathiawar, and I think this is quite true except
for the several pairs found breeding this year. Last year I watched
a solitary coot remain in a small pool throughout the Spring and
Summer months, and I even suspected there was a pair breeding.
It is extraordinary that a coot, probably the same bird, remained
in the same pool this year as in the preceding. Coots are generally
seen leaving in April and arriving in about September—October
or even later. This year in August my assistant Mr. P. K. Desai,
who is a very keen observer of bird life, mentioned that he had
seen a coot’s nest, so that I went and confirmed his findings. The
solitary nest was situated in the middle of an open pond with few
reeds and was quite conspicuous from a road overlooking the
pond. Here there are a number of interconnecting ponds approx-
imately 1ooX60 yards, and all are full by the end of a good
monsoon. This year in particular we experienced incessant rain
for over a month and these pools were full to the brim by the
middle of July which is quite unusual. On further investigation
in these adjoining ponds we found four more nests with eggs of
the coot and some still building their nests of reeds. It was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 725

exciting and strange to see coot breeding at a time when it was
formerly considered to be absent.

Dit Banar,
BHAVANAGAR. Kk. S. DHARMAKUMARSINH]I.

5th October, 1946.

15-—A SWIMMING PEREGRINE

During a visit to Gunong Pulai Reservoir in South Johore
recently (October 23rd, 1946), a Peregrine (F. peregvinus calidus)
was seen to alight at the edge of the reservoir at a spot where
a shelving embankment of stone slopes into the lake. The pere-
grine stepped quickly into water which reached up to its belly
and proceeded to have a very thorough bath. Upon our approach-
ing closer to have a better look, the bird was disturbed by our
dogs and, after scrambling ashore, took to wing away from land
in the direction of the water. It failed to gain height due to
the wetness of its feathers and flopped into the water again after
it had flown only some 8 or 10 feet. We then had the astonishing
view of a peregrine swimming rapidly to land with vigorous, force-
ful strokes of its wings. Immediately it reached shore the bird
took to the air once more and this time, with some difficulty,
gained height and eventually flew up into the topmost branch of
a dead tree where it spread its wings to dry in the sun.

SINGAPORE. |
19th November, 1946. Waris COKE:

16.—PAINTED SANDGROUSE AND OTHER GAME BIRDS
IN MYSORE

As I wrote last season reporting the shooting of eight Painted
Sandgrouse early in September and suggesting they had come in
to that locality due to the failure of the S.W. monsoon, I now
write to report that covering the same ground we found none this
season, the monsoon has been in excess this season.

When writing Jast season I cannot recall if I made it clear
that it was known these birds frequented that locality at other
times of the year, the point was we had not found them on that
ground in the previous three years early in September.

I consoled myself during monsoon reading through again Mr.
Salim ‘Ali’s Birds of Mysore, Vol. XLIV, No. 2, and made the
following notes which may be of interest.

Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola). These are evidently more
common in the planting district of Kadur, mainly the heavy jungle
and Ghaut section.

They frequent the cardamom ravines in certain estates and the
streams and small rivers in dense jungle. The difficulty is to
locate them, and when found to get a shot, hence few make a
business of going after them. J have known them as low as

2/500 ft. elevation.

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Mr. R. G. Foster, Balur Estate (a favoured locality), who has
not always kept records, writes as follows: ‘My records show
that in the past few years there have been shot 34 birds, that only
once has one been killed in December, and none later than March.’
He adds weight is usually just under 12 oz. and he is of the
opinion they come in with the full moon in December and leave
with the full moon of March.

Mr. F. R. P. Cannon shot five in Mertikhan Estate during
season 1944-45. I have only shot g in 32 years but have not
lived in a favoured locality. The earliest record shows 24th
December, latest 14th March.

Wood Snipe (Capella nemoricola). Only one is noted by Mr.
Salim Ali as recorded after 1883! You kindly identified one for
me vide your letter dated 31-1-33.

I think probably a few more come into the swamps in these
heavy jungles than further east (or even Munzerbad, noted by
Salim Ali)? I have seven recorded, but unfortunately I went mad
on fishing at one time and kept no shooting records for 12 years!
I only know ONE swamp where I have repeatedly seen them, grass
TetOwl attach,

Fantail Snipe (Capella gallinago) and Pintail Snipe (Capella
stenura). I do not think the former come into the swamps in
these heavy jungle tracts, only upto the outskirts.

My earliest Pintail shot is 3 on August 29th which I informed
you of on 30-8-26. The previous year I shot 4 on 20th September
and noted ‘swamp well stocked’, followed by 8 more on 27th Sep-
tember. However, I do not think many come into this part
before early October. Two years ago we saw four on 22nd August
but this was further east between Chickmagalore and Hassan,
and may have been either fan or pintail as none were shot.

I have one recorded shot as late as May tr1th but this may
have been a pricked bird? Other late dates are 3 on 3rd May, 4 on
27th April, but few remain as late.

Painted Snipe (Rostratula benghalensis). I have seen these
in this part, but only twice and that in a favoured swamp, sur-
rounded by a maidan as against usual jungle, locality near
Balehonnur village. It is where I found early and late pintail snipe.

Jack Snipe (Lymnocryptes minima). Have never met these
here, and very few further East.

Nukta (Sarkidionis melanotus). A friend says he thinks these
are more common east of Kadur than as reported round Mysore
City?

Cotton Teal (Nettapus coromandelianus). These have de-
creased in recent years where we shoot 30-40 miles from here,
and others have reported this to you from other parts of India.
What is the reason?

Common Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna javanica). Strange to
say these come in to breed during the S.W. monsoon on ponds
on the Balehonnur maidan (mentioned under painted snipe). The
Badra river is not far off. Never seen there at any other time of
year, plenty of course 20-30 miles from here.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 727

Grey Jungle Fowl (Gallus sonnerati), 1 have not noted chicks
earlier than Feb./March, although. a friend says he has. 1 should
say it is rare due to the heavy S.W. monsoon followed immediate-
ly by the N.E. monsoon?

1 think some chicks died this last heavy monsoon?

Southern Grey Partridge (Francolinus pondicerianus). Noted
as ‘not common’, presumably in comparison with other parts of
India? It might be added due to netters! They are often on sale
in the Russell Market, Bangalore, during the close season, and
the Moore Market also quotes them in that season! ‘The netters
will clear a locality in no time.

To show how common or uncommon they are—two guns HQ
Kadur bagged 23 in 34 days shooting early in September, and we
lost quite a lot of weight doing it! One bird contained an egg,
not experienced in the previous four seasons. I believe this late
breeding is not unknown, | have seen chick March 22nd.

ADDENDA.

Grey Jungle Fowl]. I mentioned I had not noticed chicks earlier
than Feb./March so now report having found a fortnight ago egg
shells which presumably could not be a pre-monsoon brood as
over 100 inches has fallen since June ist.

Red Spur Fowl (Galloperdix spadicea). I saw a brood of
three newly hatched chicks on 24th November. I have not noticed
‘these either breeding at this season before.

IKURADY KHAN ESTATE,

SANGAMESWARPET P.O.,

Kapur DIstTRIctT, Gi VSORSEREND.
Mysore.

3rd October 1946.

17,—OCCURRENCE OF THE MALAY BITTERN (GORS4A-
KIUS M. MELANOLOPHUS) IN MYSORE.

I enclose the head and wing of a bird I shot in bamboo jungle
below here for identification. It appears to be of the bittern family ?
Salim Ali (Vol. XLIV, No. 2) only mentions one bittern—Botaurus
stellaris.

KurRADY KHAN ESTATE,

SANGAMESWARPET P.O.,

Kapur District (Mysore STATE). G) V2 RR. PREND:
izth September 1946.

[Mr. Salim Ali has examined the specimen and identified it as
Gorsakius melanolophus melanolophus the Malay Bittern.

According to the Fauna the distribution of this species is
Ceylon, the Malabar Coast to the Southern Bombay Presidency,
Assam, Manipur, Burma South through the Malay States to
Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Formosa.

In the Report on the Ornithological Survey of Travancore
and Cochin, the following has been recorded :—

‘Not met with by the Survey.’

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

Ferguson mentions (/.,B.N.H.S., XVI, 17) that F. W. Bour-
dillon obtained a specimen of the Malay Bittern on the hills at
about 2,500 ft. elevation in 1878, and that subsequently he received
2 live specimens. Stewart seems to have found it common in

Travancore (Fauna VI, 362).
It has not been recorded from actually within the Cochin State,

but it must doubtless occur there. Kinloch (J.,B.N.H.S., XXIX,
294) obtained a specimen and found it common in the Nelliampathy
valley. He also saw this bittern at the foot of the Palghat Hills.
-Breeding: Nidification (iv, p. 479) records that Stewart took
many nests of the Malay Bittern in Travancore from the end of

May to early July.—eps. |

18.—THE KENTISH PLOVER [LEUCOPOLIUS ALEXAND-
RINUS (LINN.)| BREEDING IN KATHIAWAR.

This is the first record of the Kentish Plover breeding in
Kathiawar. And it is most interesting to note that the nearest
place of its breeding being in Sind provided, the species is Leu-
copolius alexandrinus alexandrinus. However, there is some
mention of its breeding in the Rann of Kutch, but this has not yet
been fully confirmed. Mr. Salim Ali does not include it in his
‘Birds of Kutch’, although it may occur there in small numbers.
But if the species found in Kathiawar is the Indian Kentish Plover
(Leucopolius alexandrinus seebohmi), then the nearest record of
its breeding is in Ceylon, and it is also said to breed on the shores
of the Red Sea and Coast of Somaliland. I am afraid it has not
been possible for me to distinguish which sub-species the Kathia-
war Kentish Plover belongs to. Shooting the birds off their nests
seems to be the only way to confirm it. I hope more evidence of
this plover breeding in Kathiawar was available so that there is no
fear of destroying the few pairs that breed with us. Now before
I venture to give an actual account of the Kentisli Plover breeding
I should like to mention a clue that helped me discover the actual
pair of birds and their eggs.

I was staying at Victor, Bhavnagar State, during the Summer,
and on returning from a brief visit which I had made I was informed
that there had been a very high tide on the 2nd June 1946—the
highest tide recorded for many years together. This unusual
phenomena caused the mud flats to be entirely submerged to a level
never before reached. This resulted in my picking up two eggs.

Actually, it happened on the morning of the 7th June. Walk-
ing along the high tide line, my eyes rested on two eggs
lying on the ground amongst the debris brought up by the
sea. On picking them up, it struck me that they did not be-
long to the resident species of Plovers that I knew were breed-
ing in Kathiawar. One of the eggs was slightly broken at the
top, the other entire. This evidence was enough to commence
further observations. On taking the eggs to the bungalow I
tried blowing them, but found et they contained well developed
embryos. This alse ascertained that the eges had been incubated

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 729

regularly and were not any stray eggs deposited here and there,
as some migratory birds do.

It was not until another twelve days that I discovered the
Kentish Plover and its eggs, and I may say that this was almost
by coincidence, for in spite of the fact that some shore birds such
as curlew, shanks and small plovers were to be seen flying on
the mud flats and along the creek, none indicated that they were
nesting. However on the evening of the 17th June I nearly trampled
on the nest when my shikari spotted the eggs. The eggs were
warm which revealed that they were being incubated. As it was
past sunset I was unable to clearly distinguish the bird which
came to the nest immediately. It was a miniature plover.

The next morning going to the nest I found the bird sitting on
the nest and approached it as close as 20 yards before it left the
nest. The nest was situated in a shallow sandy river bed about 3
miles from the creek. The actual site of the nest was on a sandy
holm, few feet away from a solitary green tuft of grass. The nest
was made up of conspicuous tiny white pebbles along with minute
shells. The three eggs which made up the clutch were embedded
in the sand with their points inwards and downwards and were
typical plovers eggs. Within 5 minutes both parents appeared
on the scene and began feigning wounded by spreading out their
wings and tail alternately. Coming in front and moving away in
a crouching manner attempting to lead me away from the nest; they
also emitted a call like wheet wheet at times. They were very
shy of the camera and not having the necessary bird photography
equipment I failed to secure a good photograph. However, they
did not move further than 15 to 20 yards away from me; hence
I made a very satisfactory study of the pair for about four hours
with my binoculars and then took the eggs for my collection. The
egg measurements are as follows :—

1 egg found 30:2 x 22-5 mm.
Broken egg not measured.

if SYS NO Wis) Haabeeys
Clutch of eggs Z SOv/E ec cee nit):
3 SO <-22- 0, am.
Dit Bauar,
BHAVANAGAR. K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJT.

sth October, 1946.

19. WOODCOCK (SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA LINN.) FEED-
) ING WITH POULTRY.

While wandering up and down this mill stream my shikari drew
my attention to a ‘large snipe’! I looked round and there I saw
a woodcock sharing the same food—chaff and grain from the
nearby corn fields—with a ‘Desi’ cock and hen. I flushed all the
birds and the domestic chickens flew up into the yard of a small
hut nearby while the woodcock flew on another few yards and
settled. He did not seem to be at all weak in flight and was in

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

excellent condition—I observed him from only two or three yards.
| flushed him twice more and lost him in a corn field. Two days
later, exactly the same experience happened to me at the very
same spot. Can you give me an explanation please. Don’t for-
get the bird was strong on the wing, and seemed very loth to
jeave his ‘friends’. The height of the spot is about 6000! or 6500’.

REGIMENTAL CENTRE,
Happy VALLEY,
SHILLONG, ASSAM. By Gy DEBS:

27th November 1946.

20.—NOTE ON THE MIGRATIONS OF SWINHOE’S SNIPE
[CAPELLA MEGALA (SWINHOE)] AND FANTAIL SNIPE
[C. GALLINAGO (LINN.)| IN MALAYSIA.

There are three possible varieties of snipe to be found in the
Malay Peninsula, Capella stenura, C. gallinago and C. megala,
respectively the pintail, fantail and Swinhoe’s (or Chinese) snipe.
The first and second are so identical in appearance that only a
careful scrutiny of the plumage will reveal the difference. The
last (Swinhoe’s) is a trifle larger and has a longer bill, otherwise
it is easily passed over in a bag containing other snipe. The only
certain method of rapid identification of all three species is by an
examination of the tail feathers. In young birds of the year these
may not be well developed enough to show the characteristic
patterns, but the number of feathers at once reveals the difference
between them. The fantail has 10 broad feathers, Swinhoe’s snipe
usually 20 of which the middle six are broad and the rest ‘semi-pin’
type, and the pintail on an average 26, of which the middle ten
are broad and the rest true pin feathers.

The overwhelming majority of snipe shot in the Malay Penin-
sula are pintails. The occurrence of the other two is sporadic.
Robinson and Chasen in Birds of the Malay Peninsula (Vol. 111)
simply say of the fantail that ‘it visits in very much smaller
numbers than the pintail and many of the latter can be killed for
one of the former’. Of Swinhoe’s snipe there is the statement
that it is ‘probably not at all rare in the Malay Peninsula’. As
long ago as 1922 I was interested in the last species and kept a
careful record of the number of snipe shot and the occurrence of
fantails and Swinhoe’s in the bag. Every bird was subjected to
as careful an examination was possible. The results were as
follows. The first examination was made on 6-2-22, and with
an interval of two seasons, when | hardly shot any snipe, it was
maintained up to and including 1936. The grounds covered were
both on the east and west of the main range—the backbone of
the peninsula. No spegially big bags were made in any one
season—the biggest being 206 in 1928-g season. A total of 1,360
birds were scrutinised giving an analysis of pintail 1,350, fantail
3 and Swinhoe’s 5. The bags were made at no particular dates

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 730

through the season and no apparent deduction can be made from
this. The rare species were shot almost equally on both sides
of the peninsula. It is clear that, unless my totals were weighted
to a most unlucky degree, and allowing for mistakes, both the
fantail and Swinhoe’s snipe are rarities in the Malay Peninsula.

Records from two other countries to the west and east of the
Peninsula, have lately come to my notice. Mr. Banks in the annual
reports on the Sarawak museum records the occurrence of these
species in Sarawak over a period of four years—1927, 1928, 1929,
and 1931. Unfortunately no reference is made to the number of
pintail shot, presumably considerable as it is the common snipe
of the country, but the other two species are evidently worth
recording as rarities. The figures are—1927. 3 fantail, 2 Swinhoe.
1928. 2 fantail. 1929. 1 fantail, 1 Swinhoe. 1931. 2 fantail. 2
Swinhoe.

In a note on the distribution of Swinhoe’s snipe in Bengal in
Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 42, p. 442, by Mr. R. J. Clough
(1940), there is the remarkable record—

‘The first Swinhoe’s snipe to turn up in a total of over 16600
in bags made since 1926-7 all within a radius of 40 miles from
Calcutta’ (all examined for varieties), The fantail there is the
common visitor.

In the Phillipines megala is said to be ‘very abundant at certain
seasons in the ricefields’. (Hachisuka). |

The bird’s migration is evidently in an easterly direction to-
wards the Moluccas rather than south and west. It is noticeable
that the general line apparently follows the northern edge of the
Sunda shelf, and at right angles to the prevailing wind—the N.E.
(China) monsoon—which blows strongly during that season.

SEEND, WILTSHIRE. les IE MR Bs
November 1945.

21.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WHOOPER SWAN [CYGNUS
CYGNUS (LINN.)|. AND GREATER EUROPEAN BUSTARD
(OTIS TARDA LINN.) IN THE PUNJAB.

His Excellency the Governor has asked me to write and tell
you about the occurrence of several unusual birds in the Peshawar
District during the last month.

On the 29th December 1946 a single lone Whooper swan was
shot at Dera Mohmin on the Kabul River in the Peshawar District.
This is the third occasion in the last thirty years when this bird
has been met with in this area. One was shot at the same spot
by Mr. Domely I.P. in December tgto, and another by Brigadier
Sir Hissamuddin Khan from a flock of four in 1927.

A Greater European Bustard was shot on the Cajuri Plain
on the 5th January 1947. It appeared to be a young female in
rather poor condition, and its weight when cleaned was about
54 Ibs.

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

We understand that one European Greater Bustard was brought
to Sir George Cunningham during his period as Governor, and
another from the Charsadda Teshil was brought to Sir Norman
Bolton in 1927.

It is believed that an unusually cold spell in Afghanistan has
forced these rare visitors down from Central Asia to the Peshawar
District, as has occasionally happened in previous severe winters.

PESHAWAR,
6th January 1947. Aj Dj. BIVAR;,
Captain, a.p.c. to H. E. the Governor.

22.—RECOVERIES OF ‘RINGED’ DUCK.

Pintail (Dafila acuta).

A pintail (Ring No. 83520-D) ringed by the Bird Banding
Bureau, Moscow at the Astrakhan State Reserve on July 30th
1944, was shot at Wankaner, Kathiawar State (Lat. 20°,
Long. 71°) on the 24th January 1946. The recovery was reported
by Maharaj Kumar Chandrabhanusinhji and the date and place
of ringing by the Moscow Bureau.

Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha).

A Mallard in process of moulting, (Ring No. 87676-D) ringed
at the ‘Astrakhan State Reserve near Astrakhan Delta of the Volga
River on the 14th January 1945 was shot at the Sakrand Lake,
Nawabshah, Sind, (Lat. 26°, Long. 69°). Recovery reported by
Mr. Hardit Singh, Inspector of Agriculture, Nawabshah, Sind,
the date and place of ringing by the Moscow Bureau.

EDITORS.

23.—DAWN-CHORUS IN A SOUTH INDIA FOREST.

The valley faces east, and looks forty miles away across the
plain to the sea and to the sun-rise.

The Malabar Whistling Thrush is usually the first awake, and
at 6.30 a.m, today (January 29th, 1946) his whistle came from the
river-bed. The impatient rattle of the Black-naped Flycatcher
was next, and soon a Small Green Barbet was calling. Several
Vellow-browed Bulbuls woke up and talked sleepily to one another.
From the far slopes came a Quaker-Babbler’s five-note call, follow-
ed at once by the Spotted Babbler’s ‘wandering’ song, running
aimlessly down the scale. It was now 6.36, and a Grey Jungle
Cock crowed on the northern slope. A Small Sunbird sang its
higher pitched song over and over, how it managed to take breath
and to sing so fast I do not know. A Scimitar Babbler with its
liquid, bubbling notes joined in. Then a Fairy Blue Bird began.
By the time it was 6.39 and the air was full of sound: the Spotted
Babblers (with their four-note call and their longer song), Barbets
and Yellow-browed Bulbuls being the chief contributors. At 6.41

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 733

the Ruby-throated Bulbul’s monotonous four-note call was heard
from several places, one bird answering another. The Emerald
Dove’s mournful coo came in as a backing sound to the chorus.
Grey Drongos began shouting to each other at 6.44, and, just
after, the Malabar Loriquet’s high-pitched squeaky three-note cry
showed that these last two species had begun their morning rivalry,
over the fresh honey in the flowers of the Acrocarpus fraxtnifolius
tree behind the house. The Pitta must have overslept, for his
early ‘Good morning’ was absent today. And the Bluechat’s sweet
whistle, which I heard yesterday did not join in. For ten minutes
or so the chorus continued and then gradually died away, as they
all settled down to the more prosaic job of looking for breakfast.
Only the plebeian Grey Drongo continued to shout during meals.,

NARAIKKADU,
NEAR DoHNavuR, S. INDIA. C. G. WEBB-PEPLOE,

29th January, 1946.

24.—MANGO-FRUIT—ON THE MENU OF THE COMMON
PYTHON (PYTHON MOLURUS).

This is an account of a python swallowing mangoes!! The
incident occurred in a tea plantation in the neighbourhood of Siliguri
in the district of Darjeeling.

In the month of June (1946), just before dusk, a few tea-garden
workers returning after a day’s labour detected a python beneath
a large mango tree in the tea-garden compound. The python
was swallowing a mango which had fallen from the tree. The
manager of the garden, who arrived at the spot saw the snake
devouring the mango. The bulging of the neck region could be
seen from a distance. Later the snake was killed.

During the skinning of the snake, the oesophagus was also
cut open, and four mangoes were recovered from it. The pericarp
of these mangoes bore the marks of the teeth of the reptile, the
fruits were otherwise intact. The length of the snake was 13 feet.

After a detailed examination of the mangoes—found within
the oesophagus of the snake, and also those obtained fresh from
the tree, it was noted that they were infested with insect larvae.
Each mango contained two or three larvae. ,

A diet of fruit is surely unusual for a snake. The four mangoes
inside the alimentary tract suggests that they were not accidentally
swallowed.

The author’s acknowledgments are due to Mr. T. P. Banerjee,
manager of the tea garden, for the observations here recorded.

ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA, SIVATOSH MOOKERJEE.

35, BaLLtyGuny CrrcuLAR Roap,
goth November 1946.

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

25.-—SEX OF MAHSEER AND BOKAR CAUGHT IN N.E.
INDIA.

Whilst fishing the Teesta with Mr. Langdale-Smith in 1943 this
gentleman asked me if { had ever noticed that practically all the
mahseer or bokar (katli) one caught are females.

Until then [ had not considered the point but afterwards,
whenever it has been possible, I have opened out a catch at the
end of a day’s fishing and confirmed that this is indeed correct.

On a ten-days expedition in the Ledo Tribal Areas in 1944
with Mr. Walker, the Political Officer, we made a careful check-
up on practically all fish taken and found the percentage of hen
fish to be approximately 98%.

The time of the year was November but I have found the same
thing in February and March before the rains come to put a stop
to any fishing.

It would appear from this either that the cock fish exist only
in a proportion of 2% or that they do not take a bait, be it spoon,
plug or fly.

Mr. Langdale-Smith has indeed started up an interesting field
of investigation and it would be of extreme interest if such an
acknowledged expert as Dr. Hora would throw some light on this
matter in the pages of your Journal.

There appears to be very little accurate knowledge as to breeding
periods of mahseer and bokar but it would appear that there is
no clear-cut month, or months, and breeding goes on throughout
the whole year. It is probable, however, that Mr. Langdale-
Smith is about the only man in India who has had both these
species of Barbus under observation throughout the whole of the
year. On his Estate, Rungli Rungliot, in the Darjeeling area, he
has several semi-natural pools fed by steeply-falling streams from
the hillsides above and stocked with both.

Some of the mahseer must be in the region of twenty-five
pounds and have become extremely tame as they are fed regularly.
On one occasion, whilst stopping at Rungli Rungliot I had the
extraordinary experience of having one of the biggest take a large
bunch of worms from the palm of my hand as I lay flat on the
bank of the pool with arm at full length under water, the fish
having been enticed closer and closer to the side by worms thrown
in for him (or her).

As far as I can femember the mahseer are kept separate from
the bokar or else there are no large bokar with the mahseer.

Any small bokar would probably be eaten by the mahseer.

The bokar appeared to have bred in the shallow waters of the
upper pools and it would be of great interest if Mr. Langdale-
Smith could publish the results of his observations in this con-
nection.

Hoocriyan P.O., F. WOOLLEY SMITH.
Upper ASSAM.
30th September, 1946.

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES

“J
w
“A.

26.—KRAIT’S METHOD OF DEFENCE AGAINST CAT.

I give the following account of a Krait’s method of defence
against cat and hope you will find it interesting, if not new.

Soon after dark on the 29th ultimo children playing in our
garden came hurrying to me and—told me that a cat was playing
with a snake in the garden. I rushed to the spot and saw a
Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) tightly coiled up and_hid-
ing its head under its coils, while our pet cat was trying to uncoil
it. The reptile was feigning death, and so motionless did it lie that
I was prone to doubt if it was alive, though its tight coils indicated
that it was anything but dead. I touched it with a stick and
satisfied myself that it was very much alive. The cat lost almost
all interest as the krait lay quiet and did not give her battle.
However, I forced the reptile to show its head which excited the
feline’s interest. The cat evidently wanted to crush her enemy’s
head, but the latter was extremely careful not to expose its delicate
but deadly part of its body. As the contest was proving tedious
I forcibly uncoiled the snake and pressed it by its neck with a
stick, whereupon the wrigging—mass of its body immediately
curled round the—stick. This new development excited the cat’s
interest and she caught per prey by its tail and gave it a nasty
pull, I soon let go the snake—hoping that a real fight might now
ensue, but to my great disappointment the krait again went into
tight coils hiding its head effectively and so—the cat again lapsed
into inactivity. J killed the krait—which measured exactly two
feet.

Conceding that the Common Krait is timid by temperament it
looks a little strange it did not make the slightest attempt to
bite the cat, nor did it resort to hissing. I think the reptile’s
passive resistance was remarkable, while our pet cat distinguished
herself by her ‘sporting’ spirit in so far as she euStesie ge to strike
an opponent who would not retaliate. :

80 A, KuriLA Roap, V. M. VASU.
ANDHERI, BOMBAY.
8th October, 1946.

O ‘THE LIST OF BUTTERFLIES OF

THE SIMLA HILLS’ PUBLISHED IN VOL. XLI, NO. 4 (SEE
ALSO VOL. XLV, NO. 2).

287. Lethe nicetas, Hew. ¢ Baghi, 0,000/, September.

288, Ypthimainica, Hew. @ Chandigarh, 2,000/, 12/11. This butterfly
seems to be abundant in parts of the Punjab and may possibly be common
at the foot of the hills. On the wing it is very like Y. asterope and may
easily have been overlooked.

289. Limenitis trivena hydaspes, M. G Pangi, 6,500/, June. This js a
very different butterfly from L. trivena pallida, the race that is so common

730: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

near Simla. As ligyes and trivena are races intermediate between hydaspes
and pallida it seems probable that both of these must also appear somewhere
in the country between Pangi and Simla.

290. Everes diporides, Chap. 3 Simla, 6,500’, May, @ Simla, April.

291. Thecla ziha, De N. De Niceville mentions a specimen caught near
Simla on May 2oth. a

292. Caprona ransonnetti (? taylori, De N:). Mr. Wood-Robinson in-
forms me that he caught what must be a specimen of this butterfly near kalka
early in 1946.

293. Astychus pythias bambusae, M. ¢ Subathu, 4,500/.
294, Pampaila comma indicofusca, M. ¢ Shipki District in July.

Notes.

21. Pieris mapi. J possess a Q from Nachar which appears to be typical
race montana. Evans gives the range of montana as from Sikkim to S. Shan
States. Napi, however, is a very variabie species. ss

226. Spindasis eiima wniformis, M. Further records CeO Giumbclabas
3,000/, 10/8; Kalka, 3,0007, 3/10; Simla, 5,000’, 9/8.

' 285. Ismene aedipodea aegina, Plotz. A further record of a ¢ from
Chaba, 3,000/, 6/9’ 33. I have a suspicion that our records of Ismene jaina
fergussoni relate to this species, :

JAMNAGAR, M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH,
ath November 1946. M.A. (CANTAB).

28.—ADDITIONS TO ‘THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NIL-
GIRIS’ PUBLISHED IN VOL. 44, NO. 4 AND VOL. qs, NO. 1.

305. Parenonia valeria hippia, § form phiiomela, F. One specimen from
Kallar in the B.N.H.S. collection.

336. Lycaenesthes emolus emolus, Fd. Specimen from Kallar in B.N.H.S.
collection ,

307. Hasora badra badra, M. Listed by Yates in his revision of Hamp-
son’s list of Nilgiri Butterflies, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 2, of the B.N.H.S. Journal.

Nete on Yates’ comment (in Vol. 46, No. 1) on my statement that Euthalia
evalina laudibilis, Swin, ‘seems to be common round Bangalore’. I visited
Bangalore for three days in September of 1943 and saw one or two specimens
of this butterfly on the wing in the Cantonment: I also saw two specimens
recently caught in the Cantonment. 1 have been in correspondence with Mr.
Yates and the appearance of this butterfly in Bangalore seems to be most
exceptional,
M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH

JAMNAGAR,
M.A. (CANTAB).

sth November 1946.

29.—NOTE ON THE BUTTERFLY VALERIA VALERIA
HIPPIA (FABRICIUS) 9 FORM PHILOMELA.

This form mimics Danais aspasia, F. which flies with its mimic
in Burma but does not appear in India. Nevertheless philomela is
found in S. India (Kanara and the Nilgiris) and also at Jubbulpore

(mihi), Calcutta (Sanders) and in all probability throughout N.E.
India.

To quote from Bell, ‘The ground colour (of philomela) UPH
at base in interspace 1a, over the whole of interspace 1, area of
cell, and at base of interspace 2, is suffused with bright yellow.
On UNH the same areas are dull ochraceous.’

He further states, presumably with reference to N. Kanara,
that, ‘‘This form does not appear till the end of the rains; in a
brood of, say, 15, of which 7 are QQ, 1 or 2 may occur with
these yellow markings.”

Talbot in the F.B.J. (Butterflies, Vol. I, 2nd Edition) states
‘“Models and mimics usually will be found to occupy the same
faunistic area, and to fly together. . . . As a general rule the
mimic is not found beyond the geographical range of the model;
but there are some notable exceptions, as, for example, the forms
of Valeria, which resemble Danaids that do not fly in the same
area. This case is explained on the ground that their chief enemy
is a migratory species of wagtail (Rosa, 1937).’’

Mr. Salim ‘Ali, with whom I have discussed the matter, says
that he knows of no wagtail that migrates from Burma (or Malaya
or the E. Indies, where both butterflies occur) to S. India, N.E.
India and the Central Provinces. Furthermore he does not like
the idea of a wagtail as a selective agent . . . especially in the
case of a powerful and fast-flying butterfly such as Valeria. <A
wagtail might pick up the odd weakly-flying butterfly settling on
grass or low-growing flowers, but never, surely, one of the habits
of the species under discussion.

Two other solutions occur to me.

If Valeria is a migrant from Burma (or Malaya or the E. Indies)
to India the sporadic occurrence of philomela is only to be expected.
Unfortunately I can find no evidence to show that it is a migrant
at all (except that its trivial name, the ‘Common Wanderer’, leaves
a suspicion that such evidence does exist). I have direct evidence
that mimics can and do exist in areas far removed from that in-
habited by their patterns. Papilio polytes Q form romulus has
beén recorded by me from Simla while its pattern Polydorus hector
is not found nearer than Bengal. The romulus form is also found
in Kathiawar where Polydorus hector is absent. Papilio polytes is
a migrant.

Secondly it does not seem beyond the bounds of possibility
that Danais aspasia once flew in India with its mimic. Change
of climate or other causes may eventually have eliminated the
Danaid whilst the hardier and more adjustable Valeria survived,
the occasional occurrence of the philomela form being a relic of the
days when it flew together with D. aspasia.

It should be noted that we have been unable to obtain the
paper. by Rosa quoted above.

Mann VILLAS PALACE, M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH,
_ JAMNAGAR. M.A. (CANTAB). |
3rd November 1946.

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 46

3g0-—AN ABERRANT FORM OF NEPTIS HYPLAS ASTOLA.
(With a plate). )

The upper figures in the plate show the upper and under sides
of a very interesting aberration of Neptis hylas astola, M. and
the under figures those of the typical form (D.S.F.) The specimen
was very kindly identified for me by Brigadier Evans and is now
in the British Museum (Natural History). The General says that
the special interest of the specimen lies in the suppression of the
broad central band on -both fore and hind wings and the post
discal band on the hind wing. Also in the enlargement of the
normally very narrow and rather obscure central band on the hind
wing and the enlargement of the submarginal band on the fore
wing.

The specimen was caught in March at 2,000! in the Chota
Rungeet valley, north of Darjeeling. The typical Neptis hylas
astola, M. is very common and specimens may be seen all the year
round but the new broods appear in March.

TUKVAR EW abe
DARJEELING P.O. E. W. MAUDE.

27th August 1946.

31.—THE MALE GENITAL TUBE IN INDIAN LAMPYRIDAE.
(With two diagrams).

Sharp and Muir in their well-known treatise on the compara-
tive anatomy of the male genital tube in Coleoptera (Trans. Ent.
Soc. Lon. 1912) have included four species of Lampyridae of which
Luciola vespertina F. alone appears to be from India. The morpho-
logy of the male genital tube has not been studied so far in any
other Indian Lampyrid. The present paper describes the mor-
phology of the male genital tube in four species of Lampyridae
from India.

1. Lamprophorus tenebrosus Whik., from Tambaram and

Pampadampara, N. ‘Travancore.

2. Lamprophorus lutescens Wlk., from Lushai Hills, Assam.

3. Luciola gorhami Rits., Front Nagercoil, Trivandrum and

other parts of S. Travancore. |

4. Diaphanes sp. (D. planus Gor.?), from Pampadampara.

The following observations were made from micro-dissections
and from whole mounts of the genitalia treated in caustic potash.
I am deeply thankful to Mr. J. C. M. Gardner, Forest Entomolo-
gist, Dehra Dun for his valuable help in the proper identification
of species.

Lamprophorus appears to be the most primitive in its outer
tube of aedeagophore being) composed of unmodified sclerites of
the body wall. In both L. lutescens Wik. and L. tenebrosus Wik.,

pjojsp spjddy syday AQ WAOY LNVUNAAGY NY

(wi40f uoseas Aap yeotddy) —oIp— “q

(ur10} uosves Arp yeotdd}) —onIp— -q
(UIOF JUBIIAqGe) : MJOJsM sy]AY SIdaN ‘Dv

(W40J JURIIaqe) : DJoJsD SH{AY SIJdanN *D

‘(soptstaddq) 1 ‘ory

(opisiapuQ) Zz ‘OIy

yer

3 ae $ einen § msm hs
, Ff

‘00S “ISIET ‘JBN Avquog ‘‘wanog

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate —

Lamprophorus tenebrosus Wik. Male genitaliain situ

7, 8. 7th & 8th Sternal plates.
viii 8th Tergal plate,

B.Pi Basal Piece.

M Lateral lobe.

N Median lobe.

Indian Lampyridae

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE JI

BPI.

BIGs Ze
Lamprophorus tenebrosus Wk.
Aedeagophore .with basal piece.

B.Pi.

Bic.

Luciola gorhami Rits.
Aedeagophore with basal piece.

Fic. 4.
Diaphanes sp. f
Aedeagophore with basal piece.
Indian Lampyridae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 239
the median lobe projects beyond the lateral lobes (parameres). It
is comparatively much longer in lutescens than in tenebrosus. The
median lobe is more or less uniformly narrow in both species.
Lateral lobes are undifferentiated, setose and consolidated basally.
Basal piece is an arched symmetrical plate which runs from the
base of one lateral lobe to the other and also articulates with it
near the base.

In Diaphanes and Luciola the outer tube of the aedeagophore
is composed of modified sclerites of the body wall. The aedeago-
phore is supported by a well developed chitinous branched frame
work probably formed of the posterior most sternal elements. The
mediam lobe in Diaphanes sp. is club-shaped and as long as the
lateral, but never projects beyond it. In Luciola gorhami Rits.
the median lobe is apically bulbous and as long as or slightly
longer than the lateral. The lateral lobes are apically slender
and membranous in Diaphanes. They are undifferentiated and
uniform throughout in Luciola, although much stouter than the
median lobe. The lateral lobes are consolidated basally. The
basal piece is irregular and asymmetrical in Diaphanes, but in
Luciola forms a slender and symmetrical arch which articulates
with the posterolateral angle of the lateral lobe.

MaprAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, jt; SAMUEL, RAJ, -M.A:,
TAMBARAM. Lecturer in Zoology.

toth October 1946.

32.— TERMITE FUNGI’.

In volume xxxv, p. 909 of the Journal, I published a note under
the same title, together with a photograph, and now I[ have come
across a second instance of the kind, but this time the termites are
not of the mound-building type, but a timber destroying species,
In a corner of the compound lay some rotting branches and strips
of bamboo. The termites had attacked this material and covered
it with earth in the usual fashion. The earth was overlaid with
what appeared to be ‘fungus garden’ material and out of this a
rich crop of Agarics appeared. This species appeared to me to
be larger and different from the one that was ‘grown’ by the
mound builders. (I have sent specimens to Prof. S. R. Bose and
perhaps some day he may be able to enlighten us on the identity
of the species.)

As soon as the presence of the fungus was discovered by the
local Maharatas they gathered in the crop—a small basket full—
for the ‘pot’ as this species is eaten. Without questioning the
people, they informed me that these fungi always appear where
the termites are present! This information is interesting, but it
may be argued that the damp conditions favoured the development
of the fungus without having any connection with the termites.
However this arguement alone does not explain the fact as it re-
mains to be explained how the ‘fungus garden’ debris got there

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

without the aid of the termites. Further investigation of this
subject would no doubt be interesting and perhaps prove useful
as a step towards fungus cultivation for purposes of food.

10B, Pati Roap,
BANDRA. C. McCANN.

22nd September 1946.

33.—RANDIA CORYMBOSA WIGHT & ARN. (RUBIACEAE)
A NEW RECORD FOR THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

In April 1945 Dr. M. Suter sent me a specimen of Randia
which he could not place with certainty. After a careful examina-
tion of the material I experienced a similar difficulty. I asked
Dr. Suter to send me further material which he very kindly did
and, what was more helpful, he sent the specimens in a fresh
condition. Pursuing the subject further with the fresh specimens
and the literature available I concluded that we were dealing either
with a new species or an ill-defined one. I preferred the second
alternative, and decided that the plant in question is no other than
Randia Candolleana W. & A. The descriptions in the available
floras did not satisfy me and, so I went back to the original des-
cription in Wight and Arnott’s Prodromus. (All the authorities
agree that Wight and Arnott’s R. corymbosa and R. Candolleana
are synonymous and I agree with them. However, under the
circumstances there arises a question of priority. The two names
appear on the same page (p. 399) but R. corymbosa appears above
R. Candolleana, what is more, they are also numbered 1232 and
1233 respectively; further, in Wight’s Catalogue the names follow
the same sequence and are numbered 1279 and 1280 respectively.
To be in keeping with the Rules as the name corymbosa appears
first, followed by Candolleana I adopt the name R. corymbosa and
religate R. Candolleana to the list of synonymy.

Wight and Arnott had only a single specimen of their R. corym-
bosa and they had not seen the fruit. The fruit of their R. Candol-
leana they describe in two words ‘“‘fruit globose’. There is barely
any difference between the two descriptions except on the amount
of pubescens—however, a point worthy of note is the authors’ re-
mark, viz., ‘‘The limb of the calyx, when the fruit advances towards
maturity, appears, from various causes, to be more or less com-
pletely broken off.’? This point I have also observed—no trace
of the calyx appear to persist as in the case of some of the other
species of the genus.

In view of the incompleteness of the existing descriptions I
give below a revised description based on the fresh material and
a combination of relevant matter from the existing descriptions.
The main differences between the original and my description re-
late chiefly to the flowers and fruit. The discrepancies are un-
doubtedly due mainly to imperfect herbarium material. Randia at

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 741

the best of times is a nuisance in the herbarium on account of the
rigid and often dreadfully spinous branches which not only get
badly damaged themselves, but damage or destroy adjacent speci-
mens. The large, hard fruit (when mature) is another disadvant-
age and is often excluded from the herbarium.

Another point worthy of note in respect to the genus Randia
is that although the calyx and corolla are described as 5-merous
they are often 6-merous and occasionally 7-merous. This I have
often observed in R. uliginosa and R. Brandisi. The pubescence
of the leaves and calyx is a variable character for age plays an
important part—young parts are often densely pubescent finally
becoming glabrous or nearly so. The presence or absence of
spines is another variable character and not much reliance can
be placed on this character as a rule.

Randia corymbosa Wight and Arnott, Prodr. (1834) p. 399, No. 1232.

Randia Candolleana W. & A. Prodr. (1834) p. 399, No. 1233, Hook FI.B.I.
vol. iii (1880) p. 113; Brandis, Ind. Trees (1906) p. 383; Gamble, Fl. Madr. pt.
iv (1921) pp. 615-616.

Randia deccanensis Beddome, Ic. Ind. Or. t. 237.

Description: A small armed or unarmed deciduous tree with
thick brown bark; young shoots pubescent. Leaves up to 150 mm.
by 75 mm., broadly elliptic, obovate, or arbicular, glabrous above,
pubescent beneath, petiole 18-35 mm. long. Flowers in sessile
cymes (crowded terminal corymbs, Gamble), flowers often in pairs;
bracts deciduous; calyx campanulate, 12 mm. with a constriction
below the teeth, pubescent; teeth 6-7, subacute; corolla 18-25 mm.
across, tube 14 mm. long (to division of lobes), silky outside,
lobes 6, 13 mm. long broadly oblong, thick, grabrate within,
white turning yellow with age; anthers 6 inserted at the base of
the corolla lobes, linear-oblong; stigma oblong, imperfectly 4-
partite at the tip. Fruit ovate, globose, or elliptical, narrowed
towards the apex—6g by 25 mm., crustaceous or squamaceous (like
a Sapota), on a very short stout pedicel. Seeds numerous em-
bedded in pulp, 3-4 mm., compressed, smooth.

Distribution: Evidently confined to the dry hill forests of the
Peninsula: Bombay Presidency, Madras Presidency, Mysore and
Hyderabad Deccan.

Localities: Naggur Hills, (Wight, Hk. f); Nullamallai Hills,
near Kurnool (Beddome ex Hk. f); Anantapur (ex Brandis); Javadi
Hills (D.B. Jan. 1882, ex Brandis); Kambakam Hills of Chingleput
(ex Gamble); Lambton’s Peak in Coimbatore (ex Gamble); Katraj
Ghat, near Poona, (Suter, Herb. McC. 5859 !).

I cannot conclude this record without expressing my sincere
thanks to Dr. M. Suter for the specimens and for giving me this
opportunity of describing this species in fuller detail.

BomMBAy NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. C. McCANN.
18th October, 1946.

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

34.-—THE GENUS CEROPEGIA—A COMMENT.
Ceropegia Blatteri McCann.

Ceropegia Blatter’ nov. comb.
C. odorata Nimmo in Graham Cat. Bomb. Pl, (1839), p. 118.
C odorata Hooker f. Fl. B. I., V. 4 (1883), p. 75. non Nimmo.

It is obvious from the above synonymy that a change of the name
is necessitated as the specific name odorata is preoccupied. The
name C. odorata Nimmo first appeared in Graham’s Catalogue in
1839. The only description accompanying the name is ‘Flowers
yellow, fragrant; so unusual in the genus’. In the same work
there is a reference to another yellow species from Khandala, my
C. Evansti; in Hookerf’s work there is reference to a white corolla ;
Trimen refers to a yellow species from Ceylon. As there is room
for doubt, more so on account of the very insufficient description
of Nimmo, the name C. odorata must be treated as a nomen-nudum.’’

The above observation by Mr. Charles McCann in the Journal,
Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. 45, No. 2, April 1045,
on “New Species of Ceropegia and the synonymy of the Indian
species 4’ is open to criticism.

At the very outset, it should be pointed out that the name
Ceropegia Blatteri McC. is not a new combination at all as the
specific epithet Blatteri is new and is not an epithet of an already
published species. McCann should have stated nov. nom. as it is.
a new name. |

Further he evidently confuses his whole statement by noting
that ‘in the same work there is a reference to another yellow species.
from Khandala, my C, Evansii’. There is no reference in Graham’s
Catalogue! for another vellow plant. On the other hand, the
floral corolla of that plant at Khandalla was described as follows:
**Tube of the corolla swelled towards the base, of a dingy white,
inside of the crown, rose coloured.’’ To add to this confusion
McCann’s next sentence namely ‘‘in Hooker f.’s work there is a
reference to a white corolla; Trimen refers to a yellow species
from Ceylon,’’ is quite ambiguous as it conveys no meaning even
after referring to Hooker. f.’s Flora of British India? and Trimen’s
Hand-book of the Flora of Ceylon.

Even then, the author is not justified in changing the specific epi-
thet from odarata to Blatteri, because the description of Ceropegia
odorata given by Nimmo had been effectively published in Graham’s
Catalogue of Bombay Plants (1839)' and according to the article
36, section 5 read together with the article 44, section 6 of the
international rules of Botanical Nomenclature, 1930, published {in
the Journal of Botany, Vol. 72, 1934* it had attained its validity.
[ven if this. description is considered insufficient, as contended by
McCann, the more or less complete description of Ceropegia odo-
vata Nimmo published by Hooker f. in the Flora of British India?
has definitely established the validity of the name. In view of
these facts, the legitimacy of the name Ceropegia odorata Nimmo
cannot be questioned.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 743

For the reasons stated above McCann is not at all justified
either in giving a new name or creating a new combination. In
fact, the name Ceropegia odorata Nimmo stands as a good valid
species as per article 44, section 6 of the international rules of
Botanical Nomenclature, 1930. It is incumbent on every systema-
tist to strictly follow the International rules of Botanical Nomen-
clature while dealing with taxonomical problems. |

I am grateful to Mr. V. Narayanswami, M.A., Systematic
Assistant, Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta for his guidance in the
preparation of this note.

Srppur HERBARIUM,

RoyaL Botanic GARDEN, CALCUTTA. R. SESHAGIRI RAO.
12th November 1946.

REFERENCES.

1. Graham, J. A catalogue of the plants growing in Bombay and its
vicinity, 1839.

2. Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India, Vol. IV, 1885.

3. Journal of Botany, Vol. 72, 1934.

4. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. 45, No. 2,
April, 1945.

5. Trimen, H. Hand book of the Flora of Ceylon, Pt. rrr, 1895.

35.—NOTES ON SELF POLLINATION IN TWO ORCHIDS.

It is well known that cress pollination is universal among
‘Orchids and that the flowers show remarkable adaptations to attain
this end. This aspect has been admirably discussed by Darwin
{1899) in his book, ‘‘The Various Contrivances by which Orchids
care Fertilised by insects’*. Cases of cleistogamy are admittedly
rare in the family. But still there are on record a couple of plants
like Neottia, Corallorrhiza, etc., which are known to be cleisto-
gamic habitually; there are few forms which are typically adapted
for cross pollination but under certain unfavourable circumstances
tend to get self pollinated. This phenomenon as met within two
such Orchids are described in the following paragraphs.

Spathoglottis plicata Blume.
Though no member of this genus has been reported from South

India, in a wild condition, Hooker (1894) and Brith! (1926) record
a couple of species to be indigenous to the Himalayan region.
Spathoglottis plicata is long known to horticulturists in South
India and it is the commonest Orchid under cultivation, perhaps
on account of its freely flowering nature and also because of its
handsome foliage and flowers. Its natural home is Malay Penin-
sula (Bailey, 1917).

It was noticed that in spite of bagging isolated flower buds,
normal seeds developed in the ovaries of such flowers. A careful
examination of the plants growing in various gardens revealed
a remarkable method of self pollination to take place. In the

744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

mature and newly opened flower, the gynostegium is about 3/4 to 1
inch tall; it is narrower at the bottom but becomes broadened out
and enlarged in circumference higher up (Figs. 1 and 2), present-
ing a crescent shape in transverse section. The anther is borne
terminally, the stalk of the anther being attached by a sticky
substance to the underlying tongue-shaped rostellum. At maturity
the anther cap which is in the form of a thin membrane is shed.

After the flower opens, one sees the accumulation of a watery
drop gradually bulging out from the stigmatic surface: as the
accumulation increases, the drop comes in contact with the under
surface of the rostellum and the latter structure together with the

Spathoglottis plicata Blume.

attached pollinitum now exhibits a strong tendency to recurve to-
wards the stigmatic surface. This involves the pollinium to rise
from its position and curl downwards. In the meantime the volume
of the drop of the ‘“‘stigmatic fluid’’ will have increased to such an
extent that it touches the recurved rostellum and the pollinium
from beneath and soon the latter slips down into the fluid. Now,
perhaps the watery drop is withdrawn into the stigmatic cavity
or it evaporates or both the phenomena operate and the result is
the pollintum is drawn into the stigmatic depression (Fig. 7).
Pollen grains begin to germinate in this condition and pollen tubes
are seen traversing the ovary 2 to 3 days after pollination. The
sequence of the above stages are represented in Figures 3 to 8.
Ridley (1888) observed in Spathoglottis Paulinae Fitzg that the
pollinia slip. forward at the same time remaining attached by their
apex and curve round into the stigma and thus self pollination is
accomplished. A similar phenomenon is noticed by the present
author with regard to self pollination in S. plicata. In addition to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 745

this movement of the pollinium, a recurving movement of the
rostellum and the accumulation of a watery exudation from the
stigma in the form of a large drop is noticed in S. plicata, which
facilitates the pollinium to slip into the stigmatic depression.

Vanilla planifolia Andr.

Vanilla Sw. is a genus of tropical climbers with fleshy stems,
ascending to the top of tall trees and there producing green or

endothec um

Vanilla planifolia Andr.
p.t.=pollen tubes
p=anther

yellowish flowers. The stems strike aerial roots at the nodes,
which besides absorbing nutriment, act also as hold-fasts for the
climbing stem. Vanilla planifolia is a native of Central America
and is under cultivation elsewhere on account of its pods which
yield the commercial aromatic Vanillin.

In the native home of Vanilla planifolia, the flowers are polli-
nated by small bees of the genus Meliope (Rolfe, 1909). Under
cultivation hand pollination is practised. In Bangalore some plants
have been cultivated for a very long time by some nursery-men,
mainly with the idea of collecting and marketting the pods for
local consumption. The writer gathered from the cultivators that
they artificially pollinated (mostly selfed) the flowers but that some
times normal pods developed even without any attempt at pollina-
tion. This latter phenomenon was confirmed by the present writer
when he bagged individual flower buds on the plant and watched
the progress.

Very frequently the pollen grains of the cultivated Vanilla
planifolia put forth pollen tubes while still within the anther sac;
division of the generative cell into male nuclei was also seen in such
pollen tubes (Fig. 9). The endothecium ruptures at irregular

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

intervals. Pollen tubes from the anther sac grow downwards
and reach the stigmatic surface and from this point enter the cavity
of the gynostegium (Figs. 10 and 11). Fertilisation by the con-
tents of these pollen tubes were seen to be normal and also the
post-fertilisation development, which will be published elsewhere.

It is well known that the structure of the flower of Vanilla
planifolia is specially suited for pollination only by insects in
nature. Pollen grains of this plant are according to Rolfe (1909)
““simple and held together by viscid matter, not by elastic threads’’.
This condition may be quite true of the plants growing in their
natural habitat, but in those cultivated plants observed by the
writer there are free pollen grains with thick exine, which feature
becomes evident even at the uninucleate stage of the microspores.
Further, they germinate in the very pollen sacs. These characters
may well be explained only as facultative adaptations of the plant
to an unfavourable environment, where cross pollination is pre-
vented due to the absence of the required insect visitor.

Literature cited.

Bailey, L. H.—The Cyclopedia of Horticulture, Vol. VI. London 1917.

Briihl, P.—Orchids of Sikkim, Calcutta 1926.

Darwin, C.—The Various Contrivances by which Orchids are fertilised by
Insects. London 1899.

Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India. London 1894.

Ridley, H. N.—Notes on self fertilisation and cleistogamy in Orchids.
Jour, Linn. Soc. 26, 389. 1888. ;

Rolfe, R. A.—Phylogeny of the Orchidaceae. Orchid Rev. 17, 129. 1909.

BASVANGUDI, BalGs ae SiWiAMive

‘BANGALORE,
isth August, 1946.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V, M, PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,
VEPERY, MADRAS (P.1.C. NO. Q.H. MS. 5)—18-8-1947—1,300 corres. C3931.
EDITORS: S. H. PRATER, C, MCCANN AND SA.IM ALI, 6 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

THE BOOK OF
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THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
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